NUST COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Assignment # 02

Muhammad Hussain
(CMS id: 331991)
DEGREE: 42
SYNDICATE: C
DEPARTMENT: Mechanical Engineering
COURSE: Instrumentation and Measurements

SUBMITTED TO
Sir Nouman Munir
 Standards of Measurement
During calibration, a reference or known value is applied as the input signal, and the indicated value
from the measuring equipment is directly compared with it. The standard is the reference value that serves as
the foundation for the comparison [1].
Hierarchy of Standards:
The standard on which the calibration is based is the known value or reference value applied during
calibration. For typical calibration use, there are no actual primary standards available. However, they operate
as a guide for accuracy. Therefore, a hierarchy of secondary standards that replicate the fundamental standards
exists for practical reasons [1].
• National Reference
The national reference standards kept by designated standards laboratories around the world are
below the primary standard in terms of absolute precision. These enable global access to an incredibly
accurate standard while offering a decent duplicate of the primary standard.
• Transfer Standards
These are used to calibrate individual laboratory standards that might be used at various
calibration facilities within a country.
• Laboratory Standards
Laboratory standards serve to calibrate working standards.
• Working Standards
Working standards are used to calibrate everyday devices used in manufacturing and research
facilities.

The accuracy with which a standard approximates the principal standard decreases as one descends the
hierarchy of standards. That is, as we descend one level of hierarchy to the next, progressively more inaccuracy
is introduced into the standard. See the following example of Temperature measurement [1].
Basic Unit Systems:
There are 3 basic unit systems adopted worldwide, these are
• Inch-Pound (IP) System
• MKS System (meter, kilogram, second)
• System International (SI) Units
1960, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), the international agency
responsible for maintaining exact uniform standards of measurements, formally adopted the International
System of Units (SI) as the international standard of units. The SI system has been adopted worldwide and
contains seven base unit.
1. Mass:
The fundamental unit of mass is the kilogramme (kg). The kilogram's value is determined by
assuming that the value of Planck's constant, h, is precisely 6.62607015 1034 kg-m2/s. With the use of a
Kibble balance, standard mass can be realized. By using electric power, this balance scale creates an
electromagnetic force that is utilized as a benchmark when comparing it to a mass that has been put to
the test. Masses of much less than 1 kg can also be realized, which provides an additional benefit. By
this definition, the uncertainty in mass determination is approximately 20 μg/kg, with potential for
future improvement. Before 1889, the kilogramme was determined by the weight of one liter of room-
temperature water. Between 1889 and 2018, one kilogram was defined as being exactly equal to the
mass of a particular platinum-iridium cylindrical bar maintained at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures (BIPM). In the United States, the I-P unit system (also referred to as the U.S. customary
units) remains widely used [1].
In the I-P system, mass is defined by the pound-mass, lbm, which is derived directly from the
definition of the kilogram:
1 lbm = 0.4535924 kg
Equivalent standards for the kilogram and other standards units are maintained by national labs
around the globe. In the United States, this role is assigned to the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland.
2. Time and Frequency:
The second (s) is the base unit of time. One second (s) is defined as the time elapsed during
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation emitted between two excitation levels of the fundamental state
of cesium-133. Despite this seemingly unusual definition, this primary standard can be reliably
reproduced at suitably equipped laboratories throughout the world to an uncertainty of within 2 parts in
10 trillion [1].
The Bureau International de l’Heure (BIH) in Paris maintains the primary standard for clock
time. Periodically, adjustments to clocks around the world are made relative to the BIH clock so
as to keep time synchronous.
The standard for cyclical frequency is a derived unit based on the time standard (s). The standard unit is
the hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle/s). The cyclical frequency is related to the circular frequency (radians/s) by
1 Hz = 1 cycle∕sec = 2π rad/1sec
3. Length:
The meter (m) is the base unit for length. In 1982, a new primary standard was adopted by the
CGPM to define the unit of a meter. One meter (m) is defined as the length traveled by light in
1/299,792,458 of a second, a number derived from the velocity of light in a vacuum (defined exactly to
be 299,792,458 m/s) [2].
The I-P system unit of the inch and the related unit of the foot are derived exactly from the meter.
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 in. = 0.0254 m
4. Temperature:
The kelvin (K) is the base unit of temperature. The magnitude of the kelvin is determined from
the Boltzmann constant k defined exactly as 1.380649 × 10−23 J/K. This fixed constant forms the
fundamental relationship between energy and temperature. Prior to 2019, the kelvin was defined as the
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water [1].
A temperature scale was devised by William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) that is based on
polynomial interpolation between the equilibrium phase change points of a number of common pure
substances from the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen (13.81 K) to the freezing point of pure gold
(1337.58 K). Above 1337.58 K, the scale is based on Planck’s law of radiant emissions. The details of
the standard scale have been modified over the years but are governed by the International Temperature
Scale–1990.
The I-P unit system uses the absolute scale of Rankine (R). This and the common scales of
Celsius (∘C), used in the metric system, and Fahrenheit (∘F) are related to the Kelvin scale by the
following:
 (∘C) = (K) − 273.15
(∘F) = (R) − 459.67
(∘F) = 1.8 × (∘C) + 32.0
5. Current:
The ampere (A) is the base unit for electric current. The value of the ampere is arrived at by
assigning the value of the elementary charge of an electron e to be exactly 1.602176634 × 10−19
ampere-seconds [1].
6. Luminous Intensity:
The fundamental unit of light intensity is the candela (cd). The luminous effectiveness of
monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 540 1012 Hz is taken to be 683 lumens/watt to define one
candela. A derived unit of power is the watt [1].
7. Mole of substance:
The fundamental unit used to define a substance's amount is the mole (mol). 6.02214076*1023
elementary entities make up one mole. The Avogadro constant N, given in the unit of mol-1, is
represented by this number. An atom, molecule, ion, electron, or other specific particle can be
considered an elementary entity. The mole was previously defined as the quantity of atoms contained
in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 [1].

Evolution
Standards of measurement have evolved over time as a result of human needs for consistency, accuracy, and
comparability in various fields. Let's take a look at their evolution:
➢ Early Standards:
In ancient times, standards of measurement were often based on local customs and practical
considerations. For example, the length of a foot was determined based on the average size of a person's
foot, and the mass of objects was measured using balances and reference objects like stones or grains.
➢ Prototype Standards:
As societies advanced, standardized objects or prototypes were developed to serve as reference
standards. For instance, the ancient Egyptians used a cubit rod made of a particular material as a
standard length, by the pharaoh Khufu, in the building of the great Khufu Pyramid around 2,900 B.C.
Khufu declared the standard for measurement was to be a fixed unit called the Egyptian Royal Cubit [3],
These prototypes provided a tangible and reproducible basis for measurement.
➢ National and International Standards:
With the development of trade and commerce, nations began establishing their own standards of
measurement. For instance, the French Revolution led to the creation of the metric system in the late
 18th century, which aimed to provide a decimal-based system of measurement. Over time, international
efforts emerged to establish uniform standards globally, leading to the formation of organizations like
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and the development of the
International System of Units (SI).

Material Standards
Materials standards are crucial in ensuring the consistency and reliability of measurements. Here are
some key aspects of materials standards:
❖ Artifact (Object based) Standards:
These standards rely on physical objects made from specific materials with well-defined properties. For
example, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) was an artifact made of platinum-iridium that
served as the standard for mass until 2019 [4].
❖ Atomic and Molecular Standards:
With advancements in science, atomic and molecular properties have been utilized for creating
standards. For example, the speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental constant used to define the meter.
Similarly, the frequency of a specific atomic transition in cesium is used to define the second [4].
Advantages of Material Standards:
1) Consistency: Material standards provide a consistent basis for measurement, ensuring uniformity and
comparability across different locations and time periods
2) Calibration: Material standards enable the calibration of measurement instruments, ensuring accuracy
and traceability to established references.
3) Quality Assurance: Material standards support quality control processes, verifying the accuracy and
reliability of measurement systems.
4) Stability: Certain material standards exhibit long-term stability, allowing for reliable comparisons and
repeated use over extended periods.
5) Broad Applicability: Material standards cover diverse measurement quantities, fostering consistency
and compatibility across various industries and scientific disciplines [6].
Disadvantages of Material Standards:
1) Reproducing the material standard is challenging.
2) Ageing is a factor in regard to material standards. They were affected by environmental conditions
including temperature, pressure, humidity, etc., which caused changes in length.
3) difficulty while comparing and confirming the gauge’s size.
4) To prevent damage, the material standards need to be properly protected. Therefore, maintaining
material standards is difficult.
 5) There are no clones of the standard that can be used elsewhere.
6) To convert the material standards to metric systems, a conversion factor is required [5].

Wavelength Standards
Wavelength standards are essential for precise measurements, particularly in the field of optics and
electromagnetic radiation. They provide a stable and reproducible reference for calibrating instruments and
characterizing light sources.
The dependency of working standard on physical standard is eliminated by using wavelength of
monochromatic radiation as a natural and invariable unit of length. By doing so, the definition of standard
length relative to the meter is expressed in terms of the accurately known wavelength of light.
The wavelength produced by the element depends on the amount of isotope impurity present in the
standard. So, the pure isotopes of natural element, Krypton 86, is considered the most suitable source of pure
monochromatic light (if used in hot cathode discharge lamp maintained at 68K). Using wavelength standard,
the meter is defined as the 1650763.73x wavelength of a Krypton86 atom in a vacuum. Since it is not physical,
there is no need to preserve the wavelength standard. This standard length is reproducible, and replication error
can be of the order of 1 part in 109. It’s accessible to any laboratory [5].
The modern meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by the light in a vacuum in a time interval of
1/299792458 seconds. This is more accurate than the standard using Krypton- 86. Here accuracy is about 3
parts in 1011 [5].
Advantages of Wavelength Standards:
1) It is essentially unaffected by the ambient variables, including humidity, pressure, and temperature.
2) not impacted by deterioration.
3) readily accessible in enterprises and laboratories.
4) The standard is easier to compare and validate.
5) The accuracy of a wavelength standard is higher than that of a material standard.
6) Reproducing a wavelength standard is simple and accurate.
7) It is simple to adapt to other standards.
8) There is no requirement for preservation because the wavelength standard is not physically present.
There is no concern about destruction [5].
Disadvantages of Wavelength Standards:
1) Limited Range: Wavelength standards may have a restricted coverage of wavelengths, limiting their
applicability to specific measurement needs.
2) Calibration Complexity: Calibrating instruments against wavelength standards can be a complex
process, involving specialized equipment and expertise.
 3) Environmental Sensitivity: Wavelength standards can be sensitive to environmental conditions, such as
temperature and humidity, which may introduce uncertainties in measurements.
4) Technological Obsolescence: Advancements in measurement technologies may render existing
wavelength standards outdated or insufficient for emerging measurement requirements.
5) Limited Accessibility: Some wavelength standards may be proprietary or restricted, posing challenges
for users who require accurate measurements but lack easy access to the necessary standards [6].

REFERENCES:
[1] R. S. Figliola and D. E. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical Instruments, 7th ed.
[2] H. P. Layer, "Length—Evolution from Measurement Standard to a Fundamental Constant," NIST Journal,
[3] "Quick History of Creating Standards in Measurement," Interference Force Measurement Solutions,
[4] National Institute of Standards and Technology, Online. Available: https://www.nist.gov
[5] "Wavelength and Material Standards, Meteorology," mecholic.com
[6] ChatGPT