Computer Organization

Lec #2 : Introduction

Bnar Mustafa
bnar.mustafa8@gmail.com

Spring 2022

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 Basic Computer Organization

One side
Two sides

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 System Components
• Memory Subsystem
• CPU/Microprocessor
o Control Unit
− Program Counter (PC)
− Instruction Register (IR)
− Decoder
o Registers
o ALU
• I/O Subsystem, there are two types of I/O organization :
o Isolated I/O
o Memory-mapped I/O
• System Buses
o Address Bus
o Data Bus
o Control Bus
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 Memory
Used to store information within a computer, either programs or
data.
–Programs and data cannot be used directly from a disk or CD,
but must first be moved in memory
•Main Memory & Cache Memory refers as internal memory
because it is place at the main board. Communicates directly with
CPU immediately.

•Secondary & tertiary memory refers as external memory (or

auxiliary memory) because it is not located at the main board.
Usually for back-up purpose.

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 Internal vs. External Memory
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Fast Slow Slow

Directly connected to CPU Not directly connected to Not directly connected to

CPU CPU

Expensive Cheap Cheap

Small volume Large volume Large volume

Eg. Cache/RAM Eg: Disk Eg: Tape

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 Memory Characteristics
• Location
o CPU
o Internal
o External
• Capacity
o Word size
–The natural unit of organization
–Common word size: 8, 16, 32 bits. a word is 2 bytes, a
double-word is 4 bytes and a quad-word is 8 bytes
Number of words or Bytes
• Unit of transfer
• Access method
• Performance
• Physical type
• Physical characteristics
• Organization 6
 Memory Unit of Transfer
•Internal
–The number of bits read-out of or written into memory at a
time.
–Usually governed by data bus width
•External
–Usually a block which is much larger than a word
•Addressable unit
–Smallest location which can be uniquely addressed
–Word internally

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 Memory Access Methods
•Sequential
–Start at the beginning and read through in order
–Access time depends on location of data and previous
location
In this method, the memory is accessed in a specific linear
sequential manner, like accessing in a single Linked List. The
–e.g. Applications of this sequential memory access are
magnetic tapes, magnetic disk and optical memories.

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 Memory Access Methods cont.
•Random
–In this method, any location of the memory can be accessed
randomly like accessing in Array. Physical locations are
independent in this access method.
– Individual addresses identify locations exactly
–Access time is independent of location or previous access
–e.g. Applications of this random memory access are RAM
and ROM.

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 Memory Access Methods cont.
• Direct
–Individual blocks have unique address
–Access is by jumping to vicinity plus sequential search
–In this method, the particular location of the memory can be
accessed directly like accessing in Array. This method is a
combination of above two access methods.
– The access time depends on both the memory organization and
characteristics of storage technology. The access is semi-random
or direct. –e.g. magnetic hard disk, read/write header.

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 Memory Access Methods cont.

•Associative
–Data is located by a comparison with contents of a portion
of the store
–In this memory, a word is accessed rather than its address.
This access method is a special type of random access
method.
e.g. Application of thus direct memory access is Cache
memory.

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 Memory Performance
•Memory Access time
–Time between presenting the address and getting the valid
data
•Memory Cycle time
–Time may be required for the memory to “recover” before
next access
–Cycle time is access + recovery
•Transfer Rate
–Rate at which data can be moved

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 Difference Between Access Time and Cycle Time of Memory
is that Access time is the amount of time it takes the processor to read
data, instructions, and information from memory. While Cycle Time of
Memory is the time that is measured in nanoseconds, the time between
one RAM access of time when the next Random Access
Memory RAM access starts.

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 Memory Physical Types
•Semiconductor
–RAM & ROM
•Magnetic
–Disk & Tape
•Optical
–CD & DVD
•Others
–Bubble
–Hologram

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 Physical Characteristics
•Decay
•Volatility
•Erasable
•Power consumption

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 Summery…

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 Good luck 

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