Anatomy And Physiology II

Chapter 14 Alternate Assessment

Fill these out with definitions of the listed terms and answers to the questions.

14.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD

Briefly describe the functions of blood.

Blood is a specialized connective tissue that performs various functions in the body. One of the
functions is transportation. Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout
the body. Oxygen is carried by red blood cells, while white blood cells and plasma carry nutrients,
hormones, and waste products.
Blood helps to regulate body temperature, pH, and fluid balance. It also plays a role in
maintaining the balance of electrolytes and other chemicals in the body. Lastly, Blood contains white
blood cells that help to protect the body against infection and disease. Platelets in the blood also help to
stop bleeding by forming clots

14.2 BLOOD CELLS

What are the stem cells’ responsible for blood cell formation?
hematopoietic stem cells
Where are they found?
These cells are found in the bone marrow, they are the spongy tissue inside bones. They are also in
smaller amounts in the blood

14.2. BLOOD CELLS

Major Blood Cell Summary Table

Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Platelets
Major Blood Cell Type

Scientific Name erythrocytes leukocytes thrombocytes

Circulating Female: 3.6 to 5 between 4,500 and between 150,000 to

Concentration/ million/mm3 11,000 cells/mm3 of 450,000 platelets per
mm3 blood Male: 4.2 to 5.4 blood millimeter cubed
million/mm3 (mm³)

General Function Erythrocytes are The immune system Prevent and stop
responsible for the aids in the defense bleeding
transportation of against infections and
oxygen from the various illnesses.
respiratory system to
the peripheral tissues.
Subsequently, the
carbon dioxide is
transported back to
 our lungs to be
exhaled during the
return journey.

Key Characteristics Red blood cells are Leukocytes lack Platelets are known to
minute in size and pigmentation, yet they possess a diverse
exhibit a discoid or may exhibit a faint range of mediators
toroidal morphology, lavender to rosy hue that play a crucial role
characterized by a when scrutinized in regulating
circular perimeter and through a microscope hemostasis and
a central concavity, and subjected to thrombosis.
albeit non-cavitary in staining. The cells in Additionally, they are
nature. question exhibit a involved in various
spherical morphology other functions such
and possess a as chemotaxis,
discernible central vasomotor function,
membrane, despite cell growth, and
their diminutive size. inflammation, among
others.

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

Briefly describe the structure of a red blood cell.

Erythrocytes have a unique structure that allows them to perform their primary function of carrying
oxygen throughout the body. Their structures are critical to their function. They are small and have
biconcave disks that are round and flat like a donut without a hole in the middle. They are about 7-8
micrometers in diameter, enclosed by a thin, flexible plasma membrane that allows them to squeeze
through narrow capillaries.
Define the following terms.
Hemoglobin = Hemoglobin is a globular protein that functions as a carrier of oxygen from the respiratory
organs to the various tissues and organs of the body and as a transporter of carbon dioxide from those
tissues and organs back to the respiratory organs. It is primarily located within the erythrocytes, or red
blood cells.
Oxyhemoglobin = contains iron in its reduced (ferrous) state and serves as the typical, oxygen-carrying
form of hemoglobin
Deoxyhemoglobin = is a molecule that exhibits paramagnetism due to the presence of unpaired iron
electrons, resulting in the generation of magnetic moments.

Briefly describe erythropoiesis and where it occurs.

Erythropoiesis refers to the physiological mechanism responsible for the generation of fresh
erythrocytes within the human organism. The process predominantly takes place within the bone
marrow, a pliable and porous tissue situated internally within bones.
The initial step involves the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) which is synthesized by the kidneys in
reaction to hypoxemia. Erythropoietin (EPO) induces the differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells
located in the bone marrow into proerythroblasts, which serve as the antecedent cells for the
production of red blood cells. Following the maturation process, proerythroblasts undergo division and
differentiation, leading to the formation of basophilic erythroblasts. These cells subsequently develop
into polychromatic erythroblasts, which eventually transform into orthochromatic erythroblasts.
Orthochromatic erythroblasts undergo enucleation and differentiate into reticulocytes, which are
characterized as nascent erythrocytes that retain certain organelles. Following their release from the
bone marrow, reticulocytes undergo maturation within the circulatory system and differentiate into fully
functional erythrocytes within a timeframe of 1-2 days. The process of differentiation of hematopoietic
stem cells into mature red blood cells typically spans a duration of approximately 7-10 days.
Erythropoiesis is a meticulously controlled process that guarantees a consistent provision of red blood
cells to sustain sufficient oxygen transportation to the body's tissues.
Which hormone is responsible for erythropoietin?
Erythropoietin (EPO)
How long does the average blood cell live?
The typical lifespan of red blood cells in the human body is approximately 120 days, during which time
they circulate in the bloodstream. Following this period, macrophages are responsible for phagocytosing
these cells.
Briefly describe the breakdown of red blood cells.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells (RBCs), transports oxygen from the lungs to the body.
Erythrocyte degeneration occurs when RBCs reach 120 days of age and are withdrawn from
circulation. The liver, spleen, and bone marrow break down RBCs. Heme and globin form from RBC
hemoglobin. Amino acids from the globin protein may be recycled to form new proteins.  Iron and
bilirubin are formed from the heme molecule. Iron may be reused to generate RBCs or stored in the liver
or bone marrow. Bilirubin enters the circulation and is processed by the liver and is expelled in bile.  RBC
breakdown and recycling are necessary to maintain healthy blood and avoid hazardous waste
accumulation.

White Blood Cells

Briefly describe the difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Granulocytes and agranulocytes are two distinct subtypes of leukocytes. They play a crucial role in the
body's immune response. The primary distinguishing factor among them is the existence or
nonexistence of granules, which are minuscule sacs containing enzymes and other agents that aid in
combating infections.
Granulocytes are a type of immune cell that possess granules within their cytoplasm. These granules
contain various enzymes and substances that play a crucial role in immune function. The categorization
of granulocytes comprises three distinct types, namely neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Neutrophils, being the predominant type of granulocyte, are tasked with the role of combating bacterial
infections. Eosinophils play a crucial role in combating parasitic infections and participate in the
pathogenesis of allergic reactions. Basophils play a crucial role in both allergic reactions and the immune
response to parasites.
In contrast, Agranulocytes lack granules within their cytoplasm. The two distinct categories of
agranulocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes play a crucial role in the body's immune
response by recognizing and combating infections. Monocytes are a subset of leukocytes that possess
the ability to differentiate into macrophages, which are tasked with the phagocytosis and degradation of
foreign pathogens and cellular debris.
Describe phagocytosis and which blood cells are capable of it.
Phagocytosis is an essential biological mechanism in which specific cellular entities within an organism
internalize and degrade extraneous particles, including but not limited to bacteria, viruses, and cellular
remnants. Phagocytes are a type of cell that possess the ability to perform phagocytosis, a process that
is essential for the immune system's reaction to injury and infection.
What is the function of heparin?
Heparin is administered for preventive measures against thrombus formation in patients with specific
medical conditions or those undergoing certain medical interventions that heighten the risk of
thrombosis.
What is the function of histamine?
Histamine plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological and pathophysiological processes,
including but not limited to the secretion of gastric acid, inflammation, and the modulation of
vasodilatation and bronchoconstriction.
White Blood Cell Summary Table
Function/
Specific WBC Event of Increase?
Neutrophils The increase of neutrophils
is a crucial aspect of the
organism's reaction to
infection and trauma, as it
serves to restrict the
dissemination of
pathogens and facilitate
the recovery of impaired
tissues. Prolonged or
excessive neutrophilia may
indicate the presence of
underlying medical
conditions, such as cancer
or chronic inflammation,
and may necessitate
further examination and
intervention.
Eosinophils
Eosinophils capture
substances, destroy cells,
kill parasites and bacteria,
participate in rapid allergy
reactions, and modulate
inflammatory responses.
Basophils
Basophils help the body's
immune system fight
Differential % Typical Sketch
The differential  Neutrophils are round and 12-
percentage of 15 μm (humans are 8 μm).
neutrophils  Once triggered, they become
exhibits variation amoeboid to fight intruders
based on age, with their pseudopodia.
gender, and  The smallest granulocytes have
additional factors. a multi-lobed nucleus with 3-5
However, it is lobes linked by a thin genetic
commonly thread.
observed to be  The nucleolus disappears as
within the range neutrophils develop.
of 40-60% in the  Neutrophils contain many
adult population. azurophilic or primary granules,
which are purple and
microbicidal.
 Secondary cytoplasmic granules
include lysozyme, collagenase,
and other enzymes.
 The endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, and Golgi
complex are hardly present.
Eosinophils make  Eosinophils help the immune
up 0-5% of white system fight parasite diseases
blood cells in the and allergies.
blood, depending  They have bi-lobed nuclei and
on the lab. granular cytoplasm.
 Eosinophil granules contain
parasite-toxic enzymes and
proteins that may harm tissue
in allergic responses.
 Eosinophil means "eosin-loving"
because their cytoplasm is
pinkish-red under certain
stains.
Often make up  Basophils help fight allergies
less than 1% of and parasites.
 allergies, infections, and
parasites.
Monocytes
Macrophages engulf and
destroy germs, absorb
foreign material, eliminate
dead cells, and improve
immunity.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes assist the
immune system to fight
cancer and foreign viruses
and germs (antigens). The
immune system
remembers every antigen
with lymphocytes.
white blood cells.  Large, lobulated nuclei and
cytoplasmic granules
distinguish them.
 Their cytoplasmic granules
include histamine, heparin, and
other inflammatory and allergic
mediators.
 Basophils are rare in the blood.
Monocytes make  Monocytes are circulating white
between 2%–10% blood cells generated in the
of the differential bone marrow.
count.  Their kidney-shaped nucleus
and huge size distinguish them
from other blood cells.
 The light blue cytoplasm of
monocytes is tiny.
 Unlike neutrophils and
eosinophils, the cytoplasm may
include tiny granules, although
they are not as plentiful or
identifiable.
 Monocytes may phagocytose
and digest bacteria, viruses, and
cell debris.
 Migrating into tissues, they may
develop into macrophages and
dendritic cells.
 In most tissues, macrophages
are big, highly phagocytic cells
that help the immune system
fight infection and damage.
 The skin, lungs, and
gastrointestinal system include
dendritic cells, which are
specialized cells that interact
with the environment. To start
an immune response, they
capture and deliver foreign
particles to immune system
cells.
Adult lymphocytes  White blood cells called
make around lymphocytes help fight viral and
20%–40% of the bacterial diseases.
white blood cell  Their huge, spherical nucleus
count. takes up most of the cell's bulk.
 Lymphocytes have thin
 cytoplasm surrounding the
nucleus.
 B and T cells are lymphocyte
subtypes.
 B cells produce antibodies,
proteins that identify and attach
to infections, designating them
for immune system destruction.
 T cells regulate the immune
response and assault infected
or malignant cells.
 Long-lived memory cells can
guard against certain infections
in B and T cells.
 The blood, lymphatic system,
spleen, thymus, and lymph
nodes contain lymphocytes.
 Lymphocyte appearance
depends on cell type, stage of
development, and staining and
imaging methods.

Briefly describe the process of diapedesis.

Diapedesis occurs when white blood cells (leukocytes) leave blood arteries and enter surrounding
tissues in reaction to infection or damage. This procedure permits immune cells to reach the site of
infection or injury and combat microorganisms.
Diapedesis has numerous steps:
Leukocyte activation: After an infection or damage, leukocytes go toward the inflammation.
Rolling: Leukocytes roll along the endothelial cells lining the blood vessel as they approach it.
Adhesion: Leukocyte adhesion molecules engage with endothelial cell adhesion molecules to firmly
attach them.
Transmigration: Leukocytes cross the endothelial cells and enter the tissue. Leukocytes pass via
endothelial cell layer temporary holes.
Migration: Chemical cues from injured or infected cells lead leukocytes to the infection or injury.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Describe the structure of platelets.
Platelets are minute, discoid cellular fragments that are in constant circulation within the bloodstream.
Platelets are generated within the bone marrow through the differentiation of megakaryocytes, which
are characterized by their large size. Platelets are generally characterized by their diameter, which
ranges from 2 to 4 micrometers, and their lack of a nucleus. Platelet cytoplasm comprises multiple
minute granules that house diverse bioactive molecules that play a crucial role in the process of
hemostasis.
Briefly describe the function of platelets.
Platelets primarily serve the purpose of facilitating hemostasis in reaction to tissue damage. Upon blood
vessel injury, platelets promptly adhere to the site of damage and create a plug to impede additional
hemorrhage. Additionally, they secrete diverse chemical substances that stimulate the recruitment of
additional platelets and other clotting factors to the site of injury, ultimately resulting in the
establishment of a durable hemostatic plug.

14.3 PLASMA
Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, which makes up about 55% of the total volume of blood
Describe the components of blood plasma:
Water= Constituting approximately 90% of the volume of plasma, the aqueous solution known as plasm
serves as a solvent for numerous other components.
Plasma Proteins= The constituents encompassed are albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. These proteins
contribute to the regulation of osmotic pressure, facilitate the
transportation of various substances, and are involved in the
process of hemostasis.
Gases= Including oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
Nutrients= glucose, amino acids, and lipids, which are important for energy production and tissue repair
Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances (Plasma Wastes)= creatinine, and uric acid, which are byproducts
of metabolism that need to be eliminated from the body.
Plasma Electrolytes= Include sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions, which help to maintain
the pH and fluid balance of the blood
Regulatory Substances= including hormones, enzymes, and vitamins, which play a role in various
physiological processes such as metabolism, growth, and immunity.
14.4 HEMOSTASIS

Briefly define hemostasis.

When blood vessel damage occurs, the body's natural response is hemostasis, the clotting and sealing of
the wound. Interactions between blood arteries, platelets, and clotting factors are all intricately
involved.
What are the three steps in hemostasis?
 Vasoconstriction
 platelet plug formation,
 and blood coagulation
What are the two pathways of blood coagulation?
 the extrinsic pathway
 the intrinsic pathway
What are the five steps of the Extrinsic Clotting Mechanism
1. Tissue injury exposes tissue factor (Factor III) to the blood.
2. Factor VII in the blood binds to tissue factor, forming a complex.
3. The complex activates Factor X, which combines with Factor V to form prothrombinase.
4. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin.
5. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which forms the clot.
How does the Intrinsic Clotting Mechanism differ in the initial steps or activation?
The intrinsic clotting mechanism is activated by damage to the endothelium (inner lining) of blood
vessels. It differs from the extrinsic mechanism in that it is initiated by the exposure of collagen fibers in
the damaged vessel wall. This leads to the activation of several clotting factors, ultimately leading to the
formation of a fibrin clot
Briefly describe what happens to a blood clot after it forms.
Clot retraction is the process by which a blood clot contracts and draws the wound's edges together
after it has formed. Then, to aid in the healing process, new blood vessels (angiogenesis) emerge.
Fibrinolysis is the procedure that dissolves the clot after it has formed.
Prevention of Coagulation (Fibrinolytic System)
The fibrinolytic system functions as an anticoagulant mechanism in the body, breaking down blood clots
and preventing them from forming in the first place. It achieves this by transforming plasminogen into
the clot-busting protein plasmin. The fibrinolytic system plays a crucial role in avoiding thrombosis and
keeping blood flowing normally.
What is the function of the fibrinolytic system?
The fibrinolytic system is responsible for breaking down old blood clots. It helps keep blood from clotting
too much and clears out any little clots that may develop in the course of normal circulation. Wound
healing and tissue remodeling are only two examples of the many physiological processes in which the
fibrinolytic system plays a role.
Describe the following fibrinolytic substances
tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)= TPA is a protein that is produced by cells in the lining of blood
vessels, and it plays a critical role in fibrinolysis by activating plasminogen, an enzyme that breaks down
blood clots
Heparin= Heparin is a naturally occurring anticoagulant generated by mast cells in the body. Several
blood clotting factors are inhibited by attaching to and activating an enzyme called antithrombin III.
Warfarin (Coumadin)= Warfarin is a medication that is used to prevent blood clots by inhibiting the
activity of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors in the blood

Define the following terms.

Thrombus = A thrombus is a blood clot that develops within a blood artery and obstructs blood flow,
either temporarily or permanently. Both arterial and venous thrombosis are potentially life-threatening
disorders that may cause strokes and DVTs, respectively.
Embolus = Embolus is a blood clot or other material, such as fat or air, that breaks off from a thrombus
and travels through the bloodstream to another location. Emboli can cause blockages in blood vessels,
leading to conditions such as pulmonary embolism or stroke.
Embolism = An embolism is any obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot, fat clot, or other
substance. An embolism may have minor to life-threatening effects, depending on its location and size.
14.5 BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSIONS

What is the roll of antigens in determining blood type?

Antigens are molecules on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood type. The two most
important blood group systems are the ABO system and the Rh system. ABO blood group antigens are
either A or B, or both, and Rh blood group antigens are either present (+) or absent (-).
What roll do the antibodies have in the body?
Antibodies are proteins that the body produces in response to foreign antigens. In the case of blood
transfusions, the antibodies in the recipient's blood can recognize and bind to foreign antigens on the
transfused red blood cells, leading to an immune reaction. This can cause serious complications,
including hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells), fever, and shock
What occurs if there is an interaction between blood group antigens and antibodies?
Red blood cells may clump together (agglutination) if antigens from different blood types contact with
antibodies. As a result, oxygen-starved tissues and organs may suffer from a lack of blood flow. Death or
serious organ damage may result in extreme circumstances.

ABO Blood Group

Complete the table below.

A B AB O
BLOOD TYPE
ANTIGEN ON RBC
A B A and B H antigen
ANTIBODIES IN
anti-B anti-A antibodies. A and B anti-A and anti-B
PLASMA
antibodies. antibodies
COMPATIBLE
A and O B and O A, B, AB, and O O
DONORS
INCOMPATIBLE
B or AB A and AB None A, B, and AB
DONORS
GENOTYPE
AA or AO IBIB or IBi AB OO
PHENOTYPE
A B AB "O negative" or
"O positive",

What is the blood type of a universal donor?

O negative
What is the blood type of the universal recipient?
AB positive
Rh Blood Group
What are the two blood types in the Rh group?
Rh positive and Rh negative
How does a persen develop anti-Rh antibodies?
Anti-Rh antibodies develop in Rh-negative people who get transfusions or who become pregnant to Rh-
positive partners. When the immune system encounters the Rh antigen, it responds by producing
antibodies. The immunological response may be delayed and weak at first, but with repeated exposure,
it may become considerably stronger and quicker.
Why is there a risk of erythroblastosis fetalis only in a second pregnancy and not the first?
Erythroblastosis fetalis, alternatively referred to as hemolytic disease of the newborn, is a medical
condition characterized by the generation of maternal immune system antibodies that target the
erythrocytes of the fetus. The phenomenon may arise in cases where the mother's Rh factor is negative
and that of the fetus is positive. During the first pregnancy, if any Rh-positive fetal blood enters the
mother's bloodstream, her immune system may develop sensitivity towards the Rh antigen.
In the event of initial pregnancy, any sensitization that may occur is typically insufficient to result in
substantial fetal harm. The reason for this phenomenon is that the maternal immune response may
exhibit a delayed and feeble reaction, thereby impeding the antibodies from traversing the placenta and
inducing substantial hemolysis, which is the breakdown of red blood cells, in the developing fetus.
In subsequent pregnancies involving a Rh-positive fetus, the mother's immune system has already been
sensitized to the Rh antigen, thereby enabling a more accelerated and vigorous immune response. The
occurrence of an elevated concentration of anti-Rh antibodies in the maternal bloodstream may lead to
intensified hemolysis in the fetus, thereby causing erythroblastosis fetalis.
Rh immunoglobulin (RhIg) is administered to Rh-negative mothers during pregnancy and postpartum to
prevent sensitization to the Rh antigen and avoid erythroblastosis fetalis.