Ecv 401 Highway Engineering 1

ECV401 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I CIVIL ENG
ECV401: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1
Course Objective:
To equip the student with in-depth understanding of highway design concepts and factors
considered in geometric design, vehicular and road characteristics such speed, volume,
breaking distance, sight distance, stopping sight distance, overtaking distance. The course is
designed to help the learner understand horizontal and vertical alignment designed as well as
road intersection designs such grade separated intersections and at-grade junctions like
roundabouts, conflicts points, kerbed and ghost islands, lane separation, acceleration and
deceleration lanes, intersection sight triangle. The course aims to help the student learn about
road safety in terms of causes and prevention road accidents.
Expected learning outcomes:
At the end of this course, the student should be able:
• To apply highway design concepts, factors and elements in geometric design.
• To determine and calculate breaking distance, sight distance, stopping sight distance,
overtaking distance
• To interpret geometric design fundamentals, in relation to safety and driver comfort,
focusing on horizontal and vertical alignment
• To design the geometric curves and intersections of a road pavement.
• To understand road safety requirements, identify causes and prevention of road
accident.
Course outline
• Principles of highway design
• Geometric design; Horizontal and vertical curves,
• Factors and elements of geometric designs.
• Intersection design: at-grade junctions, roundabouts, conflict points, kerbed and Ghost
islands, lane separation, acceleration and deceleration lanes, intersection site triangle.
• Speed, sight distance and capacity
Teaching methods
▪ Lectures
▪ Tutorials
▪ Practical
▪ Field work
Instruction materials
▪ Online
©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 1

▪ White board
▪ LCD/Overhead Projector
▪ Handouts
▪ Relevant computer softwares
Course assessment
▪ CATS
▪ Assignments
▪ Final Semester Examination (70%)
▪ Cats and Assignments (30%)
Recommended Course Literature
1. Highway and traffic Vol.1 by C.A oflaherty
2. Highway and traffic Engineering in developing countries by Bant thageson
3. Principles of highway Eng and traffic analysis by Fred L. Mannering and Walter P.
4. Highway traffic analysis and design by R. J salter.
5. MOR. Design manual.
REFERENCES:
1) Highway Engineering 7th Edition by Paul H. Wright and Karen K. Dixon
2) Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis 7th Edition by Fred L.
Mannering and Scott S. Washburn
3) Highway Engineering, 3rd Edition by martin Rodgers and Bernard Enright
4) Highway engineering 10th Edition by S.K Khanna and C.E.G Justo
5) Principles and practices of Highway Engineering by L.R. Kadiyali and L.B Lal
6) Highway Engineering by Rangwala
7) Highway Engineering by D.R.Phatak and H.K Gite

CHAPTER ONE
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Highway engineering is the process of design and construction of efficient and safe highways
and roads. Concepts such as grade, surface texture, sight distance and radii of horizontal
bends and vertical slopes in relation to design speed and in addition to road junction design
(intersections and interchanges) are all important elements of highway engineering
Design is the process of selecting the elements that once combined will make up an end
product. In engineering, these elements are primarily features, dimensions and materials.
Highway geometric design is selection of a road's visible features and dimensions (lane or
shoulder width, for example). These have important bearing on how the road will function, its
capacity, driver behaviour and safety.
HIGHWAY DESIGN
OBJECTIVES;
*To provide facilities which are safe, efficient, comfortable, of adequate capacity
economical (in the long run) and structurally sound.
FACTORS CONTROLLING DESIGN:
1. Topography and land use.

- A fundamental consideration in geometric design, as it influences such design elements as
alignment, sight distances, design speed etc.
- Man made features e.g. Agricultural and other centres of economics importance influence the
final location of highway.
2. Environmental conditions.
- Preservation of natural beauty of the country sight.
- Preservation of areas of some particular value e.g. national parks, common

Monuments etc
- Preservation of soil erosion.

- Reduction of environmental pollution in terms of noise and air pollution.
3. Road safety consideration.

- Reduction of number of accidents.
- Reduction of severity of accidents.
4. Road function.
- The functional classification of roads must be considered in the determination of
geographical design standard.
5. Traffic considerations, in terms of

- Traffic volume
- Directional distribution.
- Composition of the traffic
- Capacity and level of service.
6. Design speed.
- Is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a section of road when design
or ideal or favourable operation condition exists.
- Selection of design speed may be influenced by a number of factors:
a) Functions of the road.

b) Nature of terrain.
c) Traffic volume.
d) Land use (Accessibility)
e) Economic considerations.
Terrain Road class
A&B C D&E
Flat 100-120 90-100 80
Rolling 90-100 60-90 50-80
Mountainous 50-70 40-60 20-50

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Roads can be classified according to:
- Basic roads system; Basic urban classification and Basic rural classification.
- Structural classification; murram, earth, asphalt material.
- Functional classification.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
There are 5 classes according to the major functions in road network.
Class A. International trunk roads.
These are roads linking centres of international importance and crossing international
boundaries or terminating in international points.
Class B. National trunk roads
These are roads linking nationally important centres (Principle towns) or urban centres.
Class C. Primary roads
Are roads linking provincially important centres to each other or to a higher classes roads
(Urban or rural centres)
Class D. Secondary roads
Are roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more important centres or to a
higher class road (Rural or market centres)
Class E. Minor roads
These are any roads linking minor centres. (Market or local centre)
Roads of the highest classes are A&B,have there major function to provide mobility, while
the function of class E road is to provide access. The roads class C and D have for all
practical purpose to provide both mobility and access with emphasis on mobility for primary
roads and access for secondary roads.
7. Design vehicle;
This is a selected motor vehicle whose physical characteristics in terms of its weight and
dimensions (used in determination of highway design element) will accommodate all vehicles
within a designated class. Vehicle dimensions that influence design includes:
i. Minimum turning radius.

ii. Path of the inner run wheel or tyre.
iii. Thread width.
iv. Wheel bar-dimension between the back and front wheel.
Design elements influenced by design vehicle characteristics are:
I. Road cross-section.
II. Junction layout.
III. Road widening and horizontal alignment.
Categories of design vehicles include:
a) Passenger vehicles cars.

b) Single unit trucks.
c) Semi trailer combinations.
8. Economic considerations.
The geometrical design features of a road, in relation to traffic expected on it and type of
terrain should be evaluated and justified in terms of cost and benefit that will come about as a
result of providing the road.
Asst 0ne
Using relevant examples discuss how Roads have been classified in Kenya according to:
a) Basic road system
b) Structural classification

CHAPTER TWO
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Geometric design elements are
1. Sight distance.
2. Horizontal alignment.
3. Vertical alignment.
4. Cross-section
Sight distance
Overview
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility
of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such
that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance
ahead . This distance is said to be the sight distance.
Types of sight distance
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which
a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving
objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
• Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

• Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
• Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
• Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under
the illumination of head lights
• Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.
The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver traveling at the
design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of
vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary
object appearing suddenly in his own traffic lane.

The computation of sight distance depends on:
• Reaction time of the driver
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split
up into four components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually
combined into a total perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as
for easy measurement. Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to 2
secs under normal conditions. However, taking into consideration the variability of
driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used in design. For example, IRC
suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.
• Speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more
time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed
increases, sight distance also increases.
• Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment
the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake
efficiency. Therefore, the sight distance required will be more when the efficiency of
brakes is less. Also, for safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only
50% brake efficiency.
• Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road
The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to bring the
vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately.
Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is
provided while computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the
factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in
between 0.35 to 0.4.
• Gradient of the road.

Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the
vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore, sight distance required is less. While
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required
to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed,
safely without collision with any other obstruction.
There is a term called safe stopping distance and is one of the important measures in traffic
engineering. It is the distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first
perceived to the time the deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if they
are to suddenly respond to a situation. Thus, in highway design, sight distance at least equal
to the safe stopping distance should be provided. The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
distance and the braking distance. Lag distance is the distance the vehicle travelled during the
reaction time and is given by , where is the velocity in . Braking distance is

the distance travelled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a level road this is
obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the
vehicle. If is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is , then
work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is where is the total weight
of the vehicle. The kinetic energy at the design speed is

Therefore, the SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:
(1)
where v is the design speed in , is the reaction time in , is the acceleration
due to gravity and is the coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction is given below
for various design speed.
Table 1: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 30 40 50 60 80
0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
When there is an ascending gradient of say %, the component of gravity adds to braking
action and hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to
the surface which adds to the the braking force is equal to .

Equating kinetic energy and work done:

Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending gradient. Therefore the general
equation is given by Equation 2.
Overtaking sight distance
Figure 1: Time-space diagram: Illustration of overtaking sight distance

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite
direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see
the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
The factors that affect the OSD are:
• Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in
the opposite direction.
• Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
• Gradient of the road
The dynamics of the overtaking operation is given in the figure which is a time-space
diagram. The x-axis denotes the time and y-axis shows the distance traveled by the vehicles.

The trajectory of the slow moving vehicle (B) is shown as a straight line which indicates that
it is traveling at a constant speed. A fast moving vehicle (A) is traveling behind the vehicle B.
The trajectory of the vehicle is shown initially with a steeper slope. The dotted line indicates
the path of the vehicle A if B was absent. The vehicle A slows down to follow the vehicle B
as shown in the figure with same slope from to . Then it overtakes the vehicle B and
occupies the left lane at time . The time duration is the actual duration of the
overtaking operation. The snapshots of the road at time , and are shown on the left
side of the figure. From the Figure 1, the overtaking sight distance consists of three parts.
• the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction
time
• the distance travelled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking
operation
• is the distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation

( ).
Therefore:
(1)
It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to , the speed of the slow
moving vehicle B and travels behind it during the reaction time of the driver. So is
given by:
(2)
Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to the original
lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing before and after overtaking. The
spacing in is given by:

(3)
Let be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance travelled by B during the overtaking
operation is . Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial
velocity and overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity . Hence the distance
travelled is given by:
(4)
The distance travelled by the vehicle C moving at design speed during overtaking
operation is given by:
(5)
The overtaking sight distance is (Figure 1)
(6)
where is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle in , the reaction time of the
driver in , is the spacing between the two vehicle in given by equation 3 and is

the overtaking vehicles acceleration in . In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is
not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16 kmph slower the the design speed.
The acceleration values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table 1.
Table 1: Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds
Speed Maximum overtaking
(kmph) acceleration (m/sec )
25 1.41
30 1.30
40 1.24
50 1.11
65 0.92
80 0.72
100 0.53
Note that:
• On divided highways, need not be considered

• On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not
necessary to provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the length of the
highway. These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide roads. The
desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is three times OSD

(Figure 1).
Figure 1: Overtaking zones
Sight distance at intersections
At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a hazard and
stop the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the
design speed. The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side
should be able to see each other. This is illustrated in the figure 1.
Figure 1: Sight distance at intersections
Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible conditions:
• Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed

• Enabling approaching vehicle to stop

• Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Summary
One of the key factors for the safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road is sight
distance. Sight distances ensure overtaking and stopping operations at the right time.
Different types of sight distances and the equations to find each of these had been discussed
here.
Problems
1. Calculate SSD for =50kmph for (a) two-way traffic in a two lane road (b) two-way
traffic in single lane road. (Hint: f=0.37, t=2.5) [Ans: (a)61.4 m (b) 122.8 m.
Given: =50km/hr = 13.9m/s =0.37 = 2.5 sec stopping distance=lag
distance braking distance
Stopping Distance = 61.4 m

Stopping sight distance when there are two lanes = stopping distance= 61.4m.
Stopping sight distance for a two-way traffic for a single lane = 2[stopping distance]
=122.8m
2. Find minimum sight distance to avoid head-on collision of two cars approaching at 90
kmph and 60 kmph. Given t=2.5sec, f=0.7 and brake efficiency of 50 percent in either
case. (Hint: brake efficiency reduces the coefficient of friction by 50 percent). [Ans:
SD=153.6+82.2=235.8m]

Given: =90 Km/hr. = 60 Km/hr. = 2.5sec. Braking efficiency=50%. =.7.

Stopping distance for one of the cars
Coefficient of friction due to braking efficiency of 50% = 0.5*0.7=0.35. Stopping
sight distance of first car= = 153.6m
Stopping sight distance of second car= = 82.2m

Stopping sight distance to avoid head on collision of the two approaching
cars + =235.8m.
3. Find SSD for a descending gradient of 2% for V=80kmph. [Ans: 132m].
Given: Gradient(n) = -2 = 80 Km/hr.
SSD on road with gradient = 132m.
4. Find head light sight distance and intermediate sight distance for V=65 kmph. (Hint:
f=0.36, t=2.5 s, HSD=SSD, ISD=2*SSD) [Ans: 91.4 and 182.8 m]
Given: =65km/hr =0.36 = 2.5 sec

Headlight Sight distance = 91.4m.

Intermediate Sight distance= 2[SSD]= 182.8m.
5. Overtaking and overtaken vehicles are at 70 and 40 kmph respectively. find (i) OSD
(ii) min. and desirable length of overtaking zone (iii) show the sketch of overtaking
zone with location of sign post (hint: a=0.99 m/sec2) [Ans: (i) 278 m (ii) 834 m/1390]
6. Calculate OSD for V=96 kmph. Assume all other data. (Hint: Vb=96-16kmph.
a=0.72, t=2.5s) [Ans: OSD one-way 342m, OSD two-way 646m]
ROAD GRADIENT
The grade of the road is the slope in the longitudinal direction. The descending and ascending
roads are said to have –ve and +ve grades respectively.
The grade to be used in a highway is governed by
i. Topography of the country or terrain.

ii. Type of traffic e.g. automobile, animal drawn etc.
iii. Drainage.
iv. Access to adjoining property.
v. Obligatory points and roads or railway or canal crossing.
vi. Appearance.
RESISTANCE TO TRACTION
The factor that determines the traction force are various resistances which come into place
on moving traffics and includes:
I. Wind resistance.
II. Axle resistance.
III. Grade resistance.
IV. Rolling resistance.

WIND RESISTANCE
May be calculated from the relation, Ra= CAV2
Where: Ra is Kg/m2 , C is Constant normally =0.01, V is Speed in Km/h and A is projected area of
vehicle in m2
Rolling resistance
Varies
1) Inversely with diameter of the wheel

2) Increases with decreasing width of the wheel as the lower width increases pressure on
the surface resulting in increase in resistance.
3) Nature of the road surface. Hard surface offer less resistance e.g driving on sand
Axle resistance
For well designed vehicle, this resistance may be neglected
Grade resistance
On a level ground
Traction force T
fP=fW
P=W
Traction force T
When up an incline
Psinα
Psinα P
Pcosα
Resistance to traction consists of gravity (Weight component) and friction component
i.e Traction force T= Psinα +fPcosα

For small α
sinα = tanα and cosα=1
Therefore T= Ptanα +fP
tanα =Slope of grade =G
Hence T=PG+fP
When down an inclination G is –ve
Therefore T=fP-PG
Example
A vehicle moving at 30km/h on a level road suddenly joins a graded section and continues
moving without changing the tractive force until it stops after moving 23.6m in 5.7sec.
- Estimate the grade of the road if the coefficient of friction is 0.02

- What would be the tractive force in terms of vehicle weight and in terms of initial tractive
force to maintain the speed of the vehicle
Soln
Given d=23.6m t=5.7sec and u=30km/h
Recall Deceleration
1 1 30
d= at 2 + ut =23.6m= aX 5.7 2 + 5.7
2 2 3 .6
a=-1.47m/s
On level ground, Tractive force T =fW
On inclination, Tractive force T= WG+fP=W(G+f)

Force WG
T’-T=a= = = gG = 1.47
mass W
g
1.47 1.47
Then G = = =0.15
g 9.81
Therefore T’= W(G+f)=W(0.15+0.02)=0.17W
T
But T=Wf, hence W=
f
Therefore
T T
T’=0.17W=0.17 =0.17 =8.5T
f 0.02

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
It is an important feature in design, influencing the efficiency and safety of a highway. The
alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents which are connected by the use of
simple circular curves and transition curves. The design is dependent on the radius of the
curve and super elevation of the carriage way. Proper design leads to.
i. Improved speed
ii. Higher highway capacity
iii. Lower accidents
SUPER ELEVATION
This is the provision of a transverse inclination of the carriageway i.e outer edge being raised
with respect to the inner edge to overcome the effect of centrifugal force due to curvature.
This has the advantage of
a. Lower danger of overturning

b. Higher traffic volume
c. Lower maintenance on outer wheel and lower wear of its line on carriageway
d. Drainage of water on one side only.
P WV 2
gR
a. Non super elevated

N
WV 2 cosα
gR
WV 2
gR
P
WV 2 sinα
α gR
Wsinα W
Wcosα
b. Super elevated
WV 2
Centrifugal force
gR
Friction
W (Weight)
C) PLAN
Fig (a) illustrates the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves about a horizontal curve on a flat
carriage way (non super elevated).

With the forces in equilibrium
WV 2
P= where P = lateral frictional force resisting the centrifugal
gR
V = Speed of the vehicle
R = Radius of the curve
g = Acceleration due to gravity
WV 2
But P = μN=μW= P =
gR
V2 P
Hence μ= =
gR W
μ= transverse coefficient of friction
P
=Centrifugal ratio for velocity in km/h
W
g=9.81m/s2
V=kph
10002 V 2 V2
μ= =
(60x60) 2 gR 127R
Therefore for non limiting value of μ, the minimum curve radius can be calculated for any
given design speed. The centrifugal force causes an overturning moment through the centre
of gravity of the vehicle and the carriage way surface. The moment is resisted by a righting
moment caused by the weight of the vehicle acting thro’ its centre of gravity.

For equilibrium
WV 2 d
xh = W
gR 2
d d
h =W =
V 2
2
2
gR
Where
d=Lateral width btn the wheels
h=Height of centre of gravity above the carriageway.
When the carriage way is super elevated, the forces acting on the vehicle are as in Fig b.
At equilibrium
WV 2 Eqn i
N=Wcosα+ sin 
gR
WV 2 Eqn ii
μN=P= cos -Wsinα
gR
Dividing equation ii and i
V 2  Eqn iii
 cos − sin  
gR
μ=  
 V2 
 cos + gR sin  
 
V2
Since R is big, the effect of sinα (which is very small almost equal to zero) on sin 
gR
makes it =0
V2
Since R is big, the effect of cosα (which is almost equal to one) on cos makes it remain
gR
the same.

Hence
V2
μ= -tanα
gR
For an angle of super elevation where α is usually small, the term tanα is called super
elevation and denoted by e.
Therefore
V2
μ= -e
gR
Since V=kph and g=9.81m/s2
V2
μ= -e
127R
V2
μ+e=
127R
for a case of no lateral friction and the centrifugal force is counteracted by the super elevation
i.e μ=0, we have a phenomenon of “hands off speed” (self steering).
V2
Hence e=
127R
In a case where the super elevation takes 40% of the centrifugal force
V2
e= 0.4
127R
Example
If super elevation for R is equal to 450m is e and it balances 45% centrifugal force estimated
the value of e for a velocity of 85km/h. If the above e and R balances the hand off speed,
estimate the design speed.
0.45x852
e= = 0.057
127x 450
V2=127Re
V=57.075km/h
Maximum super elevation emax depends on
i. Climatic conditions
ii. Terrain conditions
iii. Type of area, whether urban or rural – influences vehicle speed.
iv. Road surface texture
Recommended super elevation emax
AASHTO
– Urban - 6%
– Rural - frequent snow - 8%
– Rural - normal condition - 10%
UK
– Urban - 4%
– Rural - 7%
Kenya
– Urban - 6%
– Rural - 6%

CURVES
Circular Curves
A circular curve joining two road tangents is described either by its radius or its degree of
curvature. The degree of curvature ( ) , is defined as the central angle subtended by 100m arc
of the curve.
PI=Point of intersection
PI
 PC=Point of Curvature
PT=Point of tangency
T E
 =External Angle=
m=Middle ordinate, offset from line of sight of road

 m
L=Length of Curvature
PC 2 PT
Lc
Lc=Long chord length
  D=Degree of curvature
R 2 2
R T=Length of tangent
R=Radius of Curvature
E=External distance

T = R tan
2

Lc = 2 R sin
2

L = 100
D
   
E = R sec − 1 = T tan
 2  4
 
m = R1 − cos 
 2
5730
D=
R

50
R=
sin 
2
C If an immovable object limits the sight

line AB for safe stopping sight distance, S,
m
along the circular curve ACB, then the
A M B
X
middle ordinate distance, M, may be
R-m
estimated by considering that the track of
R the vehicle is along the chord AM and

R
MB, rather than the arc of the curve. By
 
geometry
O
R 2 = X 2 + (R − m)
2
R 2 = X 2 + R 2 − 2mR + m 2
2
S
but X 2 =   − m 2
2
2
S
R =   − m 2 + R 2 − 2mR + m 2
2
2
2
S
  = 2mR
2
S2
m =
8R

X
DCE=L
L
C
D E
 m 
A X B
M
R- R
R
m
d d
O
In the above situation where the required sight distance is greater than the available length of
curve, L, and the sight distance overlaps the tangent to the curve for a distance,  , on either
side of the curve , then S =L + 2 
S−L
=
2
2
S
By geometry   = X 2 + m 2
2
while d =  S − L  + R 2
2
And X 2 = d 2 − (R − m )
2 2
 2 
2
S
Hence   = X 2 + m 2 = d 2 − (R − m ) +m2= d 2 =  S − L  + R 2 − (R − m ) +m2
2
2 2
2  2 
S2 1 2
4
( )
= S − 2 LS + L2 + R 2 − R 2 − 2 Rm + m 2 + m 2
4
( )
S2 1 2
4
(
= S − 2 LS + L2 + 2 Rm
4
)
L(2S − L )
m=
8R

WIDENING WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY ON CURVES
The rear wheels of the vehicle follow a path of a shorter radius than front wheels and have an
effect of increasing effective width of carriage way to maintain the safety clearance between
opposing vehicles on curves sections. This is more so necessitated due to tendency of drivers
moving away from the edge of carriage way hence increasing the potential of accident on the
curved sections.
w = Distance to be increased.

The extra width W may be estimated from
Directio
n w= R – (r+d)
w
d
(r + d ) = R2 − 2
r R
Hence w = R − R 2 −  2
Where: R = radius of path of outer front wheel.
R = radius of the path of inner rear wheel.
d = lateral width between wheels.
 = length between front and rear axles.
TRANSITION CURVES
Enable vehicles moving at a high speed to make a change from tangent sections to the curve
sections and to the next tangent sections of a road in a safe and comfortable fashion (way).
Therefore, a transition curve provides:
i. A gradual introduction of radial acceleration from zero in the tangent to a maximum

V2 1
of on the circular curve. for spiral (or Clothoid) R
R Lengthofthespiral
ii. Enough length of roads on which the full super elevation required on the circular
curve may be applied.
iii. Smooth aesthetic that matches or harmonises with terrain and removes any kinky
appearance that would otherwise occur as intersection point.

Transition curves are generated from lemniscates spiral or clothoid or cubic parabola curves.
The spiral transition curve is widely accepted due to the ease in which it can be set out in the
field.
 = Spiral angle
E
Ls= Spiral length=Transition curve length
X
DCE=L
Ls R = Radius of the circular curve
yc C
Xc K SC CS Xc and yc = Coordinates of SC
p
s m s
X ST P = Shift
TS M
R Ls
R
R-m K= Approximately
2
d d
 
O
Ls 57.3Ls
= Radians = degrees
2R 2R

E = (R + P )sec −R
2
L2 s
P=
24R
 2 
X c = Ls 1 − 
 10 
  3 
y c =  − 
 3 42 

LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVES
1. Shortt’s method
Uses the rate of change of radial acceleration in relation to safety and comfort. Radial
V2
acceleration changes from 0 to over the length of the transition curve.
R
Time taken to travel the transition length is given by.
Ls
t=
V
For rate of gain of radial acceleration C:
V 2 Ls V3
C=  = m/sec3
R V RLs
V3 V3
Ls = when V is in m/sec or Ls = when V is in km/h
CR 3.6 3 CR
2. Rate of attainment of super elevation.
Y2
Y1
Ls
1
Y1 = Wx 2.5%
2
1
Y1 = Wxemax
2
Y1 + Y2
Ls =
Slope
Where
W=Width of carriage way
2.5% is the transverse slope

Example
Speed Max Slope (Longitudinal)

50 0.66%
85 0.50%
100 0.40%
140 0.36%
For a two lane single carriage with lane width of 5.65m, cross fall on tangent of 2.5 percent
and super elevation on circular curve of 6 percent, determine Ls an R, V=85km/h and C=
0.45m/s3.
Solution
1 2 x5.65x0.025
Y1 = Wx 2.5% = = 0.14125
2 2
1 2 x5.65x0.06
Y2 = Wx6% = = 0.339
2 2
Y1 + Y2 0.14125 + 0.339 0.48025x1000
Ls = = = = 96.05m
Slope 0. 5 % 5
V3 V3 853
Ls = hence R = = = 304.54m
3.6 3 CR 3.6 3 CL s 3.6 3 (0.45)96.05
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical curves are provided whenever there is change in gradient. The curves contribute to
safety, visibility and comfort. There are two types of vertical curves, namely
- Crest or summit vertical curves
- Sag vertical curves.
Controlled by vehicle performance, safety (sight distance), and drainage
Vehicle performance - Related to the size and power of the vehicle. The usual is for a truck
with Weight/HP = 300 or metric equivalent. Performance curves are in the AASHTO Design
Guide or Fig 3.5. Maximum grades are developed from these curves and requirement that
reduction in speed is less than 10 mph. To determine the maximum grade for a given road
consult the Design Guide. Typical values for several different conditions are given in Table

16.4 p 690. As a matter of operational considerations, it is better to have steep grades at the
bottom of long compound grades
Safety consideration – Safety is based on the ability of the driver to see over a crest vertical
curve or lighted region on a sag vertical curve.
Vertical curve calculation requires that vertical curve characteristics be known based on the
following development.

Using boundary conditions
G1 and G2 are the grades entering and leaving the VC
The high point or low point on the VC can be calculated from the
equation
In order to precede it is necessary to determine the stopping distance. This is

calculated in the following manner
Summing forces parallel to the plane of the vehicle

S in the equations above is the stopping distance (meters) for level roads and f
= 3.4/9.81=0.34.
The English version of the equations is
V2
S = 1.47Vt +
30 f
and
11.2
f =
32.2
If there is a grade to consider use the equation with the grade term G or use a
software calculator for stopping sight distance available at link Calculator for
Stopping Sight Distance

The following Table gives the stopping distance for level wet pavements.
Speed, Km/hr Stop Dist, m Speed, Mph Stop Dist, ft

20 20 20 115
30 35 30 200
40 50 40 305
50 65 50 425
60 85 55 495
70 105 60 570
80 130 65 645
90 160 70 730
100 185 75 820
English values for stopping distance without grade are given in Table 16.5.
Another method of calculating braking distance is to consider aerodynamic

resistance, braking efficiency and rolling resistance as presented in Principles
of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis by Mannering and Kilareski.
The distance calculated using this technique is shorter than using the constants
deceleration technique by about 5 – 10 %. The significant equation is
 bW  K aV 2 
SD = ln 1 + 
2 gK a   b W + f rW + W sin  
gb = 1.04 for cars
hb = braking efficiency = 1
m = road adhesion = 0.5 to 0.8
fr = rolling resistance = 0.2
W = weight lbs
V = speed fps
Ka = air resistance = r/2CdAf

R = density of air = 0.0024 slugs/ft3
Cd = 0.25
Af = frontal area ft2o
Sin(f) = slope of road in percent
1. CREST VERTICAL CURVES
GL L
a E= for X  and G=p-q
800 2
E At the location of crest or sag

p% q%
Lp Lp
y ₵ x= =
p−q G
BVC x EVC
Lp 2 Lp 2
y= =
L 200( p − q ) 200G

The forms generally adopted for vertical curves are a circle or a simple parabola. The latter is
however preferred and adopted in profile alignment design because of ease at which can be
set out as well as enabling the comfortable transition from one grade to another.
The above equations have been derived from parabolic curves.
d2y
The rate of change of slope in a simple parabola is constant i.e =k
d 2x
dy
= kx + c1
dx
But
dy
= p at x=0
dx
dy
And = q at x=L
dx
dy
= p = c1
dx
dy
= q = Lk + c1 = kL + p
dx
q = kL + p
q− p
=k
L
Then
dy  q − p 
= x + p
dx  L 
q− p x
2
y=  + px + c2
 L  2
At X=0, y=0, hence c2=0
q− p x
2
Therefore y=  + px
 L  2

LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVES
The length of vertical curve may be determined on the bases of

1. Safety considerations - sight distance e.g SSD
2. Driver comfort consideration depending on the rate of change of radial acceleration
3. Aesthetic appearance.
4. Drainage requirement i.e systems should be designed such that effective drainage system is
provided.
A. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
The decision on whether to provide condition for L > S or L < S depends on the slope of
the two straight gradients as well as the driver’s eye height, h1, and object height, h2, (where
S = SSD)
Generally, if
( p − q )S >h1, then design for
800
L > S where S depends on design speed.
If L>S
GS 2
Lmin =
(
200 h1 + h2 )2
Where G is in percentage
h1 =1.05 m
h2 = 0.26m
If L<S i.e
( p − q )S <h1, then design for
800
Lmin = 2 S −
200
G
( h1 + h2 )
2
B. COMFORT CONSIDERATIONS
A driver or a passager experiences an apparent loss in weight as he climbs over a sharp

vertical crest curve due to rapid change in radial acceleration

V2 100L
Radial acceleration, C= where Rv=
Rv G
Rv=Equivalent Radius of the vertical curves
V 2G V 2G
Substituting this value in C, C= for V in m/s or C= for V in km/h
100L 1300L
Therefore, given values of C, G and V, L may be calculated
C. AESTHETIC CONDITIONS
L≥0.5V for V in km/h
D. DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
Slope taken at 50fts on either side of the road from the crest should be greater than 0.5%
>0.5% >0.5%
50fts 50fts
GRADIENTS
Long steep uphill grades have considerable effects on speeds of heavy commercial vehicles.
They reduce their speed causing difficulty in overtaking by small vehicles and subsequently
affect operating conditions along a given road section.
Climbing lanes/Creeper lanes
Where longitudinal gradients are long enough and/or steep enough to cause significant
increases in the speed differences between cars and heavy commercial vehicles, both traffic
safety and road capacity may be adversely affected. Climbing lanes are then introduced at
points where speeds fall by certain levels for a given road class. The lane is terminated when

the gain in speed reaches the original level at point of introduction. Determination should
ensure that no traffic hazard is created i.e passing sight distance should be adequate.
The introduction and termination of a climbing lane should be affected by tapers of length
60m and should not be considered as part of the climbing lane. The width of the climbing
lane shall be equal to that of the adjacent reduced single lane so as to give three traffic lanes
of equal width.
Example
A -3% grade is being joined to a -5% grade by means of a parabolic curve of length 1200m.
Calculate the vertical offset at the point of intersection of the tangent.
-3%
E
-5%
L
x=
2
q− p x
2
X =  + pX
 L  2
pL
E= −y
2
3x600  − 5 − (− 3)  600  3
E= −    + x600 = 3m
100  100x1200  2  100

VERTICAL SAG CURVES
p
q
The widely accepted criteria for determining the minimum length of vertical sag culves
includes
i. Safety criteria – the minimum vertical clearance e.g when passing under a bridge
ii. Comfort criteria/Consideration
iii. Head light sight distance – mainly for safety at night
iv. Drainage control
v. General aesthetics
i. Comfort criteria
This is a faction of vertical radial acceleration where C is given by
V2 RG
C= and L = v
Rv 100
R vV 2
L= for V in km/h
1300C

ii. Vertical clearance

p
q
The absolute minimum stopping sight distance is the factor controlling the criteria
When L > S i.e

( p − q )S >h1, then
800
GS 2
Lmin =
 h + h2 
800  − 1 
 2 
Where  =Vertical clearance to edge of structure of obstruction eg bridge, underpass
h1 =1.05 m (driver’s eye height)
h2 = 0.26m (object height)
When L < S i.e

( p − q )S <h1, then
800
 h − h2 
800 D − 1 
Lmin = 2S −  2 
G
For the two cases, the obstruction falls directly above the intersection point. However so long
as they do not differ by more than 60m, the equations are assumed valid.

Example
P=-3%
q=+4%
  =4.5m
p
q S=160m (Absolute Min SSD for VD=85)
=
S=215m (Desirable Min SSD for VD=85)
G
Determine the length of the sag curve for the absolute and desirable cases
Solution
Absolute case
When L > S i.e

( p − q )S >h1, then
800
GS 2
Lmin =
 h + h2 
800  − 1 
 2 
(− 3 − +4)160 = 1.4 >1.05 Then Lmin =

GS 2
=
(− 3 − 4)1602
= 58.24m
800  h1 + h2   1.05 + 0.26 
800  −  800 4.5 − 
 2   2 
Desirable case
Lmin =
GS 2
=
(− 3 − 4)2152
= 105.19m
 h1 + h2   1.05 + 0.26 
800  −  800 4.5 − 
 2   2 

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ECV401 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I CIVIL ENG

ECV401: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 1

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 2

PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN

INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

FACTORS CONTROLLING DESIGN:

1. Topography and land use.

- Preservation of areas of some particular value e.g. national parks, common

- Preservation of soil erosion.

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 3

- Reduction of environmental pollution in terms of noise and air pollution.

3. Road safety consideration.

- Reduction of severity of accidents.

5. Traffic considerations, in terms of

- Composition of the traffic

- Capacity and level of service.

- Selection of design speed may be influenced by a number of factors:

a) Functions of the road.

Flat 100-120 90-100 80

Rolling 90-100 60-90 50-80

Mountainous 50-70 40-60 20-50

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 4

Roads can be classified according to:

- Structural classification; murram, earth, asphalt material.

There are 5 classes according to the major functions in road network.

Class A. International trunk roads.

Class B. National trunk roads

Class C. Primary roads

Class D. Secondary roads

Class E. Minor roads

i. Minimum turning radius.

a) Passenger vehicles cars.

a) Basic road system

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 6

Geometric design elements are

Types of sight distance

• Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 7

The computation of sight distance depends on:

• Reaction time of the driver

• Speed of the vehicle

• Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

• Gradient of the road.

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 8

reaction time and is given by , where is the velocity in . Braking distance is

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 9

where v is the design speed in , is the reaction time in , is the acceleration

Table 1: Coefficient of longitudinal friction

0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

the surface which adds to the the braking force is equal to .

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 10

Overtaking sight distance

Figure 1: Time-space diagram: Illustration of overtaking sight distance

The factors that affect the OSD are:

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 11

• the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction

• the distance travelled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking

• is the distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 12

operation is . Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial

The overtaking sight distance is (Figure 1)

©Eng. Tulatia 2021 Page 13