From quarks and gluons

to exotic hadrons

Gernot Eichmann

Colloquium, Departamento de Física, IST Lisboa

March 30, 2022

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 1 / 35

 QCD binds us together

1 nm
10 nm

10 μm Biology
Chemistry

1m
Atomic
physics
Nuclear
Quantum physics
Chromo-
q
q
Dynamics ˚
1A

q 1 fm 10 fm

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 1 / 35

 Confinement

Quarks & gluons are Only colorless bound states

confined in hadrons, observable:
cannot be observed
in isolation
q
q
3×3=1+8
V (r )
Microscopic origin still
unclear – $1M prize Mesons

r
q
q
3 × 3 × 3 = 1 + 8 + 8 + 10
q

Baryons

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 2 / 35

 The hadron zoo http://pdglive.lbl.gov

Mesons J P (C ) Baryons JP

1+ 1− 3+ 3− 5+ 5− 7+
0 −+ 0 ++ 1−+ 1 −− 1++ 1 +− 2 −+ 2 ++ 3 −− 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

π (140) a0 (980) π1 (1400) ρ(770) a1 (1260) b1 (1235) π2 (1670) a2 (1320) ρ3 (1690) N (939) N (1535) N (1720) N (1520) N (1680) N (1675) N (1990)
π (1300) a0 (1450) π1 (1600) ρ(1450) a1 (1420) π2 (1880) a2 (1700) ρ3 (1990) N (1440) N (1650) N (1900) N (1700) N (1860)
π (1800) a0 (1950) ρ(1570) a1 (1640) N (1710) N (1895) N (1875) N (2000)
ρ(1700) N (1880)
ρ(1900)
∆(1910) ∆(1620) ∆(1232) ∆(1700) ∆(1905) ∆(1930) ∆(1950)
K (494) K0∗ (800) K ∗ (892) K1 (1400) K1 (1270) K2 (1580) K2∗ (1430) K3∗ (1780) ∆(1900) ∆(1600) ∆(1940) ∆(2000)
K (1460) K0∗ (1430) K ∗ (1410) K1 (1650) K2 (1770) K2∗ (1980) ∆(1920)
K (1830) K0∗ (1950) K ∗ (1680) K2 (1820)
Λ(1116) Λ(1405) Λ(1890) Λ(1520) Λ(1820) Λ(1830)
Λ(1600) Λ(1670) Λ(1690)
η (548) f0 (500) ω (782) f1 (1285) h1 (1170) η2 (1645) f2 (1270) ω3 (1670)
f2 (1430) φ3 (1850) Λ(1810) Λ(1800)
η (958) f0 (980) φ(1020) f1 (1420) h1 (1380) η2 (1870)
η (1295) f0 (1370) ω (1420) f1 (1510) h1 (1595) f2 (1525) Σ(1189) Σ(1750) Σ(1385) Σ(1670) Σ(1915) Σ(1775)
η (1405) f0 (1500) ω (1650) f2 (1565) Σ(1660) Σ(1940)
η (1475) f0 (1710) φ(1680) f2 (1640) Σ(1880)
η (1760) f2 (1810)
f2 (1910) Ξ(1315) Ξ(1530) Ξ(1820)
f2 (1950)
Ω(1672)

3×3=1+8 3 × 3 × 3 = 1 + 8 + 8 + 10

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 3 / 35

 The hadron zoo http://pdglive.lbl.gov

Mesons J P (C ) Baryons JP

1+ 1− 3+ 3− 5+ 5− 7+
0 −+ 0 ++ 1−+ 1 −− 1++ 1 +− 2 −+ 2 ++ 3 −− 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

π (140) a0 (980) π1 (1400) ρ(770) a1 (1260) b1 (1235) π2 (1670) a2 (1320) ρ3 (1690) N (939) N (1535) N (1720) N (1520) N (1680) N (1675) N (1990)
π (1300) a0 (1450) π1 (1600) ρ(1450) a1 (1420) π2 (1880) a2 (1700) ρ3 (1990) N (1440) N (1650) N (1900) N (1700) N (1860)
π (1800) a0 (1950) ρ(1570) a1 (1640) N (1710) N (1895) N (1875) N (2000)
ρ(1700) N (1880)
ρ(1900)
∆(1910) ∆(1620) ∆(1232) ∆(1700) ∆(1905) ∆(1930) ∆(1950)
K (494) K0∗ (800) K ∗ (892) K1 (1400) K1 (1270) K2 (1580) K2∗ (1430) K3∗ (1780) ∆(1900) ∆(1600) ∆(1940) ∆(2000)
K (1460) K0∗ (1430) K ∗ (1410) K1 (1650) K2 (1770) K2∗ (1980) ∆(1920)
K (1830) K0∗ (1950) K ∗ (1680) K2 (1820)
Λ(1116) Λ(1405) Λ(1890) Λ(1520) Λ(1820) Λ(1830)
Λ(1600) Λ(1670) Λ(1690)
η (548) f0 (500) ω (782) f1 (1285) h1 (1170) η2 (1645) f2 (1270) ω3 (1670)
f2 (1430) φ3 (1850) Λ(1810) Λ(1800)
η (958) f0 (980) φ(1020) f1 (1420) h1 (1380) η2 (1870)
η (1295) f0 (1370) ω (1420) f1 (1510) h1 (1595) f2 (1525) Σ(1189) Σ(1750) Σ(1385) Σ(1670) Σ(1915) Σ(1775)
η (1405) f0 (1500) ω (1650) f2 (1565) Σ(1660) Σ(1940)
η (1475) f0 (1710) φ(1680) f2 (1640) Σ(1880)
η (1760) f2 (1810)
f2 (1910) Ξ(1315) Ξ(1530) Ξ(1820)
f2 (1950)
Ω(1672)

𝜋
q

𝛥 q
Most hadrons are resonances u
u

and decay into other hadrons d

u
𝑁
u
d

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 3 / 35

 And it doesn’t stop there ...

Familiar states Exotic states

q q
q g g q q
q
q q g q q q

Mesons Baryons
Glueballs? Hybrid mesons?
6ƀɥʭȾȳɭ ʢȅɺȀ †ȅƾƾdžȳ 7Ȁƀɥȱ
Tetraquarks?
ÄƀɥɥȾʢ ɭɺɥʊƷɺʊɥdžɭ ӯýāµѝўўӷўќѝѥӸўўўќќѝӰ
0
Σ +c D Σ +c D * 0
vȅȳdž ƶȅȳȳȅȳǹ ɥdžʡdžƀȟɭ

Weighted candidates/(2 MeV)

q
q
Ädžʢ ȳƀɥɥȾʢ ɭɺɥʊƷɺʊɥdž ƀɺ 1200
ȱ = 4312 ÀdžŖ q data LHCb
q ɭɢȟȅɺ ȅȳɺȾ total fit
ýdžƀȜ ƀɺ 4450 ÀdžŖ 1000
background
q
ɺʢȾ ɢdžƀȜɭ
800
ȅȳʡdžɭɺȅǹƀɺdžƾ ȅȳ J/ψp ɢɥȾȗdžƷɺȅȾȳ
ƀȟȾȳdž ӷȳȾ ƀȳǹʊȟƀɥ ƀȳƀȟʭɭȅɭӸ
∗
Pentaquarks? 600
ādž˖džƷɺȅȾȳɭ ǶɥȾȱ Λ ȾƷƷʊɥ ȱƀȅȳȟʭ ƀɺ +Qb θý > 0
Ʒ
ӷýƷ ȀdžȟȅƷȅɺʭ ƀȳǹȟdžӸӥ ādžʢdžȅǹȀɺȅȳǹ ƾƀɺƀ ȅȳ ɺȀȅɭ
ʡƀɥȅƀƶȟdž ɥdžƾʊƷdžɭ ɺȀȅɭ ƶƀƷȜǹɥȾʊȳƾӥ >ȅˋdžɥdžȳƷdž ɺȾ 400 + +
+
P c (4440) P c (4457)
ʊȳʢdžȅǹȀɺdžƾ ɥdžɭʊȟɺɭ ȅɭ ɺƀȜdžȳ ƀɭ ƀ ɭʭɭɺdžȱƀɺȅƷӥ P c (4312)
200
ŗȅɺȀȾʊɺ
To understand QCD, we must ƀȱɢȟȅɺʊƾdž ƀȳƀȟʭɭȅɭ ƶɥȾƀƾ
understand
ýƷ (4380) Ʒƀȳ ȳdžȅɺȀdžɥ ƶdž ƷȾȳ˔ɥȱdžƾ
spectrum and interactionsȳȾɥ
of džʬƷȟʊƾdžƾ
hadrons! 0
4200 4250 4300 4350 4400 4450 4500 4550 4600
m J / ψp [MeV]

ĉdžƶƀɭɺȅƀȳ Ädžʊƶdžɥɺ ӷĦȳȅ †džȅƾdžȟƶdžɥǹӸ †džƀʡʭ vȟƀʡȾɥ 6ƀɥʭȾȳɭ ƀɺ µ†7ƶ

Aaij et al., +Qb
Phys. Ʒ
ʢdžȅǹȀɺdžƾ
θýRev. ÄĉĘ
āўќѝѥӟ 6Ⱦȳȳ
Lett. ўѡ ӫ џќ
112 (2019) 222001

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 4 / 35

 Mass generation

Three current quarks

do not make a proton: u
u
2mu + md ~ 10 MeV << 1 GeV ? d

Higgs: Current-quark masses

QCD: Mass generation from

spontaneous breaking of
chiral symmetry:
QCD!
“constituent-quark masses”

u d s c b t

3 5 100 1000 4000 175000

350 350 350 350 350 350
Higgs
[MeV]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 5 / 35

 Experiments

How can we probe quarks and gluons experimentally

if we can never set them free?

pp, pA, AA → X, . . .
Heavy-quark spectroscopy
p LHC,
RHIC,
p FAIR/GSI,
...

QCD phase diagram

https://lhcb-public.web.cern.ch
GSI Darmstadt

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 6 / 35

 Experiments

Use electromagnetic probes and pions:

e+ BES III, Jefferson Lab

Belle, MAMI
e− BaBar, ELSA
... FAIR/GSI
e + e− → X eN scattering meson Compton
electro- scattering
COMPASS/AMBER
production EIC
...

Quark-gluon structure,
hadron “tomography” Extraction of resonances
Brookhaven National Laboratory

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 7 / 35

 QCD Lagrangian

1 a
L = ψ̄ ( ∂/ + i g A
/ + m) ψ + 4 Fµν F aµν

g2
g g

( )
g2 0.5
α= 4π
0.4
At large momenta, quarks & gluons
behave as quasi-free particles:
0.3 asymptotic freedom

At small momenta, 0.2

coupling becomes
large → we need
nonperturbative 0.1

methods! 1 10 100 Gross, Politzer, Wilczek 1973

𝑄 [𝐺𝑒𝑉]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 8 / 35

 QCD Lagrangian

1 a
L = ψ̄ ( ∂/ + i g A
/ + m) ψ + 4 Fµν F aµν

g2
g g

these guys
( ) mean trouble
2 0.5
g
α= 4π
0.4
At large momenta, quarks & gluons
behave as quasi-free particles:
0.3 asymptotic freedom

At small momenta, 0.2

coupling becomes
large → we need
nonperturbative 0.1

methods! 1 10 100 Gross, Politzer, Wilczek 1973

𝑄 [𝐺𝑒𝑉]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 8 / 35

 QCD Lagrangian

1 a
L = ψ̄ ( ∂/ + i g A
/ + m) ψ + 4 Fµν F aµν

g2
g g

these guys
( ) mean trouble
2 0.5
g
α= 4π
0.4
At large momenta, quarks & gluons
behave as quasi-free particles:
0.3 asymptotic freedom

At small momenta, 0.2

coupling becomes
large → we need
nonperturbative 0.1

methods! 1 10 100 Gross, Politzer, Wilczek 1973

𝑄 [𝐺𝑒𝑉]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 8 / 35

 Perturbative vs. nonperturbative

Interaction between two electrons:

𝑒⁻ 𝑒⁻

= + + + + +
𝑒⁻ 𝑒⁻
𝑂(𝛼) 𝑂(𝛼�)
“Quantum Perturbative QFT:
mechanics” Feynman diagrams & loops

4
Analogy: geometric series
2

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥� + 𝑥� + . . . |𝑥| � 1
-4 -2 2 4
𝑥
𝑥
→
1−𝑥 -2

J. S. Schwinger S. Tomonaga R. P. Feynman F. J. Dyson

-4

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 9 / 35

 Perturbative vs. nonperturbative

Interaction between quark and antiquark?

𝑞 𝑞

= + + + + +
𝑞 𝑞
𝑂(𝛼) 𝑂(𝛼�)

Answer still correct at large momenta:

high-energy scattering experiments
( )
0.5

0.4
𝛼(𝑄) What about low momenta, confinement,
0.3 mass generation, hadron physics?
0.2
→ need nonperturbative methods!
PDF
0.1

1 10 100

𝑄 [𝐺𝑒𝑉]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 9 / 35

 Emergent phenomena

Hadron physics: Biology:

NH
+ + + + +
CO

Perturbation
theory

Protein

Hadron

Tim Vickers, Public Domain

q
q

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 10 / 35

 Many open questions!

Understanding exotic hadrons: Mass generation and confinement?

Hadron spectroscopy at LHC, Belle II,
BES III, PANDA, JLab, ELSA, ... Higgs QCD

q
g q
g q q q
g q
q q q
q
q
Quark-gluon structure of hadrons and nuclei:
EIC, JLab, COMPASS/AMBER, ...
Glueballs Hybrid Pentaquarks
Tetraquarks

Brookhaven National Laboratory

mesons

QCD contributions to BSM searches,

e.g. muon g-2 at Fermilab
The phases of QCD: LHC, RHIC, CBM, ...
Abi et al., PRL 126 (2021)

GSI Darmstadt
Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 11 / 35
 Career path

U Graz
2008
Argonne National Laboratory 42 peer-reviewed publications, Organization of 3-week INT program
28 conference proceedings (Seattle), ECT* Doctoral Program
PhD, U Graz
TU Darmstadt 3 reviews, 1 theory white paper LIP Spokesperson for HFHF
FWF Erwin Schroedinger Grant 3000+ citations on INSPIRE, (Helmholtz Forschungsakademie
2011 Hessen for FAIR)
U Giessen h-index: 27
8 plenary talks, 50+ invited Since 2011: Co-supervision of
U Graz 3 PhD & 3 master students
talks, 50+ contributed talks
Since 2020: NPStrong @ LIP,
2014 U Giessen
2 PhD & 3 master students

2017
FCT Investigator Grant
Invited Professor
IST Lisbon

2020 LIP Lisbon Raúl Torres Eduardo Ferreira André Torcato Madalena Lourenço
(NPStrong) (PhD student) (PhD student) (master student) (master student)

CERN & PT Collaboration Fund

Habilitation (Agregação)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 12 / 35

 Theory tools

Functional methods
(DSEs & BSEs, FRG, ...)

Amplitude analyses
Lattice QCD

Phenomenological Effective theories

models (ChPT, ...)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 13 / 35

 Functional methods

Classical Lagrangian of QCD:

1 a
L = ψ̄ ( i ∂/ + g A
/ –M ) ψ – 4 Fµν F aµν
g2
g g

Quantum
field theory

Correlation functions in QCD: Can be calculated ...

in perturbation theory
Two-point functions Three-point functions in lattice QCD
...
...
quark gluon with functional methods:
propagator propagator quark- three-
gluon gluon DSEs (Dyson-Schwinger equations),
vertex vertex FRG (functional renormalization group)

Higher n-point functions -1 -1

Quark
= + DSE
...
-1 -1
= + +
four- quark quark Gluon
gluon 4-point 6-point
vertex function function
DSE
+ + + ...
...

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 14 / 35

 Dynamical mass generation

DSE generates every diagram in perturbation theory:

-1 -1 –
=
O (g 2 ) O (g 4 )
 -1 -1
S (p)−1 = A(p2 ) ip/ + M (p2 ) = + + + ...

“constituent-
quark mass” Massless quarks:
1
10

µ
10
0 ~p
/ ~γ ...

350 MeV
Every perturbative diagram
10
-1
contains odd # gamma matrices

-2
M (p2 ) ∼ Tr S (p)−1 ⇒ mass function always zero!
10 Quark mass
function [GeV]:
3 MeV current-
quark
Bottom
-3
Charm
mass
10
Strange Dynamical mass generation
Up/down
Chiral limit is nonperturbative effect,
-4
10 spontaneously breaks chiral symmetry
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
𝑝� [𝐺𝑒𝑉�]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 15 / 35

 Dynamical mass generation
M (T ) Analogue:
magnetization
vs. temperature
DSE generates every diagram in perturbation theory:
-1 -1 –
=
O (g 2 ) O (g 4 )
T
 -1 -1
S (p)−1 = A(p2 ) ip/ + M (p2 ) = + + + ...

“constituent-
quark mass” Massless quarks:
1
10

µ
10
0 ~p
/ ~γ ...

350 MeV
Every perturbative diagram
10
-1
contains odd # gamma matrices

-2
M (p2 ) ∼ Tr S (p)−1 ⇒ mass function always zero!
10 Quark mass
function [GeV]:
3 MeV current-
quark
Bottom
-3
Charm
mass
10
Strange Dynamical mass generation
Up/down
Chiral limit is nonperturbative effect,
-4
10 spontaneously breaks chiral symmetry
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
𝑝� [𝐺𝑒𝑉�]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 15 / 35

 Hadron physics

Hadron bound-state equations Ingredients: QCD’s n-point functions,

(Bethe-Salpeter & Faddeev eqs) Satisfy quantum eqs. of motion (DSEs)

pn
-1 -1 +
=
p3 =
p2
p1 -1 -1
= + +

“QFT analogue of Schrödinger eq.” + + + ...

...
→ hadron masses & “wave functions”
→ spectroscopy calculations → Dynamical mass generation,
gluon mass gap, confinement, ...

Structure calculations: form factors, PDFs, GPDs, TMDs,

two-photon processes, ...

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 16 / 35

 The resulting nucleon
both setups A and B are
Baryons of Eq. (27), the two state
dent solutions of the Fa
tions produce approxim
the deviation of ∼ 2% is
Three-quark BSE (Faddeev equation) for baryons: sociated with the omissi
Rainbow-ladder
GE, Alkofer, Nicmorus, Krassnigg, PRL 104 (2010) typically only a small nu
are predominantly
𝛼(𝑘 2) s-wa
= + + + The corresponding amp
solution are shown in Fig
3-body kernel:
15
of the amplitudes allow
‫ ࠞܬ‬α + +
2-body kernel: +Leading diagram (3-gluon vertex) 12
tions: 2 ߟ
2.0
fixed in meson sector vanishes by color trace, 9
(𝑘ҍ ))
𝛼ߙ(݇  1.9

Sr11
1.8
higher-order diagrams small (?) ΨMA : 1.7
1.6
2-quark correlations dominant?
6
1.9
[‫]ܸ݁ܩ‬ r
1.8
3  
0
ΨMS : Ar11
1.7 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
݇ ҍ [‫ܸ݁ܩ‬ҍ] r
1.6 ߗ·
1.5
Fig.
Scale set by 3
𝑓�displays
, the an
1.4
shape
through the→first
parameter bands
few Ch
Maris,
S±Tandy, PRCcontribute
which 60 (1999) to
1.3
5 11
Analogous results for many form factors variable z2 is small com
߂ 1.2
Review: GE, Sanchis-Alepuz, Williams, Alkofer, Fischer, quark-diquark model, w
ONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
1.1
Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 91 (2016) tween the relative and to
1.0
ߔ diquark amplitude is we
ded details
ܰ 0.9 on a fully Poincaré-covariant
Relativistically, nucleon also has p waves! The evolution of MN
on of the nucleon’s
0.8
Faddeev equation. The vs. m2π is plotted in Fig. 4
ߩ
e which is0.7 generated by a gluon ladder- L=0 L=1
findings for MN are qual
minantly described
0.0 0.1
by
0.2
s-0.3and0.4 p-wave
0.5
Dirac 10
A, where the coupling st
݉࡜ҍ [‫ܸ݁ܩ‬ҍ]
e flavor independence of the kernel leads to r
TABLE III: Orthonormal Dirac basis X of Eq. (21) constructed valuefromof fπ , agrees
a partial-wave decomposition.withThe fi
y. The resulting nucleon mass is close to
i j,k

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) r be understood

relation between the X and the basis elements from Eq. (19-20).
ij
in17light
Each row involves 4 covariants; 35 of
eigenvalues of total quark spin s and intrinsic orbital angular momentum l in the nucleon rest frame. The third a
the/superscript
 Diquark correlations

Quark-diquark (two-body) equation

Oettel et al., PRC 58 (1998), GE et al., Ann. Phys. 323 (2008), Cloet et al., FBS 46 (2009), Segovia et al., PRL 115 (2015)

Diquark clustering in baryons?

Barabanov et al., Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 116 (2021)

q q q q
q
q

Three-quark and quark-diquark results very similar

GE, Fischer, Sanchis-Alepuz, PRD 94 (2016)

1+ 1− 3+ 3− 3+ 3− 1+ 1−
M [GeV] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2.0
∆(1940)
N(1895) N(1900) N(1875) ∆(1920)
N(1880) ∆(1910) ∆(1900)
1.8

N(1710) N(1650) N(1720) N(1700) ∆(1700)

1.6 ∆(1620)
N(1535) N(1520) ∆(1600)
1.4 qqq
N(1440)
q-dq
1.2 ∆(1232) PDG **
PDG ***
1.0 PDG ****
N(940)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 18 / 35

 Towards ab-initio

Going beyond rainbow-ladder means Lots of activity with DSEs, FRG, lattice QCD
calculating higher n-point functions ...
Williams, Fischer, Heupel, PRD 93 (2016),
Cyrol, Mitter, Pawlowski, Strodthoff, PRD 97 (2018),
Oliveira, Silva, Skullerud, Sternbeck, PRD 99 (2019),
𝛤 = 𝐾 𝛤
Huber, PRD 101 (2020),
Aguilar et al., EPJ C 80 (2020),
Qin, Roberts, Chin. Phys. Lett. 38 (2021)
GE, Pawlowski, Silva, PRD 104 (2021)
...
...

Beyond rainbow-ladder calculations Glueball spectrum agrees with lattice QCD

improve light-meson spectrum Huber, Fischer, Sanchis-Alepuz, EPJ C 80 (2020), EPJ C 81 (2021)
Williams, Fischer, Heupel, PRD 93 (2016)

݉ [‫]ܸ݁ܩ‬ ߨҞ(1600)

ߩ(1450) ܽҝ(1450)
ߨ(1300) ܾҞ(1235) ܽҞ(1260)
1.5 ߨҞ(1400)

1.0
ߩ

PDG
0.5
3PI-3L lattice (Morningstar, Peardon 1999)
2PI-3L BSE
ߨ lattice (Athenodorou, Teper 2020)
RL
0.0
0−+ 1−− 0++ 1+− 1++ 0−− 0+− 1−+

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 19 / 35

 Gluon mass gap
Gluon propagator: transverse longitudinal
dressing dressing = 1

  L (Q2 ) QµQν
Z (Q2 ) Qµ Qν
Dµν (Q) = δ µν − +ξ
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2

Family of “decoupling” solutions,

Perturbation theory: Nonperturbative
also seen in lattice QCD
Massless pole in calculations: Cucchieri, Maas, Mendes, PRD 77 (2008)
gluon propagator Massless pole disappears! Boucaud et al., JHEP 06 (2008)
Bogolubsky et al., PLB 676 (2009)
Fischer, Maas, Pawlowski, Ann. Phys. 324 (2009)
Duarte, Oliveira, Silva, PRD 94 (2016)
Z (Q2 ) 1 Z (Q2 ) does not
Q2
∝ Q2 Q2
diverge at Aguilar et al., EPJ C 80 (2020)
Q2 = 0
? Endpoint is “scaling” solution,
confinement manifest
Lerche, Smekal, PRD 65 (2002)
Fischer, Alkofer, PLB 536 (2002)
Alkofer, Fischer, Llanes-Estrada, MPLA 23 (2008)
0 Q 2
real pole? Q 2

complex poles? All solutions show gluon mass gap

branch cuts?

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 20 / 35

 Gluon mass gap
Gluon propagator: transverse longitudinal
dressing dressing = 1

  L (Q2 ) QµQν
Z (Q2 ) Qµ Qν
Dµν (Q) = δ µν − +ξ
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2

α α

Coupled Yang-Mills DSEs Ϋ1

α
Ϋ1
+
GE, Pawlowski, Silva, PRD 104 (2021)
Ϋ1 Ϋ1
α + + + + +

α + + + + +

Gauge consistency (L = 1) singles out scaling solution:

simple explanation of confinement
→ Test confinement
Consistency of decoupling solutions? Possible; in hadron observables!
then all QCD-like solutions would be physically equivalent

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 20 / 35

essing functions associated with τ3 and τ4 con-
to the onshell anomalous magnetic moment,
Muon g-2
[48] and Eq. (96) below, and τ7 constitutes the
rse part of the Curtis-Pennington vertex [56].
ly, to obtain a connection with the nucleon’s on-
rrent, we investigate the limit where the incoming
tgoing fermion lines are taken on  the mass shell,  aµ [10 −10 ]
𝑄 σ µν Qν
= −m2 or ū(ψp( )x1 F
χ(x1 , x2 ) = ie
0| T x22) )|H
1 (Q
) ψ̄ γ µ – F2 (Q 2 ) 2m u(p)
2 2
k = −m − Q /4 , 2
k · Q = 0. (92) Exp: 11 659 206.1 (4.1)
α
shell vertex
𝑝’ 𝑝 F2 (0) = aµ = 2QED π
+ O(α2QED ) QED: 11 658 471.9 (0.0)

 EW: 15.4 (0.1)

�
f
J µ (k, Q) = Λ+ Γµ (k, Q) Λi+  (93)
Eq. (92) Hadronic:
wiched between Dirac spinors that are eigenvec- 0.001161... VP (LO+HO) 684.5 (4.0)
Schwinger 1948 LBL 9.2 (1.8)
the positive-energy projectors
Λf+ = Λ+ (k+ ), 1+p/̂ SM: 11 659 181.0 (4.3)
Λ+ (p) = . (94)
QCD
Λi+ = Λ + (k−contributions
), dominate
2 theory uncertainty: Diff: 25.1 (5.9)

ue of the projectors, only two of the basis elements

(89) remain independent,Hadronic
and the vertex can be Hadronic
in the standard form vacuum light-by-light
 
polarization scattering
iF2 µ
(k, Q) = iΛf+ F1 γ µ + / Λi+ ,
[γ , Q] (95)
4m
F1 , F2 are Need to pin down
dimensionless as precisely
functions of Q2 as possible:
only. Via
) they consist of Ball-Chiu
- Dispersion parts
theory: dataand transverse
driven
nents which are related
- Lattice QCD: toab-initio
the functions ΣA , ∆A ,
d fj in the onshell limit:
- Functional
  methods: in principle  ab-initio,

) = A(−m2 )but+ 2m B (−m2 ) −
no systematic (−m2 )yet for g-2
mAcontrol
error Muon g-2 Theory Initiative White Paper:
   Aoyama et al., Phys. Rept. 887 (2020)
f4 − mf8 
+ Q2 f1 − m (f5 + mf6 ) −  ,
2 
Eq. (92) FNAL Run-1: Abi et al., PRL 126, 141801 (2021)
Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 21 / 35
 Muon g-2

Systematic treatment of HLbL in dispersive approach

Colangelo, Hoferichter, Procura, Stoffer, JHEP 09 (2015), PRL 118 (2017), JHEP 04 (2017)

= � = + + ...

pseudoscalar
poles 𝜋, 𝐾 loops

𝜋⁰→𝛾𝛾 transition form factor Pion electromagnetic FF Kaon electromagnetic FF

GE, Fischer, Weil, Williams, PLB 799 (2019) GE, Fischer, Weil, Williams, PLB 799 (2019) GE, Fischer, Williams, PRD 101 (2020) → WP20








 10 1.1 1.0
BELLE
|‫ܳ(࡜ܨ‬ҍ)| KLOE
NA7 0.8






 DESY 1.0
JLab Fߨ-1


 

JLab Fߨ-2
0.6
1
0.9





‫ܳ(ޕܨ‬ҍ) 0.4




 !


"# 0.8 This work


0.2
$ %
& % DSE Amendolia et al.
'#(
) 0.1 DSE (BC only) Dally et al.
'#(
)






 0.7 0.0

















































 -1 0 1 2 3 4 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0
 

   Q2 [GeV2]
ܳҍ [‫ܸ݁ܩ‬ҍ]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 22 / 35

essing functions associated with τ3 and τ4 con-
to the onshell anomalous magnetic moment,
Muon g-2
[48] and Eq. (96) below, and τ7 constitutes the
rse part of the Curtis-Pennington vertex [56].
ly, to obtain a connection with the nucleon’s on-
rrent, we investigate the limit where the incoming
tgoing fermion lines are taken on the mass shell,
= −m2 or Hadronic Hadronic
vacuum light-by-light
k 2 = −m2 − Q2 /4polarization
, k · Q = 0. (92) scattering
shell vertex

BNL+FNAL

J µ (k, Q)
LM20
= Λf+ Γµ (k, Q) Λi+  (93)
Eq. (92)
BMW20
Glasgow consensus (09)
wiched between
ETM18/19 Dirac spinors that are eigenvec- Hadronic
Mainz/CLS19
the positive-energy
FHM19
PACS19
projectors � Lattice N/JN09
J17
� models
+ pQCD

Λf+ = Λ (k ),
RBC/UKQCD18
+ +
BMW17 1+p/̂ Mainz21 (+ charm-loop) not used
Λ+ (p) = . (94) in WP20
� Lattice
Fermilab uncertainty goal

RBC/UKQCD
Λi+ = Λ + (k− ),
data/lattice 2 RBC/UKQCD19
BDJ19 (+ charm-loop)
not used
ue of the projectors, only two of the basis elements
J17 Data
(89) remain independent, and the vertex can be
� in WP20 Data
driven
WP20 data-driven
dispersive
�

driven
DHMZ19
in the standard
KNT19 form WP20
WP20 
f iF2
(k, Q) = iΛ-60 + F1-40γ µ + -20 [γ µ , Q]
/ 0 Λi+ , 20 (95) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
4m
SM exp 10 HLbL 10
(aµ -aµ ) x 10 aµ x 10
F1 , F2 are dimensionless functions of Q2 only. Via
) they consist of Ball-Chiu
Tension betweenparts and& transverse
lattice dispersion theory Lattice & data-driven approaches agree,
nents which are related to the functions ΣA , ∆A ,
Very sensitive
d fj in the onshell limit: HLbL may not explain discrepancy
Goecke, Fischer, Williams,
to low Q 2  WP20: Aoyama et al., Phys. Rept. 887 (2020),
) = A(−m2 ) + 2m B  (−m2 ) − mA (−m2PLB ) 704 (2011) Colangelo et al., Snowmass 2021
  
f4 − mf8 
+ Q2 f1 − m (f5 + mf6 ) −  ,
2 
Eq. (92)
Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 23 / 35
 Exotic mesons

M [GeV]
ψ (4660)
4.5 Zc (4430) D∗ D̄2∗
ψ (4415) D∗ D̄1
ψ (4360) DD̄1
ψ (4260) χc1 (4274)
ψ (4160) χc1 (4140)
ψ (4040) X (4020)
4.0 X (3915)
D∗ D̄∗
χc2 (3930)
Zc (3900) χc0 (3860) χc1 (3872) DD̄∗
ψ (3770) DD̄
ηc ψ
hc χ c1 χ c2
3.5
χ c0

Conventional
J/ψ Exotic
3.0 ηc

0·Ά 1·· 1Ά· 0ΆΆ 1ΆΆ 2ΆΆ ?

Reviews:
Several tetraquark candidates in charmonium spectrum:
Chen et al., Phys. Rept. 639 (2016)
X(3872), X(3915), Zc(3900), .... Lebed et al., PPNP 93 (2017)
Esposito et al., Phys. Rept 668 (2017)
Guo et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 90 (2018)
Z states cannot be cc since they carry charge Ali et al., PPNP 97 (2017)
Olsen et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 90 (2019)
Oldest tetraquark candidates: light scalar mesons Liu et al., PPNP 107 (2019), 1903.11976
Brambilla et al., Phys. Rept. 873 (2020)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 24 / 35

 Light exotic mesons

Light meson Ideal 𝜙 Non-relativistic L·S

2++
level
S=1
spectrum mixing: L = 1, P = +
1++

(PDG 2020)
K ordering S·S 0++
1 +−
S=0
𝑚� � 𝑚�
𝜌 𝜔 � 120 MeV S=1
1−−
L = 0, P = −
S·S
0−+
M [GeV] S=0

Glueball?
2.0
𝑓�(1710)
𝜋�(1600)
1.5
𝜋�(1400)

𝜙 𝑎� 𝑓�
𝜂’ Hybrids?
1.0 𝐾*
𝜌𝜔
𝜅
𝜂 𝜎
𝐾
0.5
Four-quark
states?
𝜋

0.0
0⁻⁺ 1⁻⁻ 1⁺⁻ 0⁺⁺ 1⁺⁺ 2⁺⁺ 2⁻⁺ 3⁻⁻ 1⁻⁺
ps v av sc av t pt

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 25 / 35

 Light exotic mesons

Light meson
spectrum
(PDG 2020)
What if they were tetraquarks?

M [GeV] q q
Diquark-antidiquark
(12)(34)
2.0 q q

1.5
q q
Meson-meson
𝜂’
𝜙 𝑎� 𝑓�
q
(13)(24)
1.0 𝐾* q
𝜌𝜔
𝜅
𝜂 𝜎
𝐾
0.5
Four-quark q q
states? Meson-meson
𝜋
(14)(23)
0.0 q q
0⁻⁺ 1⁻⁻ 1⁺⁻ 0⁺⁺
ps v av sc

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 25 / 35

 Light exotic mesons

Light meson
spectrum
(PDG 2020)
Diquark-antidiquark?
Explains mass ordering & decay widths
Jaffe 1977, Close, Tornqvist 2002,
Maiani, Polosa, Riquer 2004
M [GeV]
𝑓₀ ( 980 MeV )
𝜅⁰ 𝜅⁺ 𝑎₀ ( 980 MeV ) �
𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑠, ...
2.0
𝜅 ( 800 MeV ) 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑑, ...
𝑎⁰₀ 𝜎 ( 500 MeV ) 𝑢𝑑𝑢𝑑
𝑎⁻₀ 𝑎⁺₀
1.5 𝑓₀
𝜎 𝜋⁻

𝜙 𝑎� 𝑓� 𝜅⁻ 𝜅⁰ 𝜎
𝜂’
1.0 𝐾*
𝜌𝜔 𝜋⁺
𝜅
𝜂 𝜎
Meson molecules?
𝐾 Weinstein, Isgur 1982, 1990; Close, Isgur, Kumano 1993
0.5
Four-quark
states?
𝜋 Non-qq nature supported by
0.0 various approaches
0⁻⁺ 1⁻⁻ 1⁺⁻ 0⁺⁺ Pelaez, Phys. Rept. 658 (2016)

ps v av sc

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 25 / 35

 Four-quark states

Light scalar mesons (𝜎, 𝜅, 𝑎₀, 𝑓₀) as four-quark states:

− p4
GE, Fischer, Heupel, PLB 753 (2016) − p3
p2 α Ϊ Ϋ
−q̄p4 p1
−q̄p3
qp2 α Ϊ Ϋ Ϊ perm.
qp1

Ϊ perm.


Γ(p, q, k, P ) = fi ( p2 , q 2 , k 2 , {ωj }, {ηj }) τi (p, q, k, P ) ⊗ Color ⊗ Flavor
i
9 Lorentz invariants: 256 Dirac- 2 Color
Lorentz tensors tensors:
p2 , q2 , k 2 , P 2 = −M 2
3 ⊗ 3 , 6 ⊗ 6 or
ω1 = q · k η1 = p · P
1 ⊗ 1, 8 ⊗ 8
ω2 = p · k η2 = q · P
ω3 = p · q η3 = k · P
(Fierz-equivalent)

dim K memory
Mesons 10³ 20 MB
K ψ i = λi ψi Baryons 10⁸ 10⁷ GB
Tetraquarks 10¹³ 10¹⁸ GB

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 26 / 35

 Four-quark states

Light scalar mesons (𝜎, 𝜅, 𝑎₀, 𝑓₀) as four-quark states:

− p4
GE, Fischer, Heupel, PLB 753 (2016) − p3
p2 α Ϊ Ϋ
−q̄p4 p1
−q̄p3
qp2 α Ϊ Ϋ Ϊ perm.
qp1

Ϊ perm.


Γ(p, q, k, P ) = fi ( p2 , q 2 , k 2 , {ωj }, {ηj }) τi (p, q, k, P ) ⊗ Color ⊗ Flavor
i
9 Lorentz invariants: 256 Dirac- 2 Color
Lorentz tensors tensors:
p2 , q2 , k 2 , P 2 = −M 2
3 ⊗ 3 , 6 ⊗ 6 or
ω1 = q · k η1 = p · P
1 ⊗ 1, 8 ⊗ 8
ω2 = p · k η2 = q · P
ω3 = p · q η3 = k · P
(Fierz-equivalent)

Group momentum variables into multiplets of permutation group S4:

can switch off groups of variables without destroying symmetries
GE, Fischer, Heupel, PRD 92 (2015)

f i ( S0 , , , )

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 26 / 35

 Four-quark states

Light scalar mesons (𝜎, 𝜅, 𝑎₀, 𝑓₀) as four-quark states:

− p4
GE, Fischer, Heupel, PLB 753 (2016)
ߣ ‫]ܸ݁ܩ[ ܯ‬ ‫ܩ[ ܯ‬
− p3
p2 α Ϊ Ϋ
−q̄p4 p1 ‫࡞ܯ‬ u/d
−q̄p3
qp2 α Ϊ Ϋ Ϊ perm. → 1.5 6
qp1
S0 +
Ϊ perm.
S0 + 5
1.0
S0
BSE dynamically generates meson poles in BS amplitude:
S0 + 1.0 ܽҝ/݂ҝ 4
diquark pole
f i ( S0 , , , ) → 1500 MeV 1.002
3
f i ( S0 , , , , ) → 1500 MeV ߢ
Lorem ipsum
1.000
0.9
f i ( S0 , , , ) → 1200 MeV r ∈ [0, 1] 0.5 ߪ 2
0.998
f i ( S0 , , , ) → 350 MeV ! meson meson
pole pole
0.996 1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

“Light scalar mesons” look like meson molecules,

0.8 0.0 0
diquark-antidiquark components almost negligible.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 0.0
‫]ܸ݁ܩ[ ܯ‬
Lightness is inherited from pseudoscalar Goldstone bosons! ݉޵ [‫]ܸ݁ܯ‬
Include mixing with qq: 𝜋𝜋 still dominant
Santowsky, GE, Fischer, Wallbott, Williams, PRD 102 (2020)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 27 / 35

 Four-quark states

Heavy-light four-quark states:

what is their internal decomposition?

meson q
c q molecule c q
q c
c hadro-
charmonium

c c diquark-
q q antidiquark

u/d s c
7 DD∗
DD∗ + ω J/ψ
Four-quark BSE: all mix together, DD∗ + ω J/ψ + Diquark
meson-meson (DD*) dominates Mcqq̄c̄ [GeV] 6

for X(3872), Zc(3900) X(3872)

5

Diquark
Wallbott, GE, Fischer, 4
ω J/ψ
PRD 100 (2019),
DD∗
PRD 102 (2020)
3
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800

m q [MeV] m q [MeV]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 28 / 35

 Pentaquarks?
Ȁ †ȅƾƾdžȳ 7Ȁƀɥȱ

ӯýāµѝўўӷўќѝѥӸўўўќќѝӰ
0
Σ +c D Σ +c D * 0
Meson-baryon equation with hadronic exchanges
Weighted candidates/(2 MeV)

1200 GE, Lourenco, Stadler, Torres, in preparation

data LHCb
total fit
Ⱦ 1000
background
=
800

>0
600
Ʒ
ɭ
ȳƷdž ɺȾ 400 + +
+
P c(4440) P c(4457)
Ʒӥ P c(4312)
200
ƶɥȾƀƾ
ɥȱdžƾ 0
4200 4250 4300 4350 4400 4450 4500 4550 4600
m J / ψp [MeV]

†džƀʡʭ vȟƀʡȾɥ 6ƀɥʭȾȳɭ ƀɺ µ†7ƶ +Qb θetýƷal.,ʢdžȅǹȀɺdžƾ

Aaij PRL 112 (2019)6Ⱦȳȳ
ÄĉĘ
āўќѝѥӟ ўѡ ӫ џќ

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 29 / 35

 Nucleons in nuclei?

Microscopic origins of V(r)

nuclear force? r

long range:
meson exchanges
?
short
distance

Transition from quarks & gluons to light nuclei:

q
q ?
q q n Relativistic structure of deuteron
q p
q
Exotic dibaryons and hypernuclei
Short-range correlations
EMC effect: overlapping nucleons in nuclei?
= = → = = = =
Hen, Miller, Piasetzky, Weinstein, Rev. Mod. Phys. 89 (2017),
Cloet et al., J. Phys. G 46 (2019)

(a) Six quarks

Six quarks (a) Two
(b) baryons
Two baryons (b) Three
Three (c)diquarks?
(c)diquarks?

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 30 / 35

 Neutron stars

Atmosphere: H, He, C

Outer crust: Nuclei, electrons

Inner crust: Heavy nuclei,

electrons, neutrons,
„nuclear pasta“

Outer core: Quantum liquid of

neutrons, protons, electrons
u
u d u
u
Inner core: u u u
d u d
u
d d d d d
d u
u d

Transition region: need to

d
u u u d u u d
d d u d d d d d

back-couple baryons
d

Neutrons? Quarks?
GE, Fischer, Welzbacher, PRD 93 (2016)
d d d
s s s s s s s d s u s d
~12 km
u d −1 −1
s u s u s u s u
s s s s = +
d d d s u s s u
d −1 −1 = + + +
s s s s s s
= +
Hyperons? Meson
condensates?

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 31 / 35

 Towards hadron structure

𝛥 𝑞₂
Novel method to compute
𝑞
𝑃
light-front wave functions
𝑞 𝛹 via contour deformations
𝒢 GE, Ferreira, Stadler, PRD 105 (2022)
𝑞₁
𝑃� 𝑃�

Bethe-Salpeter WF:
Hadron-to-hadron correlator vacuum-to-hadron correlator

φ(α )
1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

Diehl, Phys. Rept. 388 (2003) 0.6

Belitsky, Radyushkin,
0.4 CD + SPM (1ɐ, 2ɐ)
Phys. Rept. 418 (2005) Nakanishi
Lorcé, Pasquini, Vanderhaeghen, 0.2

JHEP 05 (2011) 0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
... α

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 32 / 35

 Flavor physics

QCD often provides dominant uncertainties in searches beyond Standard Model:

Muon g-2
Flavor matrix elements:
The tools are now in place! 𝑙 𝑙⁺

𝜈� 𝑙⁻

𝑊 𝛧, 𝛾

b c b s
B D B K
u u

b 𝑙
𝑊 d b
B B⁰ B⁰
b d
u 𝜈�

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 33 / 35

 Nonperturbative physics beyond QCD?

“QCD is special”: only gauge-invariant hadrons are observable,

not elementary d.o.f. (quarks and gluons)

What if QCD were not special...?

Why can we observe gauge-dependent W, Z bosons & Higgs...?

FMS mechanism: mass of elementary particle ⇔ gauge-inv. mass of bound state
Fröhlich, Morchio, Strocchi, PLB 97 (1980), Maas, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 106 (2019)

Then the observed W, Z, H

h W would be bound states
h h
h ⇒ There must be resonances too
⇒ Is confinement simply gauge invariance?

Do BSM theories require nonperturbative treatment?

Maas, Sondenheimer, Törek, Annals Phys. 402 (2019)

Does quantum gravity renormalize itself nonperturbatively?

Reuter, Saueressig, New J. Phys. 14 (2012), Litim, Sannino, JHEP 12 (2014), . . .

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 34 / 35

 Summary & outlook

Baryons:
GE, Sanchis-Alepuz, Williams, Fischer, Alkofer, PPNP 91 (2016), arXiv:1606.09602

Four-quark states:
GE, Fischer, Heupel, Santowsky, Wallbott, FBS 61 (2020), arXiv:2008.10240

Towards ab-initio calculations:

higher n-point functions, gluon mass generation, resonances

Muon g-2: constrain QCD contributions

Exotic hadrons: glueballs, hybrids, pentaquarks

Hadron structure: PDFs, GPDs, TMDs

Nuclei from quarks and gluons

Thank you!
gernot.eichmann@tecnico.ulisboa.pt

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 35 / 35

 Backup slides

Tetraquark notes
Tetraquar
Gernot Eichmann
Gernot Eic

Defining theDefining
momenta theasmomenta
in your notes, we have
as in your thewe have
notes, and the
therefo
two momentum multiplets multiplets
two momentum
 1  1  
√ (p + q + √ k) (p + q + k)
4 4
  + 1  13 1  13  
SM = piS=M P=, TM pi = P , √T6M+(p=+ q  −√2k)(p+ . q(1)
− 2k) So
 .it (1)
looks l
2 2 6
i=1 i=1 1
√ (q − p) √1 (q − p) the situatio
2 2 region (s <
Apart fromApart
the trivial singlet
from the P 2 , singlet
trivial the resulting
P 2 , thenine happen.
resulting nine (T
Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) Lorentz invariants
Lorentzare
invariants are 1 poles
ing / 10 w
 QCD phase diagram

Search for critical endpoint (CEP) from DSEs & lattice:

Fischer, Prog. Part.

Nucl. Phys. 105 (2019)

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Location of CEP sensitive to baryons?

GE, Fischer, Welzbacher, PRD 93 (2016)

−1 −1
= +
−1 −1
= = + + + + + = + + + (. . .)

π, . . . N, . . .

lattice

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 2 / 10

 Dynamical mass generation

Bethe-Salpeter equation for mesons:

-1 -1 –
=

 = 𝐾
S (p)−1 = A(p2 ) ip/ + M (p2 )

Mass generation for hadrons,

“constituent-quark mass” pion is Goldstone boson
1
10

Meson masses [MeV]

0 1000
10

𝑚�
350 MeV 800
-1
10 770 MeV
Effects are connected: 600
-2 Dynamical breaking
10 Quark mass
3 MeV current- of chiral symmetry
function [GeV]:
quark 400

-3
Bottom
Charm
mass 𝑚�� ~ 𝑚�
10
Strange
Up/down
200 𝑚�
Chiral limit 140 MeV
-4
10
0
10
-2
10
-1
10
0 1
10
2
10
3
10 0 2 4 6 8 10
𝑝� [𝐺𝑒𝑉�] 𝑚� [𝑀𝑒𝑉]

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 3 / 10

 Quantum Field Theory

Hadrons produce poles in QCD’s correlation functions:

G(x1 , . . . xr ) = 0| T φ(x1 ) . . . φ(xn ) φ(y1 ) . . . φ(yr ) |0

Insert completeness relation with

Proof: see e.g. books by
S. Weinberg, The QFT of Fields Vol. 1, 1995 (Sec. 10.2) asymptotic, onshell states |λ:
M. D. Schwartz, QFT and the SM, 2014 (Sec. 24.3)
 
1 d3 p
1= |λλ| p2 = m2λ , Ep2 = p2 + m2λ
(2π)3 2Ep
λ

    
d4 p −ipz i Ψ {xi }, p Ψ† {yj }, p
G(x1 , . . . xr ) = e + finite
(2π)4 p2 − m2λ + i

... ...
... ...
... ... Bethe-Salpeter wave function
𝑝� 𝑚�� ... ...
𝛹 𝛹 encodes information about hadron
𝑥� 𝑦�
x2 y2 
𝑥� 𝑦� Ψ {xi }, p = 0 | T φ(x1 ) . . . φ(xn ) | λ
x1 y1

QFT analogue of wave function in QM

also holds for composite operators (but no probability interpretation)
can insert 1 anywhere (and repeat)
LSZ formula is special case
poles in scattering amplitudes → poles in experimental cross sections

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 4 / 10

 How to extract hadrons?
Hadrons produce poles in Bethe-Salpeter
correlation functions: wave function


Im p2
𝑥� 𝑦� 𝑥� 𝑦� “1-particle “Bound
𝑃� 𝑚�� state” states”
𝑥� 𝐺 𝑦� 𝑥� 𝑦�
𝑥� 𝑦� 𝑥� 𝑦� 
m Re p2

𝑃� 𝑚��

𝑥 𝐺 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 Im p2 N𝜋 threshold

mN 
𝜋 𝜋 Γ/2 Re p2
𝑃� 𝑚��
mR
𝑁 𝑁 Resonances

Can be determined from Bethe-Salpeter equations (BSEs):

𝑃� 𝑚�� Homogeneous BSE:

𝑇 = 𝐾 + 𝐾 𝑇 𝛤 = 𝐾 𝛤 analogue of Schroedinger
equation in QFT

compare pole
T-matrix = connected, 2-body irreducible
residues
amputated part of G kernel

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 5 / 10

 Mass generation

Gluon has T + L component, L = trivial.

Expand self-energy in overcomplete basis:
(D−1 )µν (Q) = (D0−1 )µν (Q) + Π µν (Q)
�1 �1
∆T ( Q2 ) (Q2 δ µν − Qµ Qν ) + ∆ 0 (Q2 ) δ µν + ∆L (Q2 ) Qµ Qν
= + ... contains must contain
quadratic longitudinal
divergences, massless poles
need to be
∆0 subtracted ∆L = −
∆0
Z ( Q 2 ) − 1 = Z A + ∆T + Q2
Q2 Mass generation
 ∆0  must come from here!
L ( Q 2 ) − 1 = 1 + ξ ∆L +
Q2
Two possibilities:
!
=0 Scenario A: ∆L = 0 ⇒ ∆0 must be artifact
Π = ∆ T − ∆L (from hard cutoff and/or truncation)

Π
=
∆0 !
+ ∆L = 0 Scenario B: ∆L = 0 ⇒ Longitudinal α consistency
+
Ϋ1
condition,Ϋ1

Q2 Q2 requires longitudinal massless poles in the vertices (where?),

does not affect transverse equationα
Ϋ1 Ϋ1 +
Ϋ1
+
Ϋ1

α +

Ϋ1 Ϋ1
α + + + + +

ghost-gluon three-gluon four-gluon

+ + vertex? + vertex? vertex?
α + +

α + + + + +
Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 6 / 10
 Gluon mass gap

Gluon Ghost
106 104

105 QCD-like
infrared
103 SC Ghost dressing G ( Q2 ) What distinguishes
SC diverges in IR
104
1/Z (Q2 ) SC + DC?
102
103
DC What is the “true” solution?
102
101
pQCD DC pQCD Are all solutions
101
100 physically equivalent?
100

10-1 10-1
10-4 10 0
10 4
10 8
10-8 10-4 100 104 108
Q2 [a.u.] Q2 [a.u.]

Scaling (SC) solution:

n-point functions scale with IR power laws

Lerche, Smekal, PRD 65 (2002), Fischer, Alkofer, PLB 536 (2002)

Confinement
Alkofer, Fischer, Llanes-Estrada, Mod. Phys. Lett. A 23 (2008)

Decoupling (DC) solution:

Seen in lattice QCD
Cucchieri, Maas, Mendes, PRD 77 (2008), Bogolubsky et al., PLB 676 (2009),
Duarte, Oliveira, Silva, PRD 94 (2016), Aguilar et al., EPJ C 80 (2020)

Functional methods: family of DC solutions with SC solution as endpoint

Boucaud et al., JHEP 06 (2008), Fischer, Maas, Pawlowski, Ann. Phys. 324 (2009), Reinosa et al., PRD 96 (2017)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 7 / 10

 Gluon mass gap
α α
Coupled Yang-Mills DSEs: α 80 80

GE, Pawlowski, Silva, PRD 104 (2021) α α

Depend on coupling α, 60 60
Ϋ1
α
Ϋ1
+ mass parameter β;
c1
Ϋ1
α
Ϋ1
+ + + + +
One combination (𝑐₁) 40 40

distinguishes solutions,
the other (𝑐₀) rescales them
α + + + + + 20 c0 20

Scaling solution: 𝑐₁ → ∞
α +
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.00
√
β
In all truncations studied, only SC solution  
2 L (Q 2 ) Q µ Q ν
is consistent with gauge invariance (L = 1)
µ ν
Z (Q ) Q Q
Dµν (Q) = δ µν − +ξ
Q2 Q2
⇔ longitudinal pole in ghost-gluon vertex Q2 Q2

1.2 1.2
ߣҝ(ܳҍ=0)
ߣҝ(ܳҍ=0) ߣҝ(ܳҍ=0)
ߣҝ(ܳҍ=0) For consistency of DC solutions,
1.0 1.0 lattice
lattice SC 1 1
DC DC
SC ghost
SC SC:
would need longitudinal poles
0.8 0.8 DC ? dominance also in 3-gluon vertex, etc.
0.6 0.6 PT-BFM: Aguilar, Ferreira, Papavassiliou, PRD 105 (2022)
lattice, PT-BFM:
0.4 0.4 massive
massive 3-gluon vertex
0.2 0.2
YM YM dominance Then all massless (SC, DC) solutions
0.0 0.0 0 0 would be physically equivalent;
10-410-4 100 100 104 104 108 108 1012 1012
ߙ0 ߙ0 ߙ ߙ
ߙ ߙ 𝑐₁ distinguished from massive solutions
𝑐₁

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 8 / 10

 Resonances

Most hadrons are resonances and decay Contour deformations as tool

⇔ poles in complex momentum plane to go beyond thresholds
GE, Duarte, Peña, Stadler, PRD 100 (2019)
𝜎
2nd sheet 1st sheet
1.5

Im ξ‫ݐ‬
N(940) Re s 1.0 5 6
4 7
3
N(1440) 8
virtual bound
√ N(1710) state 2 9 state
N(1880)
Im s 0.5
10
1
tachyon
BSE kernel must include decay channels: 11 12 13
𝜌 meson becomes resonance 0.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Williams, PLB 798 (2019), Miramontes, Sanchis-Alepuz, EPJA 55 (2019),
Santowsky, GE, Fischer, Wallbott, PRD 102 (2020),
= Re ξ‫ݐ‬
Miramontes, Sanchis-Alepuz, Alkofer, PRD 103 (2021)
Scattering
= +
equation for 4-point function
𝜋
= + = + + +
𝜋

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 9 / 10

 Four-quark states

Two-body formulation: meson-meson / diquark-antidiquark,

follows from four-quark eq. (analogue of quark-diquark for baryons)
Heupel, GE, Fischer, PLB 718 (2012)

M Interaction by
+ + quark exchange
M

System ‘wants’ to be
dq meson-meson-like
+ (no diagonal dq-dq term)
dq

q
Similar results as in
4-quark approach:
+ 𝑚� ~ 400 MeV, etc.
q

Include mixing with qq:

𝜋𝜋 still dominant

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 10 / 10

 Four-quark states

Two-body formulation: meson-meson / diquark-antidiquark,

follows from four-quark eq. (analogue of quark-diquark for baryons)
Heupel, GE, Fischer, PLB 718 (2012)

M Interaction by
+ + quark exchange
M

System ‘wants’ to be
dq meson-meson-like
+ (no diagonal dq-dq term)
dq

q
Similar results as in
4-body approach:
+ 𝑚� ~ 400 MeV, etc.
q

Include mixing with qq:

𝜋𝜋 still dominant
Santowsky, GE, Fischer, Wallbott,
Williams, PRD 102 (2020)

Gernot Eichmann (LIP & IST Lisboa) 10 / 10