Introduction to Reservoir Engineering: Section 1.

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Integration of Reservoir Engineering
1. Exploration Geophysics
2. Petrophysics
3. Economics
4. Production Process Engineering
5. General Engineering

The Five Reservoir Fluids

1. Black Oil
2. Volatile oil
3. Retrograde Gas
4. Wet Gas
5. Dry Gas
What is Porosity (φ)? And why is it important?
 Total Porosity
It’s the ratio of the ‘void’ space to the total rock volume
 Effective Porosity
It’s the ratio of the interconnected ‘void’ space to the total rock volume
Permeability (k)
Permeability is the measure of capacity of rock to transmit fluid
Pore Compressibility (Cp)
1. Matrix volume compressibility (change in rock grain volume)
2. Bulk volume compressibility (change in the unit volume of the rock):important
reservoirs near the surface
3. Pore volume compressibility: pore volume affects the porosity which affects reservoir
performance.

Saturations (Sw, So, Sg)

Saturation is the measure of the fluid volume present in the pore volume of a porous medium.
Open Hole Logs to determine Saturation

– Resistivity log
• Induction tools
• Laterolog tools
– Porosity log
• Neutron tools
• Density tools
• Sonic tools
• Magnetic resonance tools

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 Viscosity
– A measure of resistance to flow
Fluid Compressibility (Co, Cg, Cw)
Fractional change in volume due to a unit change in pressure
GOR is different from Gas in Solution (Rs)
GOR is the ratio of ALL the gas at surface and the oil at surface,while Rss the ratio of gas in
solution in the oil in the reservoir

Activities of Reservoir Engineering

• Reserve Estimation
• Field Development Planning.
• Production Operations Optimization.
Available data
• Geophysical surveys
• Well logs
• penetration
• cuttings
– electrical
– sonic
– nuclear
• Pressure data
• Formation fluid content data
Tools of the Trade
• Seismic maps
• Well logs
• Sections
• Pressure measurements
• Isopach maps

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• Structural maps
• Porosity maps
• Understanding the geological model
• Imagination.
Methods of Estimation
• Deterministic – A single best estimate of reserves bases on known geological, engineering,
and economic data.
• Probabilistic – Known geological, engineering and economic data are used to generate a range
of estimates and their associated probabilities.
Requirements for proved reserves
• Maps – from seismic and geological data.
• Petrophysical logs- Well test results and rock properties from
recovered core.
• Facilities – Necessary facilities for processing and transport either in place or will be installed
as backed up by formal contract
Recovery Factor
• Proportion of hydrocarbons recovered called recovery
factor.
• Influenced by a range of properties:

❖ Rock and fluid properties.

❖ Drive mechanisms.

❖ Formation characteristics & heterogeneity.

❖ Development process.

❖ Geometry and location of wells.

Improving Recovery
• Primary recovery: – recovery obtained through natural energy of the reservoir
• Secondary Recovery: – energy is supplemented by injection of fluids, gas or water. To
maintain or partially maintain pressure.
• Enhanced oil recovery, EOR: – The target for by-passed and residual oil

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 Reservoir Pressure and Temperature: Section 1.2
Reservoir Pressures
Magnitude and variation of pressures in a reservoir are an important aspect of reservoir
understanding during exploration and production phase.
The total reservoir pressure at any depth resulting from the combined weight of the formation
rock and fluids. This pressure is known as the overburden pressure.
Overburden pressure is balanced in part by the pressure of the grains of rock under compaction
and the fluids pressure within pores (pore pressure).
In deposited rocks, like reservoirs, fluid pressure arises from the continuity of the aqueous phase
from surface to the depth. This pressure is called hydrostatic pressure.
Fluid Pressure-normal Pressure
Fluid pressure regimes in hydrocarbon columns are dictated by prevailing water pressure in the
vicinity of reservoir.
Fluid Pressure-abnormal Pressure
Under certain conditions, fluid pressure is not normally pressured. Hence it is called abnormal
pressure.
Causes of Abnormal Pressure

❑ Thermal effects-expansion or contraction of water

❑ Rapid burial of sediments

❑ Geological changes.

❑ Osmotic effects via salinity differences

 Overpressured reservoirs. Hydrostatic pressure greater than normal pressure

 Underpressured reservoirs Hydrostatic pressure below normal pressure

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 Porosity: Section 1.3

The application of porosity

1. Evaluation of Formation
2. To estimate oil content in reservoir

Definition of Porosity(Φ)
Porosity (Φ) is the ratio of the pore volume (void space) in a reservoir to the total volume (bulk
volume) and expressed as a percent.
Classification of Porosity
Primary porosity is the native porosity that is formed during the deposition of the materials.
Secondary porosity is created through alteration of rock (after deposition), commonly by
processes such as dissolution and fracturing.
Types of Pores
1. Interconnected pores
2. Deadend pores
3. Isolated pores
Types of Porosity
Total or Absolute Porosity: The ratio of the total void space in a rock to the bulk volume of that
rock.
Effective Porosity: The ratio of the interconnected void space in a rock to the bulk volume of
that rock. Important from the reservoir engineering standpoint!
Ineffective Porosity: The ratio of disconnected void space in a rock to the bulk volume of that
rock.
Factors affecting Porosity

• Grain size- Porosity decreases with the difference in the grains size distribution
• Grain shape- Porosity increases as angularity of grains shape increases
• Grain sorting or arrangement- Porosity increases with the well sorted grains
• Cementation and compaction- Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial and cementing
material
increases
Porosity decreases as Compaction increases

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 Measurement of porosity
Direct: Core analysis Effective porosity
Indirect: Well logs Total porosity
Porosity Determination by Routine Core Analysis

➢ In all laboratory measurements of porosity, it is necessary to determine only two of the three
basic parameters
(bulk volume, grain volume and pore volume).

Fluid Saturations: Section 1.4

1.Irreducible or connate water saturation, Swc

➢ Minimum water saturation present in a porous medium

➢ Other terms: interstitial water saturation, initial water saturation, connate water saturation or
capillary bound water
2.Critical or Residual oil saturation, Sor- Final oil saturation in the reservoir after gas (Sorg)
or water (Sorw) displacement
3.Critical gas saturation, Sgc- Minimum gas saturation before gas can start flowing oil
Fluid Saturations
• Fluid saturations in reservoir may be determined
from:
 Core analysis
 Well Log
 Statistical formula method
• For core analysis:
 Distillation method
 Retort method
 Capillary-pressure method

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 Concept of Permeability: Section 2.1
The Difference Between Permeability And Porosity
Impermeable rock (cap rock) traps hydrocarbons in the reservoir. Cap rock may be
porous, but the pore channels must be ”closed” to stop fluids from escaping.

What Is Permeability?
The permeability of a rock is a measure of how easily a fluids may flow through the pore
channels in a rock. It depends on the size, shape, and number of the pore channels in the porous
medium.
Porosity vs Permeabilithy Class Activity
The better sorted the sand, the lower are both the porosity and permeability. (true)
Types of Permeability
 Absolute permeability -API Code 27: A measure of the capacity of the porous medium to
transmit
fluids.
 Effective permeability- Effective permeability is the permeability of a fluid if more than one
fluid is present, but
one fluid is flowing.
 Relative permeability- Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a
particular fluid to its absolute permeability (more than one fluid is flowing).
DARCY LAW
Henry Darcy (1803-1858), Hydraulic
Engineer.
The ”discoverer” of Darcy's Low, 1856.
His law is a foundation stone for several
fields of study including ground-water
hydrology, soil physics, and petroleum
engineering.
General assumptions for Darcy’s Equation:
 The core plug is 100% saturated with the flowing fluid.
 The flowing fluid is incompressible
 The flow is horizontal, steady state Flow under laminar Flow
 No reaction between fluid and rock

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 General Classification of Permeability
Classification Permeability Range
Very Low < 1 mD
Low 1 – 10 mD
Medium 10 – 50 mD
Average 50 – 200 mD
Good 200 – 500 mD
Excellent > 500 mD
Averaging the Permeabilities

Averaging techniques available:

– Arithmetic Average
– Harmonic Average
– Geometric Average
Arithmetic Average
 This averaging method is used to determine the average
permeability of layered-parallel beds with different permeabilities.
 Can be applied for linear and radial flow system
 No cross flow between layers is the main assumption
Average permeability for Linear Flow in Parallel Beds:
Total thickness is a summation of heights for all layers
Total thickness is a summation of heights for all layers
Harmonic Average
 This averaging method is used to determine the average permeability of series beds with
different permeabilities.
 Can be applied for linear and radial flow system
Average perm. for Linear Flow in Series Beds
For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total pressure drop is equal to the sum of
the pressure drops across each bed, or
Geometric Average
This averaging method is used to determine the average permeability of random flow with
different permeabilities.
Permeability Measurement
Permeability lab measurement will be affected
by:
 Gas slippage effect – Klinkenberg
 Reaction of liquid with rock grain
Klinkenberg Effect
Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability to gas is relatively higher than that to water
He interpreted this phenomena as “slip flow” between gasmolecules and solid walls

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• At low pressure, gas molecules are often so far apart, that they slip through the pore channels
almost without interactions (no friction loss) and hence, yield a increased flow velocity or flow
rate.
Types of Permeability
Absolute Permeability (k) is the ability of a fluid to flow or to transmit through a rock when its
pore space is completely (100%) saturated with that fluid
Effective Permeability- If more than one fluid is present, there is a tendency for each fluid to
interfere with the flow of the other fluids
Relative permeability is to relate absolute permeability to effective permeability when a
particular fluid occupies just a fraction of the total pore space
Factors Affecting Effective & Relative Permeabilities
 Rock wettability
 Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or drainage)

Effect of Saturation History

 The imbibition is a fluid flow process in which the saturation of the wetting phase
increases and the nonwetting phase saturation decreases.(e.g., waterflood of an oil
reservoir that is water-wet).

 The drainage is a fluid flow process in which the saturation of the nonwetting phase
increases and the wetting phase saturation decreases. (e.g., waterflood of an oil reservoir
that is oil-wet).

Applications of Relative Permeability Functions

• Reservoir simulation

• Flow calculations that involve multi-

phase flow in reservoirs

• Estimation of residual oil (and/or gas)

Saturation

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 Concepts of Interfacial Tension, Wettability & Capillary Pressures: Section 2.2

Surface / Interfacial Tension

• In case of gas-liquid, the term surface tension is used to characterize the force between
the gas and liquid.
• In case of two immiscible liquids, the term interfacial tension (IFT) is used to describe
the IFT between the two immiscible fluids.

Wettability

• Wettability is the ability of one fluid to spread or to adhere to a

solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids
– Wettability refers to interaction between fluid and
solid phases
– Adhesion tension is expressed as the difference
between two solid-fluid interfacial tensions

• A positive adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)

preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).

• An adhesion tension of “0” indicates that both phases have equal affinity
for the solid surface
Contact Angle
As the contact angle decreases, the wetting characteristics of the liquid increase.
The Effect of the Contact Angle
In the case of a wetting fluid, the contact angle is smaller than 90°. If the contact angle is larger
than 90° , then the fluid is referred to as non-wetting.
Wetting Phase Fluid
• Wetting phase fluid preferentially wets the solid rock surface.
Attractive forces limit reduction in wetting phase saturation to an irreducible value (irreducible
wetting phase saturation).
Nonwetting Phase Fluid
Nonwetting phase does not preferentially wet the solid rock surface
Wettability Classification
Water-wet- In this wettability state, the rock surface has preference for the water phase rather
than the crude oil. Therefore, the oil phase is contained in the center of the pores.
Oil-wet- This wettability state is exactly the opposite of the water-wet state. The asphaltenic
components are the main reason for this type.
Intermediate or neutral wet- In this case, the rock surface has preference for both oil and
water. The rock surface has equal tendency for oil and water to wet the rock surface.
Fractional wettability- reservoir that has local areas that are strongly oil-wet, whereas most of
the reservoir is strongly water-wet.
Mixed wettability-smaller pores area water-wet are filled with water, whereas larger pores are
oil-wet and filled with oil

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 Impact of Wettability on Fluid Flow
Water wet- High Frictional resistance, Low Permeability to water
Oil wet- Lower Frictional resistance, Higher Permeability to water
Capillary Pressure Forces
The capillary forces are the result of the combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of
the rock and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting characteristics of the system.

Zonation, Fluid Contacts, And Initial Saturation Distribution

• Free Water Level (FWL)
The surface of FWL represented by the base of the high saturation curve.
water saturation = 100% and Pc=0
Oil-Water Contact (OWC)
The uppermost depth in the reservoir where a 100% water saturation exist water
saturation = 100% and Pc = Pd
Transition Zone- The vertical thickness over which water saturation ranges from 100%
toirreducible water saturation
Oil Pay Zone (clean oil zone) The zone above the upper demarcation line of the transition
zoneOil production is water free
Laboratory Methods For Measuring Capillary Pressure

 Porous Plate Dynamic Capillary Pressure Method

 Air Centrifuge
 Dynamic Capillary Pressure Method
 Mercury Injection

Leverett J-function
- Capillary pressure lab data are obtained from small core samples
- We need to upscale the data to represent a particular reservoir – using J function

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 Phase Behavior of Reservoir Fluids: Section 3.1
Chemical Composition of Petroleum Fluids

Petroleum fluids are mainly constituted of organic elements as hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons contains only carbon and hydrogen.
Crude oils may also contain impurities as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and heavy metals.
Gas may also contain H2S and CO2.

Pure Components System

Physical properties of petroleum fluids are function of :
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE and COMPOSITION.
The thermodynamic fluid properties will be studied in three steps:
1) Pure substances
2) Binary mixtures
3) Multi-component systems
Introduction to Phase Behavior
Reservoir hydrocarbons exist as vapor, liquid or solid phases.
• A phase is defined as a part of a system which is physically distinct from other parts by
definite boundaries.
• A reservoir oil (liquid phase) may change form into gas (vapor phase) during depletion.
• The evolved gas initially remains dispersed in the oil phase until more and more gas is
evolved.
• Either mobile or not, both this condition is considered as a two-phase fluid.
•The subject of phase behavior focuses only on the state of equilibrium, where no
changes will occur with time if the system is left at the prevailing constant pressure and
temperature.
• The state of a phase is fully defined when its chemistry, composition, temperature and
pressure are specified.

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Vapor Pressure Line-Divides the
regions where the substance is a liquid
from regions where it is a gas
Melting Point Line- Separates the
pressure and temperature at which solid
exists from the area where liquid exists.
Triple Point-Represents the pressure
and temperature at which solid, liquid
and vapor co-exist under equilibrium
conditions.
Critical Point- A point on a phase
diagram at which both the liquid and gas
phases of a substance have the same
density, and are therefore
indistinguishable.

Reservoir Fluids Identification: Section 3.2

Reservoir Fluids
WHY THE PETROLEUM ENGINEER SHOULD IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF
RESERVOIR FLUIDS?
1. To design proper surface facilities
2. To estimate oil and gas in place
3. To predict oil and gas reserves
4. To select a proper EOR method
5. Contracting
6. Marketing
Petroleum Reservoirs Classification
The petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs.These classifications are
further subdivided depending on:
 The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture
 Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
 Pressure and temperature at the surface conditions
Oil Reservoirs
Depending upon initial reservoir pressure, oil reservoirs can be classified into three categories:
1. Undersaturated oil reservoir Initial reservoir pressure is greater than the bubble point
reservoir pressure
2. Saturated oil reservoir Initial reservoir pressure is equal to bubble point pressure
3. Gas-cap reservoir Initial reservoir pressure is lower than bubble point pressure

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 Petroleum Fluids Classification
1. Black Oil: Black oil is like the dark, thick, and heavy oil you might see. It's called "black"
oil because it looks black or really dark. This kind of oil has a lot of heavy stuff in it. When
we refine it, we can get things like gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

2. Volatile Oil: Volatile oil is a type of oil that can easily disappear into the air. It's a bit lighter
and doesn't feel as heavy as black oil. It contains things like gasoline and other light stuff.
We can use this oil to make things like gasoline for cars.

3. Retrograde Gas (Gas Condensate): Retrograde gas is a special kind of natural gas. It has
some extra heavy things mixed in with it. When it's deep underground and under a lot of
pressure, these heavy things turn into a liquid and mix with the gas. We call this mixture
"retrograde gas" or "gas condensate."
4. Wet Gas: Wet gas is natural gas that has some liquid mixed in with it. The liquid part can be
things like oil or other liquids that come from the ground. This kind of gas has a bit more
stuff in it compared to "dry gas," which doesn't have much liquid.

5. Dry Gas: Dry gas is a type of natural gas that is mostly made up of methane. It doesn't have
a lot of liquid mixed in with it. We call it "dry" because it doesn't have much extra stuff in it.
Dry gas is often used for things like heating our homes, cooking, and making electricity.

How To Identify Types of Fluids?

 Initial producing gas – oil ratio(GOR)

 Gravity of the stock tank Liquid
 Color of the stock tank liquid

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 Equation of State (EOS): Section 3.3
Factors affecting Gas Properties
Pressure is defined as the force the gas exerts on a given area of the container in which it is
contained. The SI unit for pressure is the K Pascal, KPa
Volume is the three-dimensional space inside the container holding the gas. The SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter, m3. A more common and convenient unit is the liter, l.
Amount of substance is tricky. The SI unit for amount of substance is the mole. Since we can’t
count molecules, we can convert measured mass (in kg) to the number of moles, n, using the
molecular weight of the gas.
Temperature is the measurement with which you’re probably most familiar (and the most
complex to describe completely). For this section, temperature measurements unit is in Kelvin,
K.
The ideal Gas Laws
Boyle's Law: For a fixed amount of gas and constanttemperature,
PV = constant.
Charles's Law: at constant pressure, the volume is linearly proportional to temperature.
V/T = constant
Avagadro’s law: for a fixed pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles of that gas.
V/n = k = constant.
Mixture of Ideal Gases
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures- The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to
the sum of the pressures exerted by its components. The pressure exerted by each components is
known as its partial pressure.
Amagat’s Law- States that the volume occupied by an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of
the volumes that the pure components would occupy at the same temperature and pressure.
Apparent Molecular Weight
A mixture does not have a molecular weight.
• It behaves as though it has a molecular weight.
• Called Apparent Molecular Weight, AMW

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 PVT (Pressure, Volume, Temperature): Section 5.1

PVT Analysis
• Provides data for field evaluation and design
 Reservoir calculations.
 Well flow calculations.
 Surface facilities.

PVT Analysis

Scope of the analysis depends on the nature of the fluid.

• Dry gas: composition, specific gravity, Bg , z, and viscosity.
• Wet gas: as above plus information on liquid drop out, quantities and compositions.
• Oil system:
Bubble point pressure, composition of reservoir and produced
fluids, Bo, GOR, Bt and viscosity. All as function of pressure. Co Below Pb
considerations.
• Gas condensate:
 Reflect wet gas and oil.
 Dew point pressure.
 Compressibility above Pd
 Impact of dropping below Pd
Surface Sampling
Samples of oil and gas taken from separator connected with the well.
Sub-Surface Sampling
Can only be representative when pressure at sampling point is above or equal to the saturation
pressure
. Wellhead sampling
A low-cost option, Only possible for very undersaturated systems, Still single phase at
wellhead.
Sampling Wet Gas and Gas Condensate Reservoirs
Location
1. Reservoir
2. Bottom-hole
3. Well Head
4. Separator
Laboratory Tests

• Primary tests
• Routine laboratory tests
• Special laboratory PVT tests

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 Primary Tests
• API
• Gas specific gravity
• Separator gas composition
• GOR
Routine Laboratory Tests
• Constant-Composition Expansion - CCE
• Differential Liberation
• Constant-Volume Depletion – CVD
• Separator Test

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