Food Packaging Year 2 Semester I Kamal Edirisinghe

Packaging Materials
Types of paperboard
The line of demarcation between paper and paperboard is rather loose. ISO define paper with a grammage
above 250 g/m2 as paperboard, of simply as board.
Typical paperboards consist mainly of cellulose fibers of which the most common sources is mechanical
and chemical pulps derived chiefly from wood.

Structure of typical multi-ply paperboard

Ply construction of white lined chipboard

Construction of fully bleached solid board

plastics
More than 30 different plastics are used in packaging but the most common ones are polyolefins,
polyvinyls and polyesters. They may be divided into thermosetting and thermoplastic resins.

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Thermosets: There are only three thermosets used to any extent in packaging. Phenol formaldehyde and
urea formaldehyde are used mainly for bottle closures, while glass-reinforced polyesters are used for large
containers. Phenol formaldehyde resins are dark brown or black in colour and rather brittle. Various
fillings such as chopped fabric or wood are added to improve the impact strength or to reduce costs. Urea
formaldehyde resins can be obtained in white or pastel colours, but are more expensive; cellulose is used
as the filler because of its whiteness.
Both materials have good chemical resistance and are widely used for closures. They are insoluble in
organic solvents, are attacked by strong acids and alkalis but are resistant to weak acids and alkalis. Urea
formaldehyde resins are particularly favoured for closures by the cosmetics industry because of the wide
colour range available and their resistance to oils and solvents. Phenol formaldehyde is widely used for
pharmaceutical closures because it is more resistant to water.
Glass fibre-reinforced polyesters have high strength to weight ratios and good resistance to outdoor
weathering. In general, they have good chemical resistance, and resistance to solvents. They are resistant
to most organic and inorganic acids, except strong oxidizing acids, and weak alkalis. They are, however,
hydrolysed by strong alkalis. They have been extensively used for storage tanks and for large transit
containers.
Thermoplastics: Low density polyethylene (LDPE) accounts for the biggest proportion of the plastics
used in packaging. One of the reasons for its widespread use is its versatility. It can be extruded into film,
blown into bottles, injection moulded into closures and dispensers of all sorts, extruded as a coating on
paper, aluminium foil or cellulose film, and made into large tanks and other containers by rotational
casting.
Low density polyethylene is relatively inert chemically and almost insoluble in all solvents at room
temperature. Some softening and swelling can occur, with hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Permeability is low for water vapour but many organic vapours and essential oils pass rapidly through
low density polyethylene. Its permeability to oxygen is fairly high so where oxidation is likely to be a
problem, low density polyethylene is not suitable.
Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) is generally stronger and tougher than LDPE but has similar
properties.
High density polyethylene (HDPE) has a higher softening point than low density polyethylene and is
harder. Its barrier properties are also superior to those of low density polyethylene. For an equal wall
thickness, high density polyethylene gives bottles a greater rigidity than low density polyethylene.
Alternatively, equivalent rigidity can be obtained at lower wall thickness and often at lower cost in spite
of the fact that high density polyethylene is the more costly on a weight basis.
Polypropylene (PP) is similar chemically to low density polyethylene and high density polyethylene. It is
harder than either, however, and has a less waxy feel. It can be injection moulded, blow moulded and
extruded into film and sheet. The sheet can be thermoformed to give thin-walled trays of excellent
stiffness. Polypropylene has excellent grease resistance and is also more resistant to solvents than low
density polyethylene. Toluene and xylene, however, will cause swelling. Polypropylene is not subject to
stress cracking and it differs in this respect from both the polyethylenes. Its softening point is higher than
both polyethylenes, but it is still easily able to withstand steam sterilization.
Although polypropylene is a rigid polymer, it is more resilient than polystyrene. The resiliency of
polypropylene has been found useful in the design of screw-on closures, for it permits the moulding of
slight undercuts into which can be snapped decorative inserts, ideal for the closures of cosmetic
containers. In a less resilient material, such undercuts would prevent the moulding being removed from
the mould without damaging the undercut.
Another consequence of polypropylene's resilience is the possibility of designing a liner less closure. A
thin sectioned diaphragm or fin is moulded on to the inner surface of the closure in such a position that it
bears down on the upper surface of the bottle neck. A rigid material would not 'give' enough to take up
inequalities in the glass surface and so would not form a good seal. On the other hand, a more flexible
material such as low density polyethylene would 'give', but would not press back strongly enough to form
a seal.

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Linerless closures not only reduce direct costs, by eliminating the wad, but they can also reduce labour
and inventory costs. Polypropylene has a low impact strength at low temperatures, but copolymers are
available in which low temperature impact strength is improved. The improvement is sufficient to enable
polypropylene copolymers to be used for the injection moulding of beer crates and soft-drinks crates.

T P X is also a polyolefin and belongs to the same family as polyethylene and polypropylene. Like them
it is resistant to acids and alkalis as well as to many solvents. It is softened by hydrocarbons and is subject
to stress cracking in the same way as polyethylene. One difference between TPX and polyethylene and
polypropylene is its clarity, which is almost as good as perspex. The softening points of the polyolefins
range from low density polyethylene which is below the boiling point of water, through high density
polyethylene and polypropylene, to TPX as the highest. Its specific gravity is the lowest of the four
materials, being only 0.83.
The impact strength of TPXis better than that of polystyrene but below that of polypropylene.
Permeability of TPX to gases and water vapour is higher than that of either polyethylene or
polypropylene. It can be injection moulded, blow moulded and extruded into sheet. Thermoforming of
sheet is difficult, however, because TPX has a narrow melting point range.
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) is a polymer with the flexibility of PVC, but this flexibility is
inherent and no plasticizers are nj!cessary. It has a greater resilience than PVC and a greater flexibility
than low density polyethylene. This makes it particularly suitable for snap-on caps. Permeability to water
vapour and to gases is higher than for low density polyethylene and the solvent resistance is lower. Stress
cracking resistance, however, is good. EVA has a high impact strength down to quite low temperatures.
EVA film has a greater tendency to blocking than low density polyethylene, so that a higher percentage of
anti-blocking additives is necessary. It can be heat-sealed or high-frequency welded, but for the latter
greater power is needed than with PVC.
Polystyrene (PS) is a colourless, transparent thermoplastic, hard and with a fairly high tensile strength. It
softens at about 90-95°C and is intrinsically brittle. It is resistant to strong acids and alkalis and is
insoluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons and the lower alcohols, but is soluble in esters, aromatic
hydrocarbons, higher alcohols, ketones and chlorinated hydrocarbons. It is apoor barrier to moisture
vapour.
The brittleness of polystyrene has already been mentioned. However, toughened or high-impact grades
are available. The higher impact strength is achieved by blending synthetic rubbers, usually styrene-
butadiene or polybutadiene, with the polystyrene, either chemically or mechanically. These high impact
strength grades no longer possess the clarity of basic polystyrene, but the chemical properties are almost
unchanged..
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is similar in many respects to toughened polystyrene. There is
some overlapping in impact strength between the very high impact grades of toughened polystyrene and
the lower end of the ABS spectrum. ABS is more expensive than polystyrene. It is used for trays and tote
boxes, especially for those of large area where rigidity and a minimum of warping are required.
Polycarbonate has a high impact strength, a high softening point, and the merit of clarity. It is resistant to
weak acids and alkalis, but is slowly attacked by strong ones. Polycarbonate is soluble in aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons but is insoluble in the paraffins.
Cellulose acetate (CAc) is sensitive to moisture and is not dimensionally stable. Its tensile strength is
about the same as that of polystyrene, but its impact strength is slightly better. Mechanical properties
generally, however, are altered by moisture pick-up. It is only slightly affected by weak acids and alkalis,
but strong ones cause decomposition. It is soluble in ketones, estersand alcohols. Like polystyrene,
cellulose acetate has a high clarity and is a poor barrier to moisture vapour. It is used extensively in the
manufacture of windows for cartons, because it is easily stuck to the board, giving good seals even at high
speeds.
Acrylic multipolymer (XT polymer) has been suggested in the USA as a bottle blowing material suitable
for food and pharmaceuticals. Impact strength is moderate and dependent on bottle shape and
manufacturing conditions. Oil and grease resistance is high, as is resistance to acids, alkalis,

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detergents and aliphatic hydrocarbons. Resistance to aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons is poor,
however, and products containing high concentrations of alcohol should also be avoided. Gas and odour
permeabilities
are low, but water vapour permeability is higher than that of polyethylene or PVC. Bottles made from XT
polymer have good contact clarity when filled but are somewhat hazy when empty.

Flexible packaging materials based on films and foils

Flexible packaging materials provide an alternative solution to the distribution of many types of goods for
which crush protection is not important.
Table: Flexible packaging materials: possible components

They function primarily in retaining the goods, separating them from their environment whilst identifying
and displaying them to advantage. They are used as containers for liquids, pastes, granules and solids, e.g.
strip packs, sachets, bags and sacks; wrappers or liners for packs of other materials, e.g. twist wraps,
shrink wraps, stretch wraps, parcels, box liners; and labels and closures, e.g. diaphragm lids on tins,
bottles, plastics containers. Flexible packaging materials are used essentially for high-volume machine-
packed goods where the forming and closing of the containers is part of the operation of the filling line.
The paper sack, the squeeze bottle and the plastics collapsible tube are also examples of the use of
flexible materials in packaging. Flexible packaging materials are produced as webs from one or more of a
great number of possible starting materials.

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Properties of flexible packaging materials

Glass containers
Glass as a packaging material has the advantages of chemical inertness, clarity, rigidity, resistance to
internal pressure, heat resistance and low cost. Its disadvantages are its fragility and heavy weight.
Chemical inertness: Chemical inertness is relative, but we are justified in regarding glass as being
unaffected by, and having no effect on, most products likely to be packed. The only liquid which reacts
rapidly with glass at room temperature is hydrofluoric acid, and for organic liquids such as oils and
solvents there is no detectable reaction.
Water and aqueous solutions do react with glass but at an extremely low rate at room temperature. The
reaction is a displacement of some hydrogen in the water by an equivalent amount of sodium, thus giving
sodium hydroxide and imparting a very slightly alkaline reaction to the water. For normal purposes, the
amount of alkalinity is negligible, even over long periods of time. The reaction is speeded up at elevated
temperatures, and repeated high temperature sterilization will extract appreciable amounts of sodium from
the glass.
For products which are extremely alkali-sensitive (such as certain drugs or transfusion fluids) specially
treated bottles are available. One treatment, known as 'sulphating', consists of filling the bottles with
sulphur dioxide at a temperature of 500°C. The acid gas reacts quickly with the sodium in the surface
layers ofthe glass to give sodium sulphate which is later washed away with water.
Glass is also a complete barrier to water vapour and to gases. However, there still remains the possibility
ofloss or pick-up of gases or vapours via the bottle closure.
Clarity: The clarity of glass has been an important factor in sales, especially in the self-service
environment. While not every product benefits from visibility, a great number do, especially in the realm
of food and drink. If protection from light is required for some reason, then coloured glasses are available.
The particular colour required will depend on which part of the spectrum needs to be excluded. If exact
information on this point is lacking, then a fairly safe course of action is the use of an amber glass, since
normal amber glass, only 2 mm thick, excludes practically all light of wavelengths less than 450 micron.
Rigidity: For certain products, the rigidity of glass is a disadvantage: there are certain powders, and
products such as washing-up liquids, where a squeezable container is required so that the container can
act as a convenient dispenser.
In many other instances, however, the rigidity of glass is an advantage. It makes the container easy to
handle on the filling line, and it retains its shape during all phases of marketing. The rigidity of glass also
means that outer containers can be less rigid, because the glass containers themselves can take the load of

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other packages stacked on top of them. Also, a jar does not change volume appreciably under stress. This
is particularly important under conditions of vacuum filling which could cause trouble with less rigid
containers.
Resistance to internal pressure. This is a particularly important property for the packaging of products
such as carbonated beverages (beer, soft drinks, etc.) and aerosols. Glass has been found to be a perfectly
satisfactory material for such products, although there are examples of bottles which have exploded in
use. The usual reason for such failure is a flaw of some sort in the bottle. Such flaws may be
submicroscopic in nature (and undetectable by normal commercial means) or may be surface flaws due to
abrasion. Another reason for failure is bad distribution of the glass in the bottle; the main thing to avoid is
abrupt changes in cross-section and sharply radiused corners. This brings us to the effect of bottle design
on bursting strength. The shape of bottle best able to resist internal pressure is the sphere, but as this is
impractical for use as a packaging container, the next best is the cylinder and this is, of course, widely
used.
Heat resistance. Resistance to high temperatures is an important property in many fields of packaging.
Since glass will withstand temperatures up to about 500°C, its high temperature resistance is obviously
adequate for any packaging use. The main situations in packaging where high temperature resistance is
necessary are (1) hot filling; (2) cooking or sterilization in the container, and (3) sterilization of empty
containers by steam or dry heat.
Hot filling may be necessary because the product is viscous at ordinary temperatures (e.g. peanut butter),
or may be carried out in order to maintain sterility (e.g. jams, which are filled hot in order to prevent
mould growth-the surface of the jam must subsequently be kept free from recontamination, usually by
vacuum filling). Temperatures are not usually above 100°C and may often be appreciably less. Some
other materials such as plastics can sometimes give trouble, not because they melt but because there is the
risk of distortion, whereas glass is normally perfectly satisfactory for this type of use.
Cooking or sterilization in package is typified by the use of glass containers for the preservation of fruit
and vegetables, or for the bottling of beer, where the beer has to be pasteurized in the bottle. Glass has
been used for these applications for a very long time, with satisfactory results.
Sterilization of empty containers may be carried out by steam or boiling water, or by dry heat, in a hot air
oven. It is especially important for multi-trip food or beverage containers which must obviously be both
clean and sterile before re-filling.
The wall thickness of the glass container plays an important part in determining the magnitude of the
stresses induced in the container because the thicker the wall, the longer the time taken for heat to travel
through the glass and the greater the differential temperature between the inner and outer surfaces. Bottle
shape also has an important effect on resistance to thermal shock, the stresses being highest near the join
between the base and the side wall. Thermal shock resistance is improved by avoiding too abrupt a join at
this point. Instead, there should be a gentle curvature or in sweep.
Because shape and wall thickness both have an effect on thermal shock resistance, it is difficult to give
exact figures, but the following give some idea of orders of magnitude of sudden temperature drops which
can be accommodated by various capacity bottles, without breakage.

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Metal packaging: the basic materials

The main metals used in packaging are mild steel sheet, tinplate, terne plate, galvanized mild steel sheet,
stainless steel, aluminium alloys and aluminium. Mild steel plate (usually cold-reduced strip-mill steel) is
the principal metaldrum- making material. Terne plate (a mild steel coated with a tin/lead alloy) and
galvanized steel, with an electrolytic deposit of zinc, are also employed. For special contents, aluminium
alloy sheets, commercially pure aluminium sheet, and stainless steel (normally an 18~8 nickel chrome
steel) are used for drums and kegs.
Tinplate is the principal material for metal boxes and cans. It is mild steel (i.e. low-carbon steel) coated
on both sides with tin. The base steel plate or strip is manufactured by rolling hot steel ingots down to a
strip with a thickness of 1.8 mm (0.07 in). The strip is then pickled continuously in a bath of hot dilute
sulphuric acid to a finished gauge of 0.15~0.50 mm (0.006~0.020 in). The sheet is finally annealed and
temper-rolled to impart the required hardness and surface finish. Since the early 1960s, economies have
been produced by reducing the thickness of the steel base. These economies depend on the fact that
further cold reduction of the sheet produces a material having a greater intrinsic stiffness; hence a thinner
sheet can be used for some applications. The plate is then known as 2CR (double cold reduced) or DCR
(double reduced).
The tin coating was originally applied by running the steel plate through a bath of molten tin (hot dipping
process). Although this method is still employed, the majority is now made by a continuous electroplating
process (giving electrolytic tinplate). Hot dipping gives a comparatively thick coating, with a lower limit
of about 22 g/m2 (11 g/m2 on each side). This figure corresponds to the old figure of lib per basis box (1
basis box = 31360 square inches of tinplate, i.e. 62720 in2 total surface area). The electrolytic method is
more flexible than hot dipping and produces coatings down to 5.6 g/m2 (2.8 g/m2 on each side). In
addition, it is possible with the electrolytic process to produce differentially coated tinplate, i.e. tinplate
with a different coating weight on either side. Such material is used when the protective requirements for
the outside and inside of a can differ. The lowest feasible tin coating can then be used for each surface,
leading to overall reduction in tin coating costs. Manufacture of electrolytic tinplate is a highly technical
operation, requiring extensive initial capital investment. In spite of this, it has almost entirely ousted hot-
dipped tinplate for can manufacture, because of the savings in tin coating costs.
Hot-dipped tinplate possesses a naturally bright finish, whereas electrolytic tinning produces a rather dull
coating. Electrolytic tinplate can, however, be brightened by he('ting, momentarily, either in a bath of hot
oil or by electrical induction. This process is known as flow brightening. Flow brightening not only
improves appearance but also the resistance of the plate to corrosion. The dull matt finish of the as-plated
sheet is due to a porous finish, and the protective properties of the coating are much improved by melting
the tin to give a more coherent finish. After flow brightening, electrolytic tin coatings are treated to
remove any tin oxide formed during the process. They are then treated in chromic acid, dichromate or
chromate/phosphate solutions to stabilize the finish. This is because tin oxide is often affected by
subsequent storage or baking of the tinplate.
The high-speed equipment now used for can making necessitates the use of a film of lubricant on the
tinplate surface. Cotton seed oil, or synthetic oils such as di-octyl sebacate or di-butyl sebacate are
normally used. The oil film is extremely thin-of the order of a few tenths of a millionth of a millimetre
and the lubricant must be compatible with any subsequent lacquer coating used.
The final step in tin economy is the elimination of tin entirely, so producing tin-free steel (TFS). This
material is produced by electrolytically coating mild steel plate with a chromium/chromium oxide film by
a process developed in Japan. The chromium/chromium oxide layer is even thinner than the thinnest tin
coatings normally used, and must be lacquered before it can be used in the manufacture of containers. It
is, however, satisfactory for protecting the steel from rusting during transit and storage prior to can
manufacture.
The cost of TFS is lower than that of tinplate, but is increased by the necessity for lacquer coating. If plain
tinplate can be used for packaging a particular product, therefore, it will normally be cheaper to use. On
the other hand, if the tinplate has to be lacquered, then lacquered TFS will normally be cheaper.

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Blackplate is the name given to the base plate of mild steel before tinning. It can be used for container
manufacture, using the techniques of welding or cementing for the production of the side seam. Both its
surfaces have to be protected with some sort of coating, otherwise rusting easily occurs.
Aluminium and its alloys have long been used for the manufacture of rigid containers, although not to the
same extent as tinplate. Aluminium is also used in the form of foil (both alone and laminated to other
materials), and for collapsible tubes. With aluminium, seamless bodies can be produced by impact
extrusion, particularly if the depth is larger relative to the diameter. To achieve adequate stiffness, an
alloy (with about 1 % of manganese usually, although there are other alloying materials) is necessary.
Aluminium cannot be soldered by any suitable technique but it does not rust tinplate. Although light and
pleasant to handle, its resistance to chemical attack is limited. Its use for any purpose must be carefully
considered in relation to the product.

Figure: The three-piece electrically welded food can.

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(1) Starts from a stack of tinplate sheets which are coated with a lacquer, dried and stoved in ovens for 20
min. Different lacquers are used for different products, (2,3) the lacquered sheets are first cut into strips
and then the strips are cut to the correct blank size for the can bodies, (4) the body blanks are now rolled
into cylinders and (5) the two edges are welded together electrically. The area adjacent to the join is again
coated with lacquer and oven dried, (6) other sheets have meanwhile been cut into circular blanks for the
ends of the can, (7) these can end blanks are curled at the rims and a sealing compound flowed into the
curi, (8) a lip (or flange) is now formed at both eni1s of the welded body cylinder and (9) the end is now
seamed to the body to give.a can ready for filling and closing by the packer who seams another end on to
the body after filling, (10) formation of a double seam, (a) end placed on body, (b) seam part-formed, (c)
finished seam.

Figure: The drawn and redrawn (DRD) can.

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Figure: The two-piece drawn and wall-ironed (DWI) can.

The cup-shaped component is first drawn from a round blank. The cup is forced through the ironing rings
by the punch. Only two rings are shown, but three or more may be used in practice. Each ring reduces the
wall thickness by between 20% and 35%. Stage I. circular metal blank drawn into a shallow cup shape;
stages 2, 3 and 4, the cup is wall ironed into the can shape; stages 5, 6 and 7, top trimmed and bottom
finished, can cleaned and printed and walls finished; now ready for filling and closing.

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Figure: Interlocked side seam: (a) before hammering; (b) finished seam.

Figure: Formation of a double seam: (a) end placed on body; (b) seam part formed; (c) finished
seam.

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Figure: Double seam terminology

Built-up body cans may be divided into open top cans and general line cans. Both are used in the food
industry.
The essential characteristic of the hooked or seamed corner body is the ability to form an almost square
corner and for this reason it is popular for beef cubes, etc. Although the corner is sharp, it is not truly
square.
Seamless (or solid drawn) body containers are pressed into shape and have no joints. The body is usually
finished at the open mouth by trimming, beading or curling to receive the lid, which is frequently of the
slip-on type. The depth to which a seamless body can be pressed is related to the radius of curvature over
which the pressing is performed, the thickness of the material and the ability of the surface finish to
remain anchored to the base stock. Round, oblong and square shapes are all possible but above about 100-
110mm (4-4.5 in) in diameter the round seamless tin tends to be both uneconomic and functionally poor.
All these containers are relatively flat with a large surface area relative to the depth.

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Figure: Typical can sizes used in food technology, and characteristic features

Figure: Can terminology. Open top processed food cans have three seams, drawn aluminium and drawn tinplate and
have only one seam around the top end. Cans may be round, rectangular or irregular in shape
Closures
There are five basic methods of closure:
(1) Frictional engagement
(2) Screw thread engagement
(3) Permanent mechanical interlocking of the lid and the body
(4) Plastics closures
(5) Atmospheric (differential) pressure on the lid (often called vacuum seals).

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All methods find uses in the packaging most widely used form of tin box closure in the food industry is
the permanent mechanical interlocking of the lid and the body. The top of the can is joined to the body by
a rolled permanent joint which is unique in two senses: (a) because of the close control possible, its
performance can be accurately predicted; (b) it will withstand internal pressures, external pressure or
balanced pressures. Such a joint, the 'double seam', is very reliable and this is what is required in food
canning.
The open top can, defined as a one piece closure type tin filled through an unrestricted orifice, and
particularly associated with thermally processed, canned foods, is used throughout the processed food
industry. The older 3- piece can is still widely used, but the drawn and wall ironed can (DWI can) has
made great advances for carbonated beverages. The processes of making both types were outlined on the
above figures.
Open top cans are lacquered internally if the nature of the contents requires it. There is no universal
lacquer, each type of product has its own requirement, and the lacquering is intended primarily to
preserve the colour and appearance of the food, not to protect the tinplate from attack.
General line cans are cans used for foods and other products and are distinct from open top cans. The
principal types used in the food industry are as follows.
 The collar can: a re-closable type of round tin incorporating a removable tear strip and internally
fitting collar which provides a seating for the lid.
 The paperboard composite: a container with side walls based on board and having end
components of metal, plastic, board or combinations of these.
 The seamless tin: the body is drawn in one piece.
 The lever lid tin: usually a round, built-up tin, the ring component being secured to the body and
having an orifice into which an inverted hat-shaped lid is pressed.
 The slip lid tin: the body is usually seamless, and closed by a separate lid which fits over the
mouth of the body.

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Figure: Food canning operations (Heat processed foods)

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