ASc.

Psychology
Fall Semester 2022-2023

Teacher: Ms. Perri

Email: svernonhernandez22a@mymbcc.edu.jm

12TH GRADE
Introduction to Psychology
Notes

Unit I: The Nature of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. Psychologists are actively involved
in studying and understanding mental processes, brain functions, and behaviour.

Psychology areas of study:

1. Abnormal psychologists focus on the origins and constructs of mental illness and look at
unusual patterns of behaviours, emotions and thoughts. They are involved in assessment,
diagnoses and clinical treatment of mental disorders.
2. Biopsychology concentrates on the relationship between biology and behaviour, and
especially the role that the brain and neurotransmitters play in controlling and regulating
behaviour. Biopsychologists want to know how biological changes lead to changes in
behaviour.
3. Social psychologists study what people think and feel and how behaviour is impacted by
others.
4. Cognitive psychology looks at the mental processes that relate to thinking, memory and
language, and makes discoveries about these processes by observing behaviour, according
to the APA.
5. Developmental psychologyDevelopmental psychologists study how people grow and adapt
(physically and psychologically) from conception to death.
6. Personality psychologists rely on research and theories related to personality traits,
evolution, biology, humanism, behaviour and social learning to determine what makes a
person unique. Understanding how personality develops, and its similarities as well as
 variances among individuals, is key. Personality psychologists assess, diagnose and treat
personality disorders that negatively impact a person's quality of life.
7. Forensic psychology has been called 'the intersection of law and psychology,' and it’s a
field in which psychologists (who are most commonly licensed) apply their psychosocial
knowledge to civil and criminal law," said an adjunct social sciences instructor Kathy
Edwards.
8. The Industrial-Organisational branch of psychology is the scientific study of working and
it has critical relevance to individuals, businesses and society. Industrial-organisational
psychology applies research to issues facing individuals, teams and organisations, and
examines employee well-being and attitude, employee-employer relationships and the
entire breadth of workplace behaviour.

The eight critical thinking guidelines in psychology:

1. Ask questions
2. Define terms
3. Look at evidence
4. Analyse assumptions and biases
5. Avoid emotional reasoning
6. Do not oversimplify
7. Consider others interpretations
8. Tolerate uncertainty

Approaches and applications:

● Structuralism focuses on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.
Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known
as introspection.
● Functionalism is a psychological philosophy that describes the mind as a functional tool
that allows us to adapt to our environments. It posits that our mental states and behaviours
are survival mechanisms, in line with our inherent biological goals.
● Gestalt theory emphasises that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.
● Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological processes underlying or
influencing mind and behaviour.
● Cognitive psychology focuses on how the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and
problem-solving abilities affect how and why we think the way we do.
● Behavioural psychology, or behaviourism, is a theory suggesting that the environment
shapes human behaviour.
 ● Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasises the study of the
whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behaviour not only through the
eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaviour.
● Evolutionary psychology, the study of behaviour, thought, and feeling as viewed through
the lens of evolutionary biology. Evolutionary psychologists presume all human
behaviours reflect the influence of physical and psychological predispositions that helped
human ancestors survive and reproduce.
● Psychodynamic psychology emphasises the systematic study of the psychological forces
that underlie human behaviour, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early
experience.
● The psychoanalytic approach, the focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the
conscious mind. It is built on the foundational idea that your behaviour is determined by
experiences from your past that are lodged in your unconscious mind.

Psychological thinkers and their theories:

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Typical Age
Stage Conflict Faced Major Challenge(S)
Range
Having basic needs met, attaching
1 Trust vs. mistrust First year of life
to people
Autonomy vs. shame
2 1–3 years Gaining independence
and doubt
Acting in a socially responsible
3 Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years
way
Competing with peers, preparing
4 Industry vs. inferiority 6–12 years
for adult roles
Identity vs. role
5 Adolescence Determining one’s identity
confusion
6 Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Developing intimate relationships
Generativity vs. self-
7 Middle adulthood Being productive
absorption
8 Integrity vs. despair Old age Evaluating one’s life

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

 Stage Age Important Features
First two years
1 Sensorimotor Object permanence, symbolic thought
of life
Centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, and
2 Preoperational 2–7 years
animism
Concrete Reversibility, decentration, decrease in
3 7–11 years
operational egocentrism, conservation
Formal 11 through
4 Abstract thought
operational adulthood

Sigmund Freud Psychosexual theory

Pavlov Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was
repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.

Watson Theory of human caring

Jean Watson contends that caring regenerates life energies and potentiates our capabilities. The
benefits are immeasurable and promote self-actualization on both a personal and professional level.
Caring is a mutually beneficial experience for both the patient and the nurse, as well as between
all health team members.

The structure for the science of caring is built upon ten carative factors. These are:

1. Embrace: Altruistic Values and Practise Loving Kindness with Self and Others
2. Inspire: Faith and Hope and Honor Others
3. Trust: Self and Others by Nurturing Individual Beliefs, Personal Growth and Practices
4. Nurture: Helping, Trusting, Caring Relationships
5. Forgive: and Accept Positive and Negative Feelings – Authentically Listen to Another’s
Story
6. Deepen: Scientific Problem Solving Methods for Caring Decision Making
7. Balance: Teaching and Learning to Address the Individual Needs, Readiness and Learning
Styles
8. Co-Create: a Healing Environment for the Physical and Spiritual Self which Respects
Human Dignity
9. Minister: To Basic Physical, Emotional and Spiritual Human Needs
10. Open: to Mystery and Allow Miracles to Enter
Kohlberg moral development theory

Level 1 - Preconventional morality

Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until approximately age
9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of morality, and instead moral
decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their
rules.

• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid
being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one
right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality

Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is characterised by an

acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents
and adults), we begin to internalise the moral standards of valued adult role models.

• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as

being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Postconventional morality

Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterised by an

individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but
might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity.

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work
against the interest of particular individuals.

The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more
important than breaking the law against stealing.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.

Skinner Operant conditioning theory

Rogers Theory

Humanistic and personality theory

 Maslow hierarchy of needs

Research Methods:

1. Experiments. An experiment is a research method that incorporates scientific procedures

to test a hypothesis, discover new insights or demonstrate established facts. A researcher
typically observes an event and creates a hypothesis. This hypothesis is essentially a
statement depicting what happens when certain variables interact. This research doesn't
rely on specific resources or test subjects.
2. Surveys. A survey involves the collection of data through a questionnaire. A questionnaire
is a set of questions provided to individuals to answer. Surveys aren't always anonymous,
but researchers might make them anonymous to encourage participants to provide
truthful answers. A survey can be an excellent method for collecting, cross-referencing
and analysing data between specific demographics.
3. Observation.Observational research is similar to a field experiment, but an observational
study doesn't intervene or test variables. Observational research observes a phenomenon,
event or entity to reach an inference. The researcher doesn't manipulate or test variables
to identify relationships.
4. Case studies. A case study is a research method that comprises procedures similar to
interviews and observations. If a researcher conducts a case study, they're researching a
particular event, phenomenon, individual or group. The case usually has established
hypotheses, observations and existing research material. Case studies usually have pre-
existing information compared to other research methods, such as experiments and
observations. This means a case study's purpose is usually to provide more understanding
of a topic rather than test a hypothesis. It seeks to understand why something happened
rather than what might happen.
5. Interviews and focus groups. Interviews and focus groups are like surveys, except they
typically involve fewer participants. The interview research method involves researchers
asking individuals or small groups specific questions about a topic. These questions are
 usually more complex and encourage more in-depth answers than a survey. The results
from interviews are typically qualitative.
6. Secondary data analysis. This research approach usually has limitations in its scope and
versatility. This is because it involves the research of research that already exists. When
conducting secondary data analysis, researchers typically examine case studies,
experiments and surveys already conducted. This research approach can have several
benefits, such as cost and time effectiveness.
7. Mixed methods. It's usually helpful to know that research methods aren't exclusive. In
many situations, your research project can benefit from multiple techniques. Some
research methods also naturally include other methods. For example, experimenting may
incorporate surveys, interviews and observational findings. Depending on your research
topic, using multiple research methods can usually improve the accuracy and relevancy
of your data.

Unit III: Perception

Perception definitions:

Sensation is defined as the process of the sensory organs transforming physical energy
into neurological impulses the brain interprets as the five senses of vision, smell, taste,
touch, and hearing. This process is known as transduction, or the conversion of one form
of energy into another.
Selective attention refers to the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on
particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or
distracting information.
Illusion, a misrepresentation of a “real” sensory stimulus—that is, an interpretation that
contradicts objective “reality” as defined by general agreement. For example, a child who
perceives tree branches at night as if they are goblins may be said to be having an illusion.
Perceptual organisation is the process by which the elements of visual and other sensory
information are structured into a coherent whole. Two people can look at the same image
and have different interpretations of it.

Factors influencing perception:

Factors in the Perceiver.

The factors in the perceiver that affect perception are:

 ➔ Attitudes- Attitudes have a powerful influence on what we pay attention to, what we
remember, and how we interpret information. Different attitudes lead to different
interpretations.
➔ Motives- Motives stimulate individuals. It is an unsatisfactory need. They exert a strong
influence on perception. For example; hungry people tend to see images of food.
➔ Emotions- An individual’s emotional state strongly influences perception. Anger and
frustration distort perception.
➔ Interests- Individual interests differ considerably. Interest influences the focus of
attention. Differences in individual interests result in differing perceptions.
➔ Experiences- Past experiences affect the focus of attention. Individuals tend to perceive
those objects or events to which they can relate to.
➔ Expectations- People see what they expect to see.

Factors in the Target.

The factors in the target that affect perception are:

★ Novelty- Novelty targets are more likely to be noticed than the targets observed in the
past.
★ Motion, sound, size- They shape the way we see the target. Loud people are more likely
to be noticed.
★ Background- a target is not looked at in isolation. The relationship of target to its
background influences perception.
★ Proximity- Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived together.
★ Similarity- Similar things need to be grouped together. For example; black people are
perceived as alike even in unrelated characteristics.

Factors in the Situation.

The factors in the situation that affect perception are:

❖ Time- The time at which an object or event is seen affects perception. For example; a
daily report arriving after two days may be ignored by the perceiver.
❖ Work setting- The changing context of the work setting influences perception. For
example; stressful work situations distort perception.
❖ Social setting- The changing social setting influences perception. For example; a male
student wearing earrings may not be noticed in a disco but highly noticeable in the
classroom.
Illusion:

Constancies.

The phenomenon in which an object or its properties (e.g., size, shape, colour) appear unchanged
despite variations in the stimulus itself or in the external conditions of observation, such as object
orientation or level of illumination. Examples of perceptual constancy include brightness
constancy, colour constancy, shape constancy, and size constancy.

● Brightness is the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under
different conditions of illumination. For example, a piece of white paper has a similar
brightness in daylight as it does at dusk, even though the energy it reflects may be quite
different.
● Colour constancy is the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same colour
under different conditions of illumination. For example, a red apple will be perceived as
red in well or poorly illuminated surroundings.
● A type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape
when viewed at different angles. For example, a plate is still perceived as circular despite
appearing as an oval when viewed from the side.
● The ability to perceive an object as being the same size despite the fact that the size of its
retinal image changes depending on its distance from the observer.

Stereotyping:

Stereotypes are usually defined as beliefs about groups, prejudice as evaluation of or attitude
toward a group, and discrimination as behaviour that systematically advantages or disadvantages
a group.

Unit IV: Attitudes

Attitude: a relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or concept
on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. Attitudes provide summary evaluations of target
objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs, emotions, and past behaviours
associated with those objects.

Components and formation of attitude:

Cognitive Component

The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would
associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It refers to that part of
attitude which is related to the general knowledge of a person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking
is harmful to health’ etc.

Affective Component

Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

It is related to the statement which affects another person.

It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as fear or
hate. Using the above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all babies because
they are cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health.

Behavioural Component

Behaviour component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way

toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intention of a person in the
short-run or long run.

Using the above example, the behavioural attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we
better keep those smokers out of the library, etc.

Changing attitudes:

Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when
an individual's behaviour is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs. This underlying
tension then motivates an individual to make an attitude change that would produce consistency
between thoughts and behaviours.

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based

solely on the individual's membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold prejudiced
views towards a certain race or gender etc.

Stereotypes are widespread but fixed ideas about specific groups of people. If the stereotype is
negative, research suggests, it may lead us to consciously or subconsciously avoid or limit contact
with entire groups of people—and negative experiences with a stereotyped group can reinforce this
avoidant behaviour.

Unit V: Personality

Personality: Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and behaviour that comprise a
person's unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept,
abilities, and emotional patterns.
Theories of Personality:

● Freud (psychoanalytic theory) proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id,
ego, and superego, and that the interactions and conflicts among the components create
personality.
● Freud proposed that we use defence mechanisms to cope with anxiety and maintain a
positive self-image.
● Freud argued that personality is developed through a series of psychosexual stages, each
focusing on pleasure from a different part of the body.

Humanistic theory (Rogers)

The humanistic psychologist Rogers, was a supporter of the founder of positive psychology, Abraham
Maslow's humanistic theory of personality. One of the eminent psychologists and a positive psychology
expert Abraham Samuel Maslow believed that people gain their full potential by shifting from fundamental
needs towards self-actualization. However, Roger's personality theory added that people in their daily lives
need an environment with empathy, acceptance and genuineness to grow. According to Carl Rogers, a
person attains the level of self-actualization when they accomplish their desires, wishes and goals, at each
stage of their life.

The Big Five Personality (Eysenck)

Openness

Openness (also referred to as openness to experience) emphasises imagination and insight the most out of
all five personality traits.1 People who are high in openness tend to have a broad range of interests. They
are curious about the world and other people and are eager to learn new things and enjoy new experiences.

People who are high in this personality trait also tend to be more adventurous and creative. Conversely,
people low in this personality trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.

High Low

Very creative Dislikes change

Open to trying new things Does not enjoy new things

Focused on tackling new challenges Resists new ideas

Happy to think about abstract concepts Not very imaginative

Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts

Conscientiousness

Among each of the personality traits, conscientiousness is one defined by high levels of thoughtfulness,
good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviors.1 Highly conscientious people tend to be organised and
mindful of details. They plan ahead, think about how their behaviour affects others, and are mindful of
deadlines.

Someone scoring lower in this primary personality trait is less structured and less organised. They may
procrastinate to get things done, sometimes missing deadlines completely.

High

Spends time preparing

Finishes important tasks right away Low

Pays attention to detail Dislikes structure and schedules

Enjoys having a set schedule Makes messes and doesn't take care of things
 Fails to return things or put them back where Procrastinates important tasks
they belong
Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks

Extraversion

Extraversion (or extroversion) is a personality trait characterised by excitability, sociability, talkativeness,

assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.1 People high in extraversion are outgoing
and tend to gain energy in social situations. Being around others helps them feel energised and excited.

People who are low in this personality trait or introverted tend to be more reserved. They have less energy
to expend in social settings and social events can feel draining. Introverts often require a period of solitude
and quiet in order to "recharge."

High Say things before thinking about them

Enjoys being the centre of attention Low

Likes to start conversations Prefers solitude

Enjoys meeting new people Feels exhausted when having to socialise a lot

Has a wide social circle of friends and Finds it difficult to start conversations
acquaintances
Dislikes making small talk
Finds it easy to make new friends
Carefully thinks things through before speaking
Feels energised when around other people
Dislikes being the centre of attention

Agreeableness

This personality trait includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial
behaviors.1 People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in this
personality trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative.

High Low

Has a great deal of interest in other people Takes little interest in others

Cares about others Doesn't care about how other people feel

Feels empathy and concern for other people Has little interest in other people's problems

Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness Insults and belittles others
of other people
Manipulates others to get what they want
Assists others who are in need of help
Neuroticism

Neuroticism is a personality trait characterised by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability.1

Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness.
Those low in this personality trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.

High Low

Experiences a lot of stress Emotionally stable

Worries about many different things Deals well with stress

Gets upset easily Rarely feels sad or depressed

Experiences dramatic shifts in mood Doesn't worry much

Feels anxious Is very relaxed

Struggles to bounce back after stressful events

Development of self-concept/self-esteem:

Self-esteem refers to the judgments and evaluations we make about our self- concept. While self-concept is
a broad description of the self, self-esteem is a more specifically an evaluation of the self. Self-concept is a
more comprehensive evaluation of the self, largely based on how a person sees themselves, values
themselves, thinks about themselves, and feels about themselves.

Defence mechanisms:
Unit VII: Conflict and Change

Conflict: The occurrence of mutually antagonistic or opposing forces, including events, behaviours, desires,
attitudes, and emotions. This general term has more specific meanings within different areas of psychology.
For example, in psychoanalytic theory, it refers to the opposition between incompatible instinctual impulses
or between incompatible aspects of the mental structure (i.e., the id, ego, and superego) that may be a source
of neurosis if it results in the use of defence mechanisms other than sublimation. In interpersonal relations,
conflict denotes the disagreement, discord, and friction that occur when the actions or beliefs of one or more
individuals are unacceptable to and resisted by others.

Lewin's Approach-Avoidance theory:

A situation involving a single goal or option that has both desirable and undesirable aspects or
consequences. The closer an individual comes to the goal, the greater the anxiety, but withdrawal from the
goal then increases the desire.

Approach-approach:

A situation involving a choice between two equally desirable but incompatible alternatives. Also called
double-approach conflict.

Avoidance-avoidance:
A situation involving a choice between two equally objectionable alternatives, for example, when an
individual must choose between unemployment and a salary cut. Also called double-avoidance conflict.

Double approach-avoidance:

A complex conflict situation arising when a person is confronted with two goals or options that each have
significant attractive and unattractive features.

Causes of conflict:
Conflict Resolution:

1. Avoiding: Someone who uses a strategy of "avoiding" mostly tries to ignore or sidestep the conflict,
hoping it will resolve itself or dissipate.
2. Accommodating: Using the strategy of "accommodating" to resolve conflict essentially involves
taking steps to satisfy the other party's concerns or demands at the expense of your own needs or
desires.
3. Compromising: The strategy of "compromising" involves finding an acceptable resolution that will
partly, but not entirely, satisfy the concerns of all parties involved.
4. Competing: Someone who uses the conflict resolution strategy of "competing" tries to satisfy their
own desires at the expense of the other parties involved.
5. Collaborating: Using "collaborating" involves finding a solution that entirely satisfies the concerns
of all involved parties.

Effects of conflict: Positive and Negative

Change: Change is a process involving five stages: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action,
and maintenance. The needs of an individual in one stage of change are different from the needs of an
individual in another stage. Change is an exciting process that encourages innovation, develops skills, and
leads to better business opportunities. The belief surrounding change is that it is inevitable and necessary
but can only be achieved successfully if done correctly.

Change Agent:

Reasons for resistance to change:

Techniques for reducing resistance to change: