FLUID MECHANICS

Lecture 7 Exact solutions

1
 Scope of Lecture

• To present solutions for a few representative

laminar boundary layers where the boundary
conditions enable exact analytical solutions to
be obtained.

2
Solving the boundary-layer equations
• The boundary layer equations
∂U ∂V
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂U dPe ∂ 2U
ρU + ρV =− +µ 2
∂x ∂y dx ∂y
• Solution strategies:
– Similarity solutions: assuming “self-similar” velocity
profiles. The solutions are exact but such exact results
can only be obtained in a limited number of cases.
– Approximate solutions: e.g. using momentum integral
equ’n with assumed velocity profile (e.g. 2nd Yr Fluids)
– Numerical solutions: finite-volume; finite element,…
• CFD adopts numerical solutions; similarity
solutions useful for checking accuracy. 3
 SIMILARITY SOLUTIONS
• Incompressible, isothermal laminar boundary layer
over a flat plate at zero incidence (Blasius (1908))
∂ U ∂V U ∞ = const.
dPe
+ =0 =0
∂x ∂y dx
∂U ∂U ∂ 2U U=V=0 at y=0;
U +V =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y U → U ∞ as y → ∞
• Partial differential equations for U and V with x and
y as independent variables.
• For a similarity solution to exist, we must be able
to express the differential equations AND the
boundary conditions in terms of a single
dependent variable and a single independent
variable.

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 THE SIMILARITY VARIABLE
• Condition of similarity
U
= F (η ) U/U∞=F(η)
U∞

η is likely to be a U/U∞
function of x and y

• Strategy: to replace x
and y by η

• Similarity variable
y
η=
δ
• How to find δ before
solving the equation? 5
 THE SIMILARITY VARIABLE

• To find the order of magnitude of δ

δ
δ→ L→x
1 L L2 x2
[Re L ] = O( ) [Re L ] = O ( ) [Re x ] = O ( 2
)
δ 2 δ 2 δ

U∞x
 x  Re x =
ν
 νx 
[δ ] = O   [δ ] = O  
 Re x   U∞ 

• Similarity variable: η = y = y
O[δ ] ν x / U∞
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NON-DIMENSIONAL STREAM FUNCTION

• For incompressible 2D flows stream function

ψ exists.
∂ψ ∂ψ
U= V =−
∂y ∂x
• Strategy: To replace U and V with ψ
• Define a non-dimensional stream function f
such that f is a function of η only.

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 NON-DIMENSIONAL STREAM FUNCTION

• Find the order of magnitude of stream function ψ

∂ψ
U=
∂y

 νx 
[δ ] = O  
U
 ∞
[ψ ] = O[U ∞δ ] [ψ ] = O[ ν U ∞ x ]

• Non-dimensional stream function

ψ
f = ψ = νU∞ x f
νU∞ x

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 SIMILARITY SOLUTIONS
• Convert the boundary layer equations
∂U ∂V
+ =0 Automatically satisfied by ψ
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂U ∂ 2U d2 f d3 f
U +V =ν 2 f 2
+2 3
=0
∂x ∂y ∂y dη dη
or ff '' + 2 f ''' = 0

Substituting y y
Let η = =
∂ψ ∂ψ δ ν x /U∞
U= V =−
∂y ∂x
Replace ∂ , ∂ , ∂
ψ = νU∞ x f 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
so as to replace U, V by f by derivatives WRT η
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 Some details of analysis
• Thus with: ψ ≡ ν xU∞ f (η) η ≡ y U∞ ν x

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η U∞
• we find: U = = = ν xU∞ f ′(η) = U∞ f ′
∂y ∂η ∂y νx
∂ψ 1 νU∞ ∂U ∂U ∂η U∞
V =− = (η f ′ − f ) ; = = U∞ f ′′
∂x 2 x ∂y ∂η ∂y νx

• So finally: ff ′′ + 2 f ′′′ = 0

• with b.c.’s η = 0 : f = f ′ = 0;η → ∞ : f ′ → 1

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 SIMILARITY SOLUTIONS
• Substituting into the boundary layer equation
∂U ∂U ∂ 2U d2f d3f
U +V =ν 2 f 2
+2 3
= 0
∂x ∂y ∂y dη dη
or ff ' ' + 2 f ' ' ' = 0

3rd order ordinary

differential equation
ψ
@ wall ψ =0, hence f = =0
νU∞ x
' U
@ wall U=0, hence f = =0
U∞
' U
@ y= ∞, U=U∞ hence f =
, =1
U∞

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 VELOCITY PROFILES

U U
At η = y ∞ = 5, = 0.992
νx U∞

Boundary layer thickness:

νx 5x
δ =5 ==
U∞ Re x

U∞
η=y
νx

The tabulated Blasius velocity profile can be found

in many textbooks

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 VELOCITY PROFILES

V is much smaller than U.

U V U∞ x
η=y ∞ U∞ ν
νx

U∞
η=y
νx 13
DISPLACEMENT AND MOMENTUN THICKNESS
• Boundary layer thickness y ∂η U∞
η= =
5x ν x /U∞ ∂y νx
δ=
Re x
• Displacement thickness
 U
∞
 ∂y
∞
νx δ∗ =
1.7208 x
δ = ∫ 1 − ∫ (1 − f ) dη = 1.7208
∗ '
 dy = Re x
0
U∞  ∂η 0
U∞
• Momentum thickness
U  
∞ ∞ 0 . 664 x
U ∂y νx
θ =∫ ∫ f (1 − f ) dη = 0.664 θ =
' '
 1 −  dy =
0
U ∞  U∞  ∂η 0
U∞ Re x

δ, δ*, θ all grow with x1/2

• δ*/δ =0.344, θ/δ =0.133

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DISPLACEMENT AND MOMENTUN THICKNESS

• Typical distribution of δ, δ* and θ

U∞ =10m/s, ν=17x10-6 m2/s

0.01
0.008 δ
δ, δ*, θ( mm)

0.006
0.004 δ∗
0.002 θ
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x (m)

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 Other Useful Results
• Shape factor:

∗ 1.7208 x 0.664 x δ∗
δ = , θ= H= = 2.59
Re x Re x θ

• Wall shear stress:

τw µ  ∂U  '' ν 0.664
Cf = =   = 2 f (0) =
1 ρU 2 1 ρU  ∂y  w
2
U∞ x Re x
2 ∞ 2 ∞

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 Short Problem
• The boundary layer over a thin aircraft wing can be treated
as that over a flat plate. The speed of the aircraft is 100m/s
and the chord length of the wing is 0.5m. At an altitude of
4000m, the density of air is 0.819kg/m3 and the kinematic
viscosity is 20x10-6m2/s, Assuming the flow over the wing is
2D and incompressible,
– Calculate the boundary-layer thickness at the trailing edge
– Estimate the surface friction stress at the trailing edge
– Will the boundary layer thickness and friction stress
upstream be higher or lower compared to those at the
trailing edge?
– What will be the boundary-layer thickness and the surface
friction stress at the same chord location if the speed of
the aircraft is doubled?

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 SOLUTIONS
• The Reynolds number at x=0.5m:
Ux100 × 0.5 6
Re x = = = 2 . 5 × 10
ν 20 × 10 −6
• The boundary layer thickness:
5x 5 × 0.5
δ= =
6
= 0.0016m
Re x 2.5 × 10
• Friction stress at trailing edge of the wing

τ w = 0.5 ρu∞2 C f
0.664
2
= 0.5 ρu ∞
Re x
0.5 × 0.819 × 100 2 × 0.664
= = 1.72 N / m 2
2.5 × 106

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 SOLUTIONS
• Will the boundary layer thickness and friction
stress upstream higher or lower compared to
those at the trailing edge?
– δ is smaller upstream as δ is proportional to x1/2
– τw is higher upstream as δ is thinner.

• If the speed of the aircraft is doubled, Rex will be

Ux
doubled since Re x =
ν
5x
– δ will be smaller as Re increases. δ =
Re x
– τw will be higher as the increase in u∞ has a greater
effect than the increase in Rex.
0.664
τ w = 0.5 ρu∞2
Re x 19
 Plane stagnation flow
• Flows with pressure gradients can be self-similar … but it has
to be a pressure gradient compatible with self-similarity. See
Schlichting and other “advanced” textbooks on fluid
mechanics for examples.
• Stagnation flow provides one such example where
U e = U 0 x / L and Ve = −U 0 y / L potential flow)
• Note 1 dPe dU e by Euler equ’n.
− = Ue
ρ dx dx
• The boundary layer equation thus becomes:
∂U ∂U U 02 x ∂ 2U
U +V = +ν
∂x ∂y L L ∂y 2

• or f ′′′ + ff ′′ + 1 − f ′ 2 = 0
U0
• Here primes denote diff’n wrt η≡y
νL
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 Stagnation flow results
• Note that the boundary layer has
a constant thickness!
• However, the mass within the
boundary layer increases
continuously since the velocity
rises linearly with distance from
the stagnation point.
• Unlike the flat-plate boundary
layer, the shear stress decreases
continuously from the wall.
• For this flow H ≡δ */θ = 2.21 i.e. less
than for the zero-pressure-
gradient boundary layer.

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 Asymptotic Suction Flow
• Sometimes it may be desirable to withdraw fluid through
the wall

V = −Vw
• If the suction is uniform a point is reached where the
boundary layer no longer grows with distance
downstream and no further change with x occurs.
• Thus the continuity equation is just ∂V/∂y = 0, i.e V=− Vw
2
• The x-momentum equation becomes: −V dU = ν d U
w
dy dy 2
• …which is readily integrated to give U = 1 − exp( − yV w
)
U∞ ν
• A question for you: What is the skin friction coefficient?
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