Soil Mechanics

Chapter 4

Permeability and
Seepage

Chapter 4

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 54

Permeability and Seepage
Introduction
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water can flow from points of
high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is important in
soil mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic
conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water for underground construction, and for
making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are subject to seepage forces.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define Hydraulic Gradient, Darcy’s Law, factors affecting permeability, permeability of stratified soils,
laboratory and field determination of coefficient of permeability; and
2. Understand Seepage force, quick sand condition, flow net construction, determination of quantity of
seepage, two dimensional flow, Laplace Equation, seepage through earth dams, design of filters.

Duration
Chapter/Lesson 4: Permeability and Seepage = 6 hours
(5 hours discussion; 1 hour assessment)

Lesson Proper

1 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
From fluid mechanics, we know that, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at a point in
water under motion can be given by the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 55

 u v2
h= + +Z (7.1)
γw 2g

Pressure Velocity Elevation

Head Head Head

Where h = total head

u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water

Note that the elevation head, Z, is the vertical distance of a given point above or below a datum plane.
The pressure head is the water pressure, u, at that point divided by the unit weight of water, γW.

If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water through a porous soil medium. The term
containing the velocity head can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and the total head at any
point can be adequately represented by

u
h= +Z (7.2)
γw
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the flow of water
through soil. Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at points A and B. The levels to which water
rises in the piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known as the piezometric levels of points A and B,
respectively. The pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical column of water in the piezometer
installed at that point.

The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 56

 Δh=h A−hB = ( uA
γw )(
+ ZA −
uB
γw
−Z B ) (7.3)

The head loss, _h, can be expressed in a nondimensional form as

Δh
i= (7.4)
L

where i = hydraulic gradient

L = distance between points A and B – the length of flow over which the loss of head
occurred

In general, the variation of the velocity v with the hydraulic gradient i is as shown in Figure 7.2. This
figure is divided into three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)

When the hydraulic gradient is increased gradually, the flow remains laminar in Zones I and II, and the
velocity, v , bears a linear relationship to the hydraulic gradient. At a higher hydraulic gradient, the flow
becomes turbulent (Zone III). When the hydraulic gradient is decreased, laminar flow conditions exist only in
Zone I.
In most soils, the flow of water through void spaces can be considered laminar; thus:
v ∝i (7.5)

This equation may not be valid for fractured rock, stones, gravels and very coarse sands since turbulent
conditions may exist.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 57

2 DARCY’S LAW
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water through saturated soils,
expressed as:
v=ki (7.6)

where v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time through a
unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity 1otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability

This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s observations about the flow of water through clean
sands. Note that Eq. (7.6) is similar to Eq. (7.5); both are valid for laminar flow conditions and applicable for
a wide range of soils.

In Eq. (7.6), v is the discharge velocity of water based on the gross cross-sectional area of the soil.
However, the actual velocity of water (that is, the seepage velocity) through the void spaces is greater than v .
A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity can be derived by referring to Figure
7.3, which shows a soil of length L with a gross cross-sectional area A. If the quantity of water flowing
through the soil in unit time is q, then
q=vA=A v v s (7.7)

where v s = seepage velocity

Av = area of void in the cross section of the specimen

A=A v + A s (7.8)

where A s = area of soils in the cross section of the specimen

Combining Eqs. (7.7) and (7.8) gives

q=v (A ¿ ¿ v + A s)=¿ ¿ A v v s
or
v ( A v + A s ) v ( A v + A s ) L v (V v +V s)
v s= = = (7.9)
Av Av L Vv

where V v = volume of voids in the specimen

Vs = volume of soil solids in the specimen

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 58

Equation (7.9) can be rewritten as

[ ]
( )Vv
1+
Vs
v s=
Vv
=v ( 1+ee )= vn (7.10)

Vs

where e = void ratio

n = porosity

Darcy’s law as defined by Eq. (7.6) implies that the discharge velocity v bears a linear relationship to
the hydraulic gradient i and passes through the origin as shown in Figure 7.4.

Hansbo (1960), however, reported the test results for four undisturbed natural clays. On the basis of his
results, a hydraulic gradient i’ (see Figure 7.4) appears to exist, at which

v=k (i−i 0) (for (i ≥i ' ) (7.11)

or

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 59

 v=ki
m
(for (i<i' ) (7.12)
3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI units and in ft/min or ft/day in English
units.
The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, grain-
size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree of soil saturation. In clayey soils,
structure plays an important role in hydraulic conductivity. Other major factors that affect the permeability of
clays are the ionic concentration and the thickness of layers of water held to the clay particles.

The value of hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils. Some typical values for saturated
soils are given in Table 7.1. The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases rapidly
with the degree of saturation

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid flowing through it by the
equation
γw
k= K (7.13)
η
where γ w = unit weight of water
η = viscosity of water
K = absolute permeability

The absolute permeability K is expressed in units of L2 (that is, cm2 , ft2 , and so forth).

Equation (7.13) showed that hydraulic conductivity is a function of the unit weight and the viscosity of
water, which is in turn a function of the temperature at which the test is conducted. So, from Eq. (7.13),

( )( )
KT ηT2 γ w (T 1)
1
= (7.14)
KT 2
ηT1 γ w (T 2)

where K T , K T
1 2
= hydraulic conductivity at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively
η T 1 , η T 2 = viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively
γ w ( T 1 ) , γ w ( T 2 ) = unit weight of water at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively

4 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 60

1) Particle size
When a soil mass contains coarse grained particles, it contains large volume of voids and those voids
are interconnected. So, high amount of water may flow through these interconnected voids easily.
Hence such soils have higher value of permeability.
While soil mass with fine grains has poorly connected void structure consequently we observe lower
value of permeability.
Also, in the general equation that permeability of the soil is directly proportional to the square of
particle diameter.
If the soil particle size is large, its permeability will be high and if particle size is small, the
permeability will be low.

2) Specific surface area of soil particles

The surface of the soil particles offers a resistance to the flow of water. The more surface is in contact
with the flowing water greater is the resistance posed to the water. Hence lower will be the
permeability.
 
Specific surface area is the total surface area of the particle divided by its volume.

If volume of a particle is kept constant but its surface area is increased then specific surface area of
that particle will also increase.
Coarse grained particles have relatively less specific surface area, so they pose less resistance to flow
of water; consequently, they offer relatively high coefficient of permeability. Fine soil particles have
larger specific surface area, so resistance will be more; hence, permeability will be less. So, the
permeability is inversely proportional to the specific surface.

3) Shape of soil particles

Specific surface area of a particle also depends on its shape. Hence permeability also depends on the
shape of the soil particles.
 
Rounded soil particles have relatively less specific surface area when compared to angular particles.
So when water flows through soil mass consists of rounded particles it will face less resistance and
permeability will be relatively higher than if water flows through soil mass of angular particles.

4) Soil Structure
Permeability also depends on how these particles arrange themselves in a soil mass that is in the
structure of the soil mass. Water flows through voids and the connectivity of these voids depends
upon the structural arrangement of the soil particles.

In case of fine grained soils, if the soil particles are arranged in flocculated structure, then its
permeability will be more when compared to that if the particles are arranged in the dispersed
structure. A flocculated structure has more voids than in the dispersed structure.
If a soil mass has stratified structure, then its permeability varies according to the direction of flow. It
has been observed that when the flow of water is parallel to the bedding planes the permeability of the
soil mass is higher than when water flows perpendicular to the bedding planes.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 61

 Including these factors, permeability of soil deposit also depends upon the structural defects like
cracks or fissures in the soil mass.

5) Void ratio
Void ratio of a soil mass is the volume of voids present in it divided by the volume of solids.

If volume of voids in the soil increases, the flow path becomes wider and voids interconnectivity
increases. Hence, permeability of soil increases.
 
So in general, permeability of a soil mass increases with the increase in its void ratio and decreases
when voids ratio decrease.
But it is not true for all types of soils. Clay soils have higher void ratio because of their flocculated
structure, but still, their permeability is very low because the flow path through voids is extremely
small and poorly connected.

6) Adsorbed water
Fine grained soil particles carry charges on their surface and because of that dipolar water molecules
are strongly attached to their surface. This attached water is called adsorbed water. As this water is
bounded by electrical forces it is not free to move under gravity.
This adsorbed water layer causes an obstruction to the flow of water in the pores by blocking the
voids or reducing their effective size and hence reduces the permeability of soils.

7) Degree of saturation
The saturation of the soil mass also affects its permeability. If the soil is partially saturated, then it
may have some voids which contain entrapped air. These entrapped air pockets may block the flow
path which may reduce the permeability of the soil. While, if the soil is fully saturated, there will not
be any such blockage.

Hence, the permeability of a partially saturated soil is smaller than that of fully saturated soil.

8) Water properties
Permeability of the soil not only depends on the soil properties but also depends upon the properties
of its permeant that is water.

a. Viscosity
Looking at the general permeability equation, it can be noticed that permeability is inversely
proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.

The more viscous the liquid is more resistance it will pose to flow and slower it will move
into the voids. Consequently, lower will be the permeability.
On the other hand, if the liquid flowing through the soil is less viscous, the less resistance it
will offer to flow; hence, higher will be the permeability.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 62

 b. Temperature
Permeability is dependent on the viscosity and viscosity is inversely dependent on the
temperature. Hence, permeability is directly related to temperature.

As the temperature of the liquid increases, its viscosity decreases; consequently, its
permeability increases. Similarly, when temperature of the liquid flowing through soil
decreases, its viscosity increases; hence, its permeability decreases.
There is a relationship between temperature of the permeant and the permeability of the soil
which can be given as this:

k27 and KT are permeability of soil at temperature 27 degree and test temperature T degree
centigrade respectively. And μ 27 and μT are viscosity of liquid at temperature and 27 degree
and test temperature T degree centigrade respectively.

c. Impurities and Organic Matter in Water

The presence of impurities or any organic matter in the water or in the soil tends to block the
flow path by blocking the voids that result in decreased permeability of the soil.

5 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil— the constant-head test
and the falling-head test.

Constant-Head Test
A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure 7.5. In this type of laboratory
setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of head between the inlet and
the outlet remains constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected
in a graduated flask for a known duration.
The total volume of water collected may be expressed as
Q= Avt= A ( ki ) t (7.16)

where Q = unit weight of water

A = viscosity of water
t = absolute permeability

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 63

And because
h
i= (7.17)
L
where L = length of the specimen, Eq. (7.17) can be substituted into Eq. (7.16) to yield

Q= A k ( hL )t (7.18)

or
QL
k= (7.19)
Aht

FALLING-HEAD TEST

A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in Figure 7.6. Water from a standpipe
flows through the soil. The initial head difference h1 at time 1 = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow
through the soil specimen such that the final head difference at time t = t2 is h2.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 64

 The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any time t can be given by
h dh
q=k A=−a (7.20)
L dt
where q = flow rate
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen

Rearrangement of Eq. (7.20) gives

dt= ( )
aL −dh
Ak h
(7.21)

Integration of the left side of Eq. (7.21) with limits of time from 0 to t and the right side with limits of head
difference from h1 to h2 gives

aL h1
t= log 10
Ak h2

or

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 65

 aL h1
k =2.303 log 10 (7.22)
Ak h2

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 66

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 67
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 68
6 EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOILS
In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction changes from layer to
layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify calculations. The following
derivations relate to the equivalent hydraulic conductivities for flow in vertical and horizontal directions
through multilayered soils with horizontal stratification.

Figure 7.16 shows n layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction. Let us consider a cross section
of unit length passing through the n layer and perpendicular to the direction of flow. The total flow through
the cross section in unit time can be written as
q=v ∙ 1∙ H
¿ v 1 ∙1 ∙ H 1+ v 2 ∙ 1∙ H 2 +v 3 ∙1 ∙ H 3+∙ ∙ ∙+ v n ∙1 ∙ H n (7.22)

Where v = average discharge velocity

v1 , v 2, v3 ,…, v n = discharge velocities of low in layers denoted by the subscripts

If kH 1 , kH 2 , kH 3 ,. . . , kH n are the hydraulic conductivities of the individual layers in the horizontal

direction and k H (eq )is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction, then, from
Darcy’s Law,
v=k H (eq) i eq ; v 1=kH 1 i1 ; v 2=kH 2 i 2 ; v3 =kH 3 i 3 ; . . . v n=kH n i n

Substituting the preceding relations for velocities into Eq. (7.39) and noting that i eq =i1 =i2 =i3 =. ..=i n
results in
1
k H (eq )= (k H +k H +k H + .. .+k H H n) (7.40)
H H 1 H 2 H 3
1 2 3 n

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 69

 Figure 7.17 shows n layers of soil with flow in the vertical direction. In this case, the velocity of flow
through all the layers is the same. However, the total head loss, h, is equal to the sum of the head losses in all
layers. Thus
v=v 1=v 2=v 3=. . .=v n (7.41)
and
h=h1=h2=h3 =. ..=hn (7.42)

Using Darcy’s law, we can rewrite Eq. (7.41) as

k V (eq ) ( Hh )=(k i + k v i 2 +k v i 3 +. ..+ k v i n )

v1 1 2 3 n
(7.43)

where kv 1 , kv 2 , kv 3 , . . ., kv n are the hydraulic conductivities of the individual layers in the vertical direction
and k V (eq ) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity.
Again, from Eq. (7.42),
h=H 1 i 1=H 2 i 2=H 3 i 3=.. .=H n i n (7.44)

Solving Eqs. (7.43) and (7.44) gives

H
k V (eq )=

( )( )( ) ( )
H1
kv
+
1
H2
kv
+
H3
kv
+ .. .+
2
Hn
kv 3 n
(7.45)

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 70

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 71
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 72
References/Additional Resources/Readings
1. Engineering Geology and Geotechnics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fvoYHzAhvVM
2. Classification of soil: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125128
3. Das, Braja M. 2010. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7 th Edition.
4. Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil. https://elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-engineering/soil-
mechanics/factors-affecting-permeability-of-soil

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 73