Electrochemistry:Study of production

~
of electricity from energy released
during spontaneous chemical reactions
use of
* electrical energy to bring
non-spontaneous
about chemical
transformation.

#
#

ES OF CELL

Electrochemical Electrolytic
wel we

(Type I) (Type)
Galvanic
Voltaic cell) electrical
converts
chemical
energy to
converts
energy. ⑧R
Chemical -

energy
T

Electrical

energy
 * *

#
Battery
# * Primary cel

I secondary all

a
wurrent
flows
# due potentiale
to

Battery
maintains potential diff.
&-ve)
by forming terminals (tve

#Oxidation (removal
of et always
takes place on a node.

Reduction it always
#
takes
(addition
of
place on cathode.

Anode
# -> ANC

Cathode ->-Ne
#

More reactive
#
-
more rapid oxidation
EMF:IS
#
produced by cell.
Electrochemical Galvanic volatic Cell:
#

O ibbenergy
*

It redox reaction is allowed to

#

take place in such a

way that
oxidation
reaction takes place in
half one beaker a
reaction in another
reduction
half
beaker the e
given outby former will
be taken
up by other a currentwill
flow. A
sinc rod taken in Insoys (urod
in cusoy. The two rods are connected

by a wire a two son are connected

by a saltbridge.
 oxidation
Separate containers
# in which
called cell.
& occur
reduction are
solution
half
rods e
B-
Cipected
2
->
Set
up of galvanic celli
Tube
#

⑪ -
↑
ne
a
&

&
-

e
e
--
-

B)
- -
④
e

75
-

Galvanic cell
#
only consists
of InkCu.
Due
# convention Anode
to
always on
&
the
left cathode right.
on the

PTO
Daniel
cell:cell
formed by Ecu
#

an

cell is
#Daniel a type of galvanic
/
cell.

Any metal rod dipped in its

#

own

molten liquid
form, forms all.

Eg:cu in cuson, In in Inson

#
Equation:2n(s)+(u2+caal. "2n2+(aq) +(r(s)
#EMFof daniel
cell 1.10v.
=

#Process:
-
e terminal veterminal
#
F 7

Ganodef Kathode

=
Reduction
-

OxidationE
↑M Half-ull.
half-all znSOy ↑M

CUSO4

away e-2n2+
- here, zinc is
↳

gives
formed
canode)
Oxidation

In 8 n2+ +2e [hell, In loses

I ofrod weight
 (cathode)
2.These es are
transferred to a

-> of cuson
3. Cut will attracted towards
get
Reduction
cathode
forming ( -

Cu2++
2e zcu [verecuadds
weight]
4- here
e-flow from anode to
cathode
current
flow
I
from cathode to
anode (as current
flows app to
et

5:
Due to
this
continous process on
anode side In2+
the Bon the cathode
cone.
side So, getaccumulated (i.e their
flow
(increase)then of e-stops.
6- So, in order to excess
neutralise

charge we add salt

bridge
NOTE:-
NOTE:Cu rod becomes Ave
flow from
because it
i s giving eto cult anode cathod
to
R oxidation reduction
&
-
current
-

rekt ve pole ionS

weight
 3
weight cu deposition
Observation:
->

# crc of anat
=> cone
of cust ->
flow of e-

# Here, cathode becomes thinner

anode thicker

Inner circuitis
#
completed by flow
the

of ions
through salt
bridge.
Salt
#
Bridge:A saltbridge is a U-shaped
tube containing (onc. So in

of inert like
electrolyte
KCI, KNO3, K2SO4, NUyNOzetc.
or
solidified soin
of such

an in agar
electrolyte -

between
agar or
gelatin
oxidation and
the

reduction cell because

half
ions have almostequal
their mobility.
 Inert
=>

Electrolyte:An electrolyte
inert

one
is whose ions do not take part
-

the
in redox reaction I also dont
react the
with used.
electrolyte
-

Functioning:Eg:
-> RCI

Here, itattracts
so,
⑧ I attracts Int
*

therefore neutralising
-
salt
bridge notrequired when electrods
are dipped
in same electrolyte.

Functions:i) Maintains electrical

->

of Salt Bridge
of
neutrality half als

as accumulation
of recharge
around zinc -ve charge
around (u stops the
flow afe:
and
therefore saltbridge neutralise
+ve K-vecharge.)

ii) completes the circuit

by
allowing ions
the
flow
to
 one soln to other
from
without
mixing soln.

iii) Reduces
junction potential

Diagram:
->

opening of
=>
The the U-Tube are
plugged
with some material
porous such as

glass wool or cotton.

criteria
for salt
bridge.
->
Beaker
#
with anode:Oxidation

half all
cathode:Reduction
Beaker with
#

half cell

#Beaker with anode & cathode are

called redox couples
half cells or

PTO
When
#
we apply external potential
in direction:
opp.

E:Potential
of cell=1.1V

d
Case-1:Eax+E
#

Galvanometre s

-> ①Flow
issolve
conclusion: -> D
=>

-
Case-2:E Eest
# =

conclusion:
=>
Case-3:Ecx 8
#
+

It now
functions as electrolytic cell.
=> conclusion:
-

-
-
NOTE:

An -
0x

W
A
Oxidation
anock

Red-cat
V cathode
=>

Reduction

↑
Difference blur Daniel Galvanic cell.
#

Representation of Cell:First we write

#

ovidation
half then Flowreduction
&
2
-

half. 2
flow
current
>

Eg:2n(s) 2n (,) (ut((2) (uCS)

Anode Anodic
Electrolypcathrate Cathode,
AnodicHalf Cathodic ral
- Coxidation) (Reduction)
D

Salt
conch
of Zn2+ in

Soln (given in ques Bridge

lif not given take

No conch
of an as ·

it s solid.
cell reaction
#
Equation:

(r2 3 2n (r(s)
+

2nCs) + +

while all can balance it

#
writing
Eg:i)Al
+
* Al 3e
+

Niz++ 2e -

> Ni

SOAICS) 3 Ni2+- 2A1 + 3 NiCS)

+ +

ii) MgIMg2+11 Ag+AG

Mg +Ag+ -> Mg2+ + Ag
Mg + 2Agt -> Mg2+ +2Ag
Electrode Potential:Potential bow the
#

e- in electro de E
the ions in the son.

How electrod potential is

generated:
#
When conch
of all the involved
species
#

in a
half cell is unity
theelectrode
is called standard electrode
potential
-

potential.

Half-cell in which oxidation takes

#

place is anode and it has

negative
potential wet
s oln.

Half-cell in which reduction takes

#

is cathode and it has positive

place
potential artsoln.

Oxidation Potential:
#

Reduction Potential:
#

-
# How to determine if oxidation

given reduction
potential
-
is or
potential
If Ecd/c2+--then its
losing e-so,
oxidation.

Eca/cd ->
gaining e- so, reduction

Relation
# bow reduction & oxidation
potential:
Reduction potenial: -oxidation
potential.

Take only reduction potential to

# cal. Ele

Representation:
#

2n2t >-

2t
In
2nt
>

-F

2n2+

2n504
Cel Potential:The bow the
#
potential
two electrodes in a cell

OR

Difference bow the

electrode potential of
cathode a anode.

Unit:volts
#

EMF (Electromotive Force):Maximum

#

bow two points of

potential difference
battery
when no current
flows,
Formula:Ecell:Ecathodi-Eanoch
#

IFor IM
soin I
only if both are reduction potential If notthen
from oxidation
convert by changing sign to -ve.
Eg:
#If Eccle is the reaction is
the

spontaneous:

#If Eccl is-ve reaction is

the

non-spontaneous:

#Difference bow potential diff. IEMF

3. Calculated by potentiometre calculated by voltmetre

Reactivity
# Series:

strongest
oxidising
agents

Ne
means
will undergo
reduction
easily

-
Ve
means
will under
go okid-
ation
easily.

(Stronget
reducing
agent
Reactivity
# series consists
of all reduction
potential.

It is the
#
reducing potential at 298K,
↓
atm RIM soln.

Ave will
undergo
#

means reduction

easily therefore forming cathode

# oxidation easily
ve means will
undergo
-

therefore forming anode

Reducing
#
power means
ability to

oxidation.
undergo
Oxidation
#
power means ability
to reduction.
undergo
#Application of reactivity
series:

If AGCO i.e. Eule>o- spontaneous

Determining
#
if with
a metal reacts
acid to
give hydrogen:
If Eiele is itwill
ave then
give n
due to
oxidation.
If Ecel is -ve then itwon't
If EP(electrode) is -ve itgives He if
its the then
gives Hz.
So in chemical cal. Ecl
storing ques
#

if the then they will reacts o can't

be stored.

Only
#
metals with -
we reduction potential
hydrogen such metals are called
liberate

active metals.

Electro de Potential:Vb/w electrode

#
et

+ ve
&
charge
1
I

surrounding it.

=E

In2+
Zn2t
 Here, 2at
In presentso rod is
are

surrounded by positive 2n2+

change
forming potential
↳
Always in rod dipped in its molten

form
#
Calculating Electrode Potential:

Here, we introduce SHE (Standard Hydrogen

Electrode). As I is the
only elementwhich
both oxidation and reduction.
can
undergo
As EP (Electrode potential) of hydrogen is
all temp:
zero at
So, here at latm Hzgas is passed to
platinum which is
dipped in 1MUCISO
EMF iSO.

Eell=Ecathode -
Eanode

= Ecathode -
0 OR O-Eanode
= Ecathode OR
-

Eanode
The SHE is
represented by:

Pt(s) H2(g) H + (aq)

#

#To calculate Electrode

Eme
of single we connect

it to SHE

Eg:
H2
17 zn PT
f

- .............

->
InsOy IMHC
 As is below
In it is more
likely
oxidised and
to
get form anode.

Eall=Ecathode -
Eanode
=
-
0.76

It
I

As lu is above itis more likely

get
to reduced
form cathode.
Ecell= Ecathode -
Eanode
0.34
=

-
So, here

half
with cell reaction:
1) Bry(aq) +e

Br -(aq)

#Nernst Equation:Used to calculate

EMF
of cell
the due

change in temp
to

LORC.
&
#Equation:Ecell:E-RT en[oxidisedion]
I [Reduced ion]
↳conc.
-

E8-2.305
= RF
log, o-oxidised i
[Reduced]
0.059
*
2.303 because
In is converted
=

E-RT log [Oxidised

[Reduced]
109,0
to

E:Electrode
potential
at SEP [298k & IM]
Multiply
* conc.

R:Gas Const. 8.314

by ATM when =

NOTK. T:Absolute
Temp.
n:no.
of elost
or
gained
(Balance eqn)
Faraday (charge present
F:

on I mole
ofei.e.
6.022 x 1023 x
1.6 x 10 19
-

I
↓ X
unit
e- in mole charge
 * F 96500C
=

For
#
pure solids or liquid Iatm the
at

molar conc. is taken as unity.

#
Eg:For galvanic cell: Since rod
is solid
↑
I
Ecell=Enan-0.0541 log
[2n2+]

As
logs:loga-logb
anode
Ece= Enrt/en -0.0591 log[enzt]

similary:

Cathodes
Eal=E@u2t/cu-0.0591 log[cu2
So,
Eaer=[Ecut/cu- Zanzt/andtrog[cut
[In2+
Balance the i.e. make the
no.
change
#

of Al+Ni2+->
e-gained &loston both ions
Al3++ Ni
same.

Eg:
So,
2A1+3N;2+s2A13++3Ni

coefficientcan bexplied by stoichiometry.

So, while writing nernst equ:

putthe coefficient as
power
>

log [Al]
[Ni]3

#When
stage of dissociation is
given:
So, once orignal conc.x % of dissociation
100

Ecele=Eale under given con c.

of
#

Mntions and temp. 'T'

for pure
liquids & solid.
#When ph is given:Whenph is
given
PH
CORC. 10
-
=

Eg:i pH
of soln is

10.

[SoIn] 10-10
=

#Calculation
of log:
#Characteristic of :Itis
basically
power of 10.

Eg: 1.log,0 (1234) => 1.234x1032

3 is characteristic

2.
log,o(0.1234) =) 1.234x10-1
So,-1
#using log table:

⑧·

*******

Put the decimal

the
after
sum
·

characteristic of
I a
before
decimal
 Example:(illog,(1234)
t
#
to
converts characteristic.
Take
*
first
two digits: 12
-

[incase of decimal digitneglectdecimal]

2 -
Take third digit and check value
of
12 in corresponding column:3

3. Take
digit corresponding to
fourth
mean table:

4 -
Now add these:0899 14=0913 +

N X

->
 5. Put
characteristic value
of a before
decimal:

1234 1.234x
=

1037
3

So, 3.0913= log10 (1234) -

Ans.

# Incase
of ve chanceristic
of
powers:
separate

(0.1234)
log
So, 1.234x10-1
0.1234=

=log(1.234) log
+ 10-1

=log (1.234) -logio

=0.0913-1
calculation
of anti-log:
#

↓ decimal
seperate nos.

2. Check
for value
of two decimal
after no.

third
3- the decides column in
antilog
I-
fourth one decides mean
diff.
add
5- mean
diff to the
value
from antilog
table

6-
Before decimal no. I decides
position
decimal.
of
#
Example: 15.59

so, 59in 0 3890 =

Now decimal after

1571 places:

3890000000000000
3.89x10'S
Equilibrium
# constant
for equ:
nernst

When
# conc.
of both the
half cells
is const. equilibrium is achieved.
the Ecell=
0

When equilibrium is attained:

#

+
<n +(u2 >2n2++ (u

cancelled as

kc [2n2 +]
=
ui atequilibrium
-En] [cu2+] conc. becomes equal
In this
galvanic cell as a result
of
all run the conce
of Lusoy decreases
whereas that
of Insoy increases.
Since electrode potential depends
on conce
the
of Soln....
the the

electrode
potential
keep on changing.
Ultimatelya
stage comes where the

electrode
become
potential of two electrodes
current
equal and stops

flowing i.e. Ecell=0.

 log[zn =
So,
Ecell=E0-0.0591 24 +]

0 E0 logk
=

-0.0591
E = 0.0591 log c
R

Gibbs
free energy & Electrochemical
#

cell:It is the measure

of max. 2
useful work done
v
=
-EMF
W VD - ne
=

W Ecele nF
=

More gibb's free energy more work

F Rao DG must
or more
spontaneous
be -ve.
 So. nF Ecele
-AG= NOTE:When
standard Gibb's
Istandard gibb's
free energy)
n no.
of mole
free energy is
:

asked use
F:
IFaraday 90500c
=

OR
--
Fall if
-

-
DG n FEcll
=
only gibb's
Gibb's
free energy free energy
the Ecell.
So,- AG 2.303RT
=

-
AG 2.303RT
=
log

R 8.315/mol.
=

#less
free More
energy: work done

*G80
#
-Spontaneous run i.e. when

Ecoll> 0 (+ve)
# When a cell run takes plan electrical
energy
isproduced. Thus the electrical work

done by the cell results

in the

corresponding decrease in the

free energy
of the
system hence electrical work

done=
decrease in
free energy.
# If the
free
comes out
tobe
energy change
-
ve
AG

it
means
of a system

electrical work has been done by the

system In case
of galvanic cell the
-

electrical work done-electrical energy

is equal to
produced which in turn the

of electricity
of quantity
product
in the
flowing
Circuit
REMF cell.
of the

done:
i.e. Electrical work
quantity of chargexEME
#Explaination
of formula: the

For every one mole

oftransferred in the
cell run the
of
quantity electricity that

flows through cell

the is IF. Hence
if
n moles
of e-are transferred the
quantity
ofelectricity
that will flow will be nF.
#conductivity in solution:

#In metals current

flows due to
flow of er

#In electrolytic soln current

flows
due to ions.

Substances/material
# which
prevents
flow of current
are called insulators.

#
Types of Conductors:

Electronic conductors:Those which

#

without
electricity
conduct

undergoing decomposition are called

electronic conductors.

Eg:metals, carbon black, graphite &

some
organic polymers.
#here current
flows due to
flow of e
#Factors
affecting
metallic conductance:

Electrolytes
# Electrolytic conductors:
OR
-

substances which
undergo decomposition
and conduct
electricity. The electricity
through molten state
them in their
pass
or
aqueous soln.
in their

Eg:acid, bases or salts.

#Here,
flow
electricity due to ions
therefore
type of conductance
this is also called

ionic conductance

Type of ions:i) Anion:-ve

->
charge
ii) Cation:the
charge
These
#
electrolytes do conduct
not

in solid state
electricity due to
lack

of movement
of ions.

# Non
Electrolytes:

Types of electrolyte:
#

Strong Electrolyte:
->

->
weak Electrolyte:
-x

-
... B
--
->

In case
of weak an equilibrium
electrolytes
·

is established bow the unionised electrolyte

B the ions
formed in soln
 The extent
of ionisation
of weak
·
a

is
electrolyte expressed interms
of
degree of ionisation or
degree of
dissociation.

Degree of ionisation
or
Degree of dissociation
⑧

(2):

For
strong electrolytes:2 1
~
=

~ For weak electrolytes:1

#Factors
affecting Electrical
conductivity
of electrolytic soln:
:
of electrolyte:strong electrolyte
Nature
is
have more ions & therefore their
hence have
more
they higher conductance.
weak electrolyte have less ions & therefore
a is less
their hence have lesser
conductance. Therefore a conductance
ii) Size solvation* if the ions
their
of ions &

are
strongly solvated, their effective
size will in cease hence their conductance

will decrease.

size of ions ( by conductance

solvation a conductance

The interaction
of a solvent with
the
*

dissolved solute.

iii) Nature
of Solvent& its viscosity:

Electrolytes
ionise more in
polar solvents
Therefore greates
the polarity greater
the ionisation the conductance.
greaten

polarity & ionisations conductance

Greater
the
viscosity lesser the
conductance.
I
viscosity - conductance
iv) sonc.
of the
electrolytic soln:

Weak Electrolyte:higher the conc.

of
·

a soln. lesser the

conductance because
in ionisation
a weak
electrolyte is

less at
higher conc

conc. - conductance

Dilution & Conductance

as ionisation

Strong Electrolyte:Here interionic

the
·

attraction are
large at
higher conc

Therefore with increase in dilution

the
decrease
interionic attraction k
conductance increase.

Dilution & Conductance

·
With dilution more ions are
produced.
1) in temp.
Temperature:With increase
conductance increase
due to decrease in
interaction bywions
ionisation 4.

#Orm's law:Current
conductor is
flowing through a

directly proportional
to its
potential diff. I inversly
resistance.
proportional to its
VCI

vc
Formula:V IR
# =
#Resistance:The
ability
to resistthe
(R)
flow of charge.
Formula:R PR
#
= OR R v
=

· I

Unit:Ohm(n)
#
i.e.
RgmYs A

#Resistivity:The resistance of a
(P) conductor
of length
1cm

and
having an area of cross
1 cm?
section
of
OR
The resistance
of a
conductor
of length 1m
SI writ and
having an area
of cross
section m?
of
a
Formula:P R
#
=

#Slunit: Ohmm or Ohmem

Ohm
*
m
-1
100 ohm (m
=
#
Conductance:Measure
(G) which the
of ease with

current
flows
through a conductor.

Formula:G=
E
# NOTE
-
*
R
AS
=

Siunit:
#
Ohn=
S

#Conductivity (r):The conductance

of a

conductor
of length
1cm

and
having an area
of
1 cm?
cross section
of
OR
The conductance
of a
Si unit conductor
of length
1m
and
having an area
of
cross section
of 1 m?
Formula:R 1
# =

A
As k =

b
and P
Re
=

x
(a)
=

k
G
=

k GG*
=

G:conductance

**:Cele
constant=
unit:Cm" OR m-1(slunit).

cell const. remains same

cell.
for same

PTO
#conductivity of a soin decreases with
dilution due to decrease in the no.

of ions
per m3.

# SI unit: Ohnmt or Ohncm-

↓
okmm-1=10-20hmicm-
0 XSm 10-sm's =

NOTE:Specific conductance:
conductivity
Resistivity
Specific Resistance:

Conductivity is equal the conductance

#

to

for unitvol of soln. (1me/1cms)

Molar Conductivity
# Molar Conductance:
(xm)
conducting power of me the ions

produced by dissolving one mole

of
electrolyte
in a soln.

Formula: xm R
#

K:conductivity

C:Molar CONC.
 I C is in units
of molarity
i.e. MOl/LEK is in Scri

scimor
then
/m Rx1000
=

Here, CiSM.

If K is in Sm &M in molm-s
Sm2mol
then
Xm=
*
no multiplication with 1000 in Sl units

# R MA-IMFA*- flow of
It as
R
charged
force of
IMFA:Inter molecular attraction.

Relation bow
conductivity 2 Molar
-

conductivity:
Conductance
(g) conductivity (r) Molal
= =

conductivity
(xm)
so, Xm RxV
=

Here, V 1000
* =

2
 v:volume
of soln in one cons
containing
1
gm mole
of electrolyte.
so, upon molar
dilution
conductivity
will also increase as vol will increase.

Units:Sco2mol-
#

OR

SM2 mol so unit

->

conductivity (Xeq):
#Equivalent
conducting power of all the ions
Its the

produced by dissolving one

gram
equivalent in
of an electrolyte a soln.

#Formula:Jeg Rx1000 =

ceq:gram
Leg equivalentper
L

kx1000
Scmzequiv-
=

N
 and in terms
of SI unit
where R

is in Scand (in
gequirm-s

So, Xeq=1
ceq

N(Normality):
*

N mxn
=

SI unit:
# Scm2 equiv-1

Smequirt-Slunit
#Experimental measurementof the
of
conductivity ionic solution:

Here,
# we use wheatstone
bridge.
#here, we use AC current
as DC

changes composition of
current all.

Here,
#
conductivity cell isused as
soln can't be connected like
a wire.

#
As current
polarity.
changes the
#

In DC current remains
polarity
#

same.

Principle of
#
wheatstone bridge can be
used
for calculating the resistance
and
therefore conductance.

sunknown)
R1 R3=

R2 Ry

0: Source
of Al

power in the

audio
frequency
(550-3000 (PS)

P: here currentdoesn't
headphone as

flow so can'tbe used.

galvanomite
#variation
of conductivity a molar

conductivity
with concentration

conductivity
# & concentration

upon dilution conductivity

decreases
as when dilution increases ions
volume decreases
per unit
therefore
conductance decreases & hence

conductivity
deceases.

#Molar Conductivity & concentration

upon dilution molar conductivity

increases as Xm=kxv so, upon
dilution conductivity decreases
vol increases.
but

I
Variation
#

with
of Molar conductivity
conc
for strong electrolytes:
Molar
#
conductivity infinite
at
delution limiting
molar conductivity
&xur,:
Themolar
conductivity when the

nonc. becomes o
dilution.
orat
infinite

conc. is zero:Xm=
When
#
im

When conc.
# is
present:Im=Xm-Ar
V

Debye Huckel Onsager equ

A:constant depends orthe
type of
electrolyte, solvent, temp]
X0:
m Limiting
molar
conductivity or

molar
conductivity atinfinite
dilution.
 C:concentration

This holds
equ good only atlow
·

concentrations.

#Graph:

gives sim
intercept
slope =-A

# All electrolyte
of same type have
same value for A.
Explanation:
#

OR
-
-

Molar
conductivity of inter-molecular
soln increase
with dilution as

attraction blucation &

force of
decrease
anion
which increases the
mobility.
Variation
#

With
of Molar conductivity
COMC.
for Weak
electrolytes:

weak dissociate
electrolytes to
much lesser than
extent
strong
electrolytes
Since variation Xm with C" is
of
very large we can'tobtain

molar conductance at
infinite
dilution
law
therefore we use kohlrausch
&R
#Graph:
#Explanation:

# Degree of dissociation:2 X'm

=

Sim
C:Degree
of dissociation
X':molar conductance atcons. C

Xi:molar conductance at infinite dilution

#Graph of strong & weak

electrolyte:
question:

Short Ans:because I'm

for weak electrolyte doesn't
increase linearly. ORILONGANS]
Kohlrausch's Law:
#

# Molar ionic
conductivity: The individual
contribution
of anion towards the total
molar conductivity of the electrolyte.
Statement:
#

Formula: Azby
ano.ofcatione
#

Am=2 XAY
y XB-
+

Eg:N°[Alz (S0413] 2xmAl+3

=

+ 3 xiso
 Eg:

Las
we 8
want

I2

2 since we

to eliminate
want

Na i.e. 2 in

NOE.
Applications:
#

calculation
=>
of molar conductivity at
infinite dilution
for weak electrolyte:

Eg:

2 Calculation
of degree of dissociation
-

of weak electrolytes:

a xm
=

Sim
3 Calculation
of dissociation constant
-

of weak electrolytes:

R (x2
=

1 -
2

k=a X'm
Aim
1- x'm
Sim

=cX'm2

Xim(n-X
C:Concentration
4- Calculation
of solubility of sparingly
soluble salts:

sparingly soluble salts: Salts

which
#

dissolve to a
very little
extentin
dissolve to
water. Since these a
very
less extent these so in are considered
dilute.
as
infinitely
-> conductivity
*
Am kx1000
=
kx1800
=

cal.
using Molarity solubility
Konrausch
law

solubility RX1000
=

Nim
Electrolysis:
#

# Process:
#Faraday's law:
#Electrolysis

1
C don'texist
exist
always in
as
gasdiatanic
-

mass-s
Equivalent

E
-

WX