The use of thermochromic liquid crystals in heat transfer research

Jan A. Stasiek', Tomasz A. Kowalewski2

1
TechnicalUniversityofGdansk, PL 80-952 Gdansk, jstasiek(pg.gdapi
2 IPPT
PAN, Polish AcademyofSciences, PL 00-049 Warsaw, tkowa1eippt.gov.p1

ABSTRACT

In recent years Thermochroniic Liquid Crystals (TLC) have been successfullyused in non-intrusiveheat transfer and
fluid mechanics studies. Thin coatings ofTLC's at surfaces is utilised to obtain detailedheattransferdata ofsteady or
transient process. ApplicationofTLC tracers allows instantaneousmeasurementofthetemperature and velocityfields
for two-dimsionaI cross-sectionofflow. Computerisedflowvisualisatñitethniques allow automatic quantificationof
temperatureof the analysed surfaceorthe visualizedflowcross-section.Here wedescribe ourexperiencein applyingthe
method to selected problems studied in our laboratory. They include modelingflowconfigurationsin the differentially
heated inclined cavity with verticaltemperature gradient simulatingup-slope flowas well as thermal convectionunder
freezingsurface. The main aim oftheseexperimentalmodelsisto generatereliableexperimentaldatabase envelocityand
temperature fields for specific flow. The methods are based on computerisedtme-colour analysis ofdigital images for
temperature measurementsand modifiedParticle Image Velocimetryand Thermometry(P1VT) usedto obtain the flow
field velocity.

Keywords:temperaturemeasurements,liquidciystalsthennography, partide imagevelocimetiy andthermometty

1. iNTRODUCTION

Liquid crystals are highly anisotropicfluids that exist between the boundariesof the solid phase, and the conventional,
isotropicliquid phase. The TLCbasedtemperaturevisualisation isbasedontheproperty ofsomecholesteric and chiral-nematic
liquidciystal materials to reflect definite colours at specific temperatures and vieng angle. The colour change for the TLC
ranges from clear atambient temperature, through redas temperature increases andthen to yellow,green,blue andvioletbefore
turningcolourless (isotropic) again at a higher temperature. They appear colourless above and below the active range. The
colour-temperature play interval depends on the TLC composition. It can be selected for bands of about 0.5°C to 20°C, and
working temperature of-30°C to above 120°C. Thesecolour changes are repeatable and reversible as long as the TLC's are not
physically or chemically damaged. The response time of TLC's equals about 10 ms. It is short enough for typical thermal
problems in fluids. Since the colourchange is reversible and repeatable, they can be calibratedaccuratelywith propercare
and used in this way as temperature indicators. They can be painted on a surface or suspendedin a fluidand used to
indicate visiblythe temperature distribution. In this way, liquid crystals have been successfully applied to heat transfer
and fluid flow research. During the past liquid crystals have been extensivelyapplied to the qualitativevisualisationof
entire steady state, or transient temperaturefields on solid surfaces. Since quantifyingcolour is difficult and somewhat
ambiguous task, applicationof thermochromicliquid crystals initially was largely qualitative. Application ofthe colour
ifims or interference filters was tedious and inaccurate. First application of true-colour digital image processinggave
impact to qualitativeand fast temperaturemeasurements. Rapid developmentofthe hardwareand softwarecomputerised
image processingtechniques made possible now to set-up inexpensivesystem capable for real-timetransient full field
temperaturemeasurements usingTLCs. In this paper we review the above issues, and use illustrativeexamples from our
own work in applyingTLC to the study offorced and natural convective heattransfer, on a cooledsurfaceheated by air
flow disturbedby a number of complexgeometrical configurations, and for temperatureand flow visualisationin closed
cavities also with phase change. Significance of the full field temperature and flow measurementsfor verificationof
numericalresultsbecomes evident. We found that only with help ofthe full fieldmeasurements it was possible to identify
serious discrepancies between numerical predictions and the experimentalobservations. With help of the experimental
feedbackit was possible to introducenecessarymodifications to numericalcodesandin such a way to improveits output in
the correctdirection.

Liquid Crystals: Chemistry, Physics, and Applications, Jolanta Rutkowska, Stanislaw J. Klosowicz,
374 Jerzy Zielinsky, Editors, Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4759 (2002) © 2002 SPIE · 0277-786X/02/$15.00

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 2. LIQUID CRYSTALSTHERMOGRAPHY

Liquid crystalsare temperature indicators that modify incident white light and display colour whose wavelengthis
proportional to temperature. They can be painted on a surface or suspendedin the fluid andusedto make visible the
distributionoftemperature. Normallyclear, or slightly milkyin appearance, liquid crystals change in appearanceover a
narrow range of temperature called the "colour-play interval" (the temperature interval between first red and last blue
reflection), centredaround the nominal "eventtemperature". The displayedcolour is red at the low temperaturemargin of
the colour-playinterval andblue at thehigh end. Within thecolour-playinterval, thecolourschangesmoothlyfrom redto
blue as a function oftemperature.Pureliquid ciystal materialsare thick, viscous liquids,greasyand difficultto dealwith
undermost heattransfer laboratoryconditions.The TLCmaterial is alsosensitiveto mechanical stress. Amicro-encapsulation
process whichendosessmallportions ofliquidciystal material inpolymeric material wasintroducedtosolveproblemswith the
stress sensitivity as well as with the chemical
I deterioration. For smface temperature measurements
applicationof the unencapsulatedmatenal (unsealed
liquids)to a clear plastic sheet and sealing it with a
srretic
:1
str0 black backing coat to form a pre-packagedassembly
—S
———
—_____ —_______
CHRAL NEMA1COR CHOESTERIC
_____—
(Ch)
—* — is used. Commercially are available temperature
, indicatmg devices usmg TLC contam a thin film of
c the hquid crystal sandwichedbetween a transparent
' polyester sheet and a black absorbing background,
7cmnrn
howeverill the current experimentthe liquid crystals
are deposited on the black painted sheet. For flow
analysis the suspension of thermochromic liquid
crystals can be used to make visible the temperature
and velocityfields in liquids By dispersingtheliquid
crystal matenal mto the liquid they become not only
E classical tracers used for flow visualisation but
simultaneously small thermometersmomtonng local
,
fluid temperature 13, 15 The collimated source of
4A9nrn
—— whitelightmust be used to illuminate selectedcross-
sectionof the flow (light sheet technique)andcolour
images are acquiredat perpendiculardirection.
In the followingexamplesthe unencapsulated
mc s tracers have been applied to measure both
: teniperature andvelocityflowfields We foundthat light
>F —v—
—— scattered by the capsule shell mevitable diminishes
saturation of the observed colours Because for slow
REDSTART
I RUE1RT
CLERNGPONT
motion the stress effects are negligible we prefer
TEMPERATURE
application of fine dispersed raw material in flow
Fig.1 Typical reflected wavelength(colour) temperatureresponse of a measurements
mcmixture.
2.1 SurfaceTemperature Measurements

Beforethe execution ofa thermal or flow visualisationexperiment,we should recognisethe characteristicsofthe overall
combination of the TLC, the light source, the optical and camera system, and make a rational plan for the total
measurementsystem. The relationshipbetweenthe temperatureofthe crystal andthe measuredHue ofthe reflectedlight
defines the calibration curve for the liquid crystal. The result is a curve relating the Hue ofthe reflected lightto the
surface temperature. A knowntemperaturedistributionexists ona 'calibration plate"(brass plate)to whichisattached the
liquidcrystal layer. In order to maintain alineartemperaturedistributionwith desiredtemperaturegradients,one endofa
brass plate was cooledby StabiIiSCd water and the other end controlledelectricallyto give a constant perature1'15 The
brass plate with the liquid crystal layer is calibratedin place in the windtunnel with the same lighting level and viewing
angle usedduring the dataacquisitionphase ofthe experiment. The distributionofthe colour component pattern on the
liquid crystal layer was measuredby RGB colour camera and a series of images at differenttemperaturesdefines the
calibration.

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 Pixels U
211 241 271 301

IRA
I7fl
38
150
140 37
130
120 36
a,

-
110
(U
35 a,

90
E Ta U
___________

80
- mylar sheet
34
77.5
70
— — liquidcrystal
black aint
32.64aC adhesivetape
—b..• . :
-
'J c PCVsheet
I

—
ov
9 10
Tb
Length(cm)

Fig. 2 Representativecalibrationcurve - Hue and temperature Fig. 3 Liquidcrystal package(frontprint and waterproof
distributionalongthe test plate
A representativecalibrationcurve including Hue and temperaturedistributionalong the plate is shown in Figure
2. Theliquidcrystalsusedhere,manufacturedin sheet form byB & HLimited(Fig. 3), had an eventtemperaturerange of
30.7 - 33.3°C. In the actual measurements, only the yellow-green colourband correspondingto t1 = 32.1°Cwas used as it
is the brightest and sharpest. In this particular experimentuncertaintywas estimated as about 0.05°C by considering
only the section ofthe surfaceused in the experiment,span wise non-uniformitiesin Hue value are minimized.For the
surface temperature measurement HIS colour image processing is utilised. These include image transformations,
enhancement, analysis, compression, transformationand restorations. Buildingon grey-scaleimageprocessinghardware
and software, Data Translationhas produceda 512 x 512 pixels x 8 bit per colour component colourframe-grabber board
for PC/ATswhich takes up a 256 K byte ofmemory. The two dimensionaltemperaturedistributionis determinedusing
RGB video-camera, IBM 386 PersonalComputerAT, HSI ColourFrame Grabber DT2871 andAuxiliaryFrameProcessor
DT 2858. As shown,the chart is also for an RGB video-recorder (JVC-S605E), includesa Time BasedCorrectorVT 3000
and KMV7EKRGB converter.New chart with JVC-S605Eas the terminal makes it possiblefor presentationtapes to be
loaded, cued and played exactly on schedule with all operation handed by the computer. For fast and transit method,
accurate location of specific scenes or edit points JVC-S605E is providedwith a convenient, easy-to-use search dial. A
time base corrector(TBC)controlstimestracking systems and easy identification colour-codedimages.
Two main methods of surface temperature measurement are performed involving steady state and transient
techniques.A brief history12ofthese is given by Baughn et al 2 Recentreviews
,
been producedby Moffat" Jones et al Ashforth-Frostet al and Stasiek 16
.ofheat transfer measurementshave also

(a) SteadyState Analyses - ConstantFlux Method

The steady statetechniques employ a heated model and the TLC is usedto monitor the surfacetemperature.Usually a
surface electric heater is employed such that the local flux, q is known and this, together with the local surface
temperature,T, (foundfromthe TLC),gives the local heattransfer coefficient, h,

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 q
q=I2randh= (1)
TaTw
Ta jS a convenient
drivinggastemperature, I is thecurrent andr is theelectricalresistanceper squareoftheheater.
(b) SteadyStateAnalyses - Uniform TemperatureMethod
The TLC-coated test specimen forms one side ofa constanttemperaturewater bath and is exposed to a cool/hotair flow.
The resulting thermographis recorded on film or video and further measurementpositionsare obtainedby adjusting the
water bath temperature. This methodis more time consumingdueto the large volumeofwaterthat needstobeheated. In
this case,theheattransfer coefficient is determinedbyequatingconvection to theconduction at thesurface,
k
h(TaTw) = —(T-Tb) (2)
where, Tb is a water-sidetemperatureofthe wall, xthe wallthicknessand k the thermal conductivity.

(c) Transient Method

This technique requires measurement of the elapsed time to increase the surface temperature of the TLC-coated test
specimen from a knowninitial temperaturepredetermined value. The rate ofheating is recordedby monitoringthe colour
change patterns ofthe TLC with respect to time. Ifthe specimen is made from a material oflow thermal diffusity and
chosen to be sufficiently thick, then the heattransfer process can be considered to be one-dimensional (1-D) in a semi-
infinite block. Numerical and analyticaltechniques can be used to solve the l-D transient conduction equation. The
relationshipbetweenwall surface temperature,T, and heattransfer coefficient, h, forthe semi-infinite case is,
T-T
e erfc(fl);fi =hI O.5
TaTj pck)
where, p, c and k are the model density, specific heat and thermal conductivity. T1 and Ta are the initial wall and gas
t
temperaturesand is time from initiationofthe flow,Baughn et al3 and Jones et a!5. MorerecentlyLeineret al9 developed
a new formulafor evaluation ofheattransfercoefficient h in following form:
opc
h=—--——lni [i-T1 I
(4)
t
[Ta-i;]
where, is aplate wall thicknessandthetransit local surfacetemperatureT is detectedaftera time intervalt.

2.2 Full field temperatureand velocity measurements

The temperaturevisualization is based on the property ofsome cholesteric and chiral-nematicliquid crystalmaterials to
refract lightofselected wavelengthas a function ofthe temperatureand viewingangle. The responsetime ofTLCsequals
about 3ms. It is shortenough for typicalthermal problemsin fluids. In the experimentalrealizationthe investigated flow
has to be illuminated by a light sheet. The arrangementis similar to that used for classical PIV experiments, however
white light is necessaryto obtain selectedcolor refractionfrom the TLC particles. The color of light refractedby TLCs
dependsnot only on temperaturebut also on the observation angle. Therefore,it is importantthat the investigatedflowis
illuminatedby well-definedlightplane and observed by a camera from a fixed direction. Density ofthe TLC material is
very closedto that ofwater and in most casesthe TLC tracers can be treated as neutrallybuoyant. Figure4 demonstrates
applicationof unencapsulated TLC tracers for visualizationofnatural convection in a differentiallyheated cube-shaped
cavity. The hue (chromaticity) represents the dominantwavelengthofthe color, i.e. the value that dependsdirectly on the
TLCs temperature. The temperature is determined by relating the hue to a temperature calibration function. The 8-bit
representationofthe hue value assures resolutionbetterthan 1%. However, the color - temperaturerelationshipis strongly
non-linear (comp. Fig. 5). Hence, the accuracyofthe measuredtemperaturedepends on the color (hue) value, and varies
from 3% to 10% ofthe full color play range. For the liquid crystals typicallyused it results in the absolute accuracyof
0.15°C for lower temperatures(red-green color range) and 0.5°C for higher temperatures(blue color range). The most
sensitiveregion is the color transition from red to green and takes place for a temperaturevariationless then one Celsius
degree.The 2-D velocity vectordistributionhas beenmeasuredbydigital particle imagevelocimetry. By thismethod,the

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 motion ofthe scatteringparticles,observedin the planeofthe illuminatinglightsheet, is analyzed.For this purpose, the
color images of the TLC tracers are transformedto black & white intensity images. To improve contrast and particles
visibilitya special filtering techniqueis applied. It allowsobtainingbright images ofthe tracers, well suitedfor PIV. The
cross-correlationanalysisperformedbetweendifferentimages ofthe sequence (timeinterval betweenpairs changes)allows
us to preserve similar accuracyfor both the low and high velocity flow regions. For typical displacementvector of 10
pixels the relative accuracyof the velocity measurement (for single point) is better than 6%. The typicalexperimental
setup usedfor the flow measurements4'5consistsofa convectionbox, a halogentube lamp, the 3-chip CCD color camera
and the 32-bit frame grabber. The flow field is illuminated with a 2mm thin sheet of white light from a specially
constructedhalogen lamp or xenon-flash tube and observedin the perpendiculardirection. The 24-bit color images,
typicallyof768x564pixels, havebeen acquiredwith apersonalcomputer.Using PCI basedcolor frame grabber (AM-STh
ITI) anda 128MB Pentiumcomputer,oursetup permitsus to gaininreal time over 50 RGB images,beforethey havetobe
savedon the computermagneticdisk
31.5
TC100I calibration curve
31.0
305
30.0
29.5
29.0
25.5

or)28.0
27.5
E-27.0
28.5

26.0
25.5
26.0

Hue
Fig. 4. M dexposedcolor photographofthe convectiveflow Fig 5. Temperaturevs. hue for TLCs sampleused to study natural
seeded with liquid crystal tracers. Tracers change color from convection of water. Calibration curve obtained by 6th order
blueto red following the clock-wiseflow circulationfrom the polynomial fitted tothe experimentalpoints.
hotwall(leftside) to thecoldwall(right side).

3. APPLICATION EXPERIMENTS
In order to demonstratethe feasibilityof TLC techniquesin practical heattransfer contextsthe authors have performed
severalexperiments. The first setwas carried out to investigatetemperatureandheattransfer coefficient distributionsona
cooledsurfaceheatedby an air flow and disturbedby a numberofcomplex geometrical configurations, namely,
i. Squareroughnesselementsand rib-roughenedchannel
ii. Crossed-corrugated andcorrugated-undulatedelementsas used in rotaryheatexchangers(regenerators)
iii. Flatplate heatexchangerelementandimpingingjet.
Inthe secondset ofexperimentstheflowvelocityandtemperaturedistributionina smallcavitieswere observed.
3.1. Surface temperaturemeasurements— selected results

Theexperimentalstudywascarried out using an open low-speed windtunnel consisting of entrance sectionwith fan and
heaters, large settling chambers with diffusingscreen and honeycomb, and then mapping and working sections. Air is
dniwn through the tunnel using a fan able to give Reynolds numbers of between 500 and 50,000 in the mapping and
working sections. The working air temperaturein the rig range between 25°C to 65°Cproducedby the heater positioned
justdown stream ofthe inlet. The majorconstructionmaterial ofthewindtunnel is perspex.Localand mean velocity are
measured using conventionalPitot tubes and DISA hot-wires velocity probe. The alternative effects of constant wall
temperature and constant heat flux boundary conditions are obtained using a water bath, while the temperature is
controlledwith athermostatcapableofestablishingandmaintainingtemperaturetowithin accuracy.

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Mappingsectiongeometries.
Fig. 6 Mappingsectiongeometrieswithsquareroughness
elementsand rib-roughened channel
Fluidflow
S of applications including metal rolling processes, glass
Fig. 7 Workingsection-generalview ofcorugated-
undulatedheattransfer element.
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Photographs aretaken using aRGB video-camera andtrue-colour
image processing system. The heat transfer coefficient is a
defined quantity, calculated from the surface heat flux and the
difference between the surface temperature and some agreed
referencetemperature. This is usually the far field temperature,
themixed mean temperatureor theadiabaticsurface temperature.
Liquid crystals can be used to determine the distributionofthe
surface temperature,and ifthe surface heatfluxcan be found,this
allows evaluation of the heat transfer coefficient or the Nusselt
number. The alternative effectsofconstant wall temperatureand
constant heatflux boundaryconditionsare obtainedusing a water
bath. Photographs are taken using a RGB video-cameraand a
true-colour image processing technique. Usually several
isotherms(each correspondingto a differentheat flux) are taken
by RGB video-camerato recordthe local Nuseltcontoursunder an
oblique Reynolds number. The locationsof each isotherm and
colour(adjustedto each Nusseltnumber)are digitisedfollowing a
projection of the false colour image on a digitising image
respectively (this particular method can be called "Image
Combination Technique" ICT). Fig. 8a shows photographsofthe
colour distribution of the liquid crystal layer around square
sectioncolumn,image ofthe computerdisplayafter segmentation
processing(Hue: 45-55) and thlse colour imageprocessing(ICT)
respectivelyon bottom. Also (as mentioned above) liquid crystal
thermographyhas been applied to the study of heat transfer by
forcedconvection from a squareroughnesselements.A sampleof
theresults for these studies is shown in Figure 8b. Recording the
colourpattern by a RGB video-camera and convertingthe stored
image to the HSI domain allows one to reconstructthe isotherm
lines in the newcolour scale (ICT) selected arbitrarilyfor better
understandingand visualization ofheattransfer and fluid motion.
Also Fig. 9 shows a false colour image of local Nusselt number
contoursover a central diamond ofthe corrugated-undulated heat
exchanger surfaces. The cross corrugated and corrugated-
undulated surfaces are frequently employed to increase heat
transfer coefficient for high heat flux applications (Fig 9).
Improvements in their flow and thermal characteristics does not
require any demonstrationsand would substantiallyreduce fuel
and production costs. The measuring technique comprisingthe
use ofLC flexible sheetsand true-colour processingmayalso be
used for a great variety of applications and should be of
considerable use in improving the design of all types ofcompact
heat exchanger. Experimental procedure cover full-field flow
patterns in classic heat exchanger elements(flat plate with fine-
tubes in-line, staggered and with vortex generators) describing
local heattransfer coefficient andNusseltnumber on the surfaces.
Example of such results is presented in Fig. 10. Impingingjets
associatedwith water jet, air-water spray and air jet are widely
used to provide high local heat and/or mass transfer in a various
manufacturing, paper drying or gas turbine cooling (Fig. 11 and
Fig. 12).
Proc. SPIE Vol. 4759 379
 Fig.8 a) True-colourimages from liquid crystalthermographyfor

'
an endwallsurface with rn-line square ribs (left); b) Pattern of
tenNusselt number Nureconstructedby false colour images of
the heat transfer surface for Re = 20000 (No. 0: Nu = 79; 9: 99;
8: 113;7: 1" 136; 5: 147;4: 160;3: 175;2: 185;1: 209)

Fig. 9 r
image oi
central (hanond of the undulated plate
s overa Fig. no. — Ltnumber — 14.5
-
idulated Local Nusselt number: red - 6.80, green 7.82, blue - 11.98,
geometty °,Re"2080, H8.8mm, L:

Fig.12 False colour image of local Nusselt number contours.

Fig. 11 True-colourimage of water impmgmgjet on a liquid LocalNusselt number. red — 39,2, khaki — 14,9,blue- 11, green
crystal coatedsurface. — 9,1, violet— 5,98.Nusseltavr.— 15,03

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 3.2. Naturalconvectionin aclosed cavity — selected results

Vertical temperature gradients are mainlyresponsible for the atmospheric or oceanographic fluid motion. Development ofthe
nocturnal stable stratification over flat areas, inversion oftemperature gradient and breakup ofthe convective boundary layer
developed at the ground levels can be simulated using small-scale laboratory experiments. One of the typical features
characterizing instabilities generated by vertical temperature gradient are plums or ejections aearing when the thermal
boundary layerbreaksup. Figure 13 shows visualization ofthethennaljetsgenerated by local heatingoftheflat surface. Thehot
liquid accelerates creating "a micro tornado" above the surface. Usingliquid crystals suspension this fluid motion can be well
quantified interms oftemperature andvelocityfields.

Fig 5.TLCs visualizationofa thiai aloft generate.overloc omwall ofawater basin.

C
d
Fig. 14. Convection observed for water in the tilted channel th 11°C temperature difference between top and bottom wall. (a) -TLCs
visualization oftemperature field for stable thermal stratification, (b) —visualization of temperature field with convective instabilities for
-
negative temperature gradient, (c) PJV evaluatedvelocityfield
simulation.
th velocity magnitude contours, (d) —temperature field in the numerical

a
Similar flow structures, aearingin quasiperiodic sequence are observedintheexperiment simulating transitionfrom
stable to unstable thermalstratification.Arectangular cavity with isothermal topandbottom wallisusedto generatetheflow. For
fullyhorizontal orientation flow patternin suchgeometry is well knoi
as Rayleigh-&nard type, with characteristic instability
arising for negativetemperature gradients. Tilting the cavity generates additional convectivemotioncommences alongthe walls,

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 similarly to up or down slopemotionin the atmosphere. Figure 14a shows stable Stratifiedconfiguration with coldbottom and
warmfluidabove, typical fornocturnal configurationofthe atmosphere.Destabilizing effectsofforcedconvection(low nds)
can
beVisUaliZedby img external flow field. Byreversing temperaturegradient (diurnalconfiguration)theconvectiveboundaiy
layerstartsto move pushingfluidup the slope(Fig.14b,c,d).Theflow induces instabilitiesbreaking the thermalboundaiylayer
and producing quasi-periodicvertical ejections ofwanner flu4 and similarcoldfluidplumsfathng doi
from the topwall.This
typeof instability depends on the slope inclination and thermalparameters and is primaiy agents responsthle for the vertical
mixingprocesses inthe convectiveboundaiy layer. Bothvelocitythemeasured temperatureandvelocityfields indicate presence of
thermalup draughtsand doidmughts.Numerical simulation performed usingcommercial codeFluent shows mainfeatures of
theexperiment Fig. 14d).
a
Generation ofthe thermalinstabilities canbe wellobserved inthe experiment with cooling fromthe top in cube shapedcavity.
a
Thetopwallofthecavity isisothermal atlowtemperature andtheotherfivewallsare non-adiabatic,allong heatfluxfrom the
fluidsurrounding the box This configuration was usedto studynaturalconvection ofwater without andwith phasechange7
(freezing from the top). Physically this configuration resembles the Rayleigh-Bénard problem. However, due to non-adiabatic
boundary conditions at the sidewalls,the flow structure is differentForthe cube shapedcavity symmetiy ofthe enclosure imposes
a
a strong downward flow along thevertical axis of symmetry. However, before stable final flow structure is achieved, several
oscillatol3Tchanges in its patternare obseived. The initial flow instabilitiesare well seen in temperatureand velocityfields
visualized in the box (Figure 15a,b). Numerical simulations confirmed that onsetofconvection is followed by formation of
several coldthermalsresponsiblefor strong mixinginthebox (Fi& 15c).

L L I''

sec
A B C
Fig. 15. Ticalinstabilities measured duringthe onsetofconvection temperature (a) and velocity (b) fieldsatthe centerplane ofthe cube
shaped cavity; Th21°C,T=15°C,Ra2.7106, (c)—numerical simulations.

The formation of ice has been StUdied by decreasing the lid tempemthre doito -10°C. A complicated flow pattern, which
establishes, becomes visthle also in the structure of the ice surface. It was found that thecreation oftheice layerat thelid has a
stabilizing effect on the flow. Figure 16 shows the temperature and velocityfield evaluatedat the time step 3600s for this
case. It appears that even this quasi-steadyresult is only qualitatively well describedby numerical model. One of the
possible reasonsis strong sensitivityofthis configurationto imposedthermal boundaryconditionsat the sidewalls.

(a) 0') (c)

Fig. 16 Freezingof water under coldsurfacein lid cooled cavity. Recordedimage ofTLC tracers (a), evaluatedtemperature(b) and
velocity (c) fields. Time step - 3600s after cooling starts;Isothermallid temperature T
-10°C,external temperathreT 20°C.

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 4. CONCLUSIONS

A newexperimentaltechnique, in this casetrue-colourimageprocessingofliquidcrystalpatterns, allowsnewapproaches

to oldproblemsand at the same time opensup newareas ofresearch. Imageprocesseddata makes availablequantitative,
full-fieldinformation about the distributionoftemperatureandheattransfer coefficient which willundoubtedly encourage
the studyofsituationswhich havebeen, until now, too complexto consider. The measuringtechniquecomprisingtheuse
of LC flexible sheets and true-colourprocessingmay also be used for a great variety of applicationsand should be of
considerable use in improvingthe design ofall types ofrotaryand compactheatexchanger. Also computer aided analysis
of colour images of unsealed TLC-tracersis a useful non-invasivemethod of investigatingthree-dimensional flow and
temperaturefields and theireasy comparison with numericalresults.

5. REFERENCES

1. Akino, N. Kuau, T. Shiina, Y. Ichimiya, K. andKurosawa, A. : Fundamental study on visualizationoftemperature fields

It
usingthermosensitive liquidcrystals. Reznicek, (ed), Flow Visualization V. Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Washington
(1990) pp. 87-92.
2. Ashforth-Frost, S. Wang, L.S. Jambunathan, K. Graham, D.P. and Rhine, J.M. : Application ofimageprocessing to liquid
crystal thermography. Proceedings ofthe First I.Mech.E. Seminar on Optical MethOdsand 1)ata Processing in Heatand
FluidFlow. CityUniversity,London (1992) pp. 121-126.
3. Baughn, J.W. and Yan, X: Liquid crystal methods in experimental heat transfer. Proceedings of32ndHeatTransfer and
Fluid. Mechanics Institute Sacramento, California (1991) pp. 15-40.Hiller, W., Kowalewski, T.A. Simultaneous
measurementof the temperature and velocityfields in thermal convective flows, in Flow Visualization W, Ed.
ClaudeVeret,pp. 617-622,Hemisphere, Paris, 1987.
4. a
Hiller, W.J., Koch, St., Kowalewski, T.A. & Stella, F. Onset ofnatural convection in cube, mt. J. Heat Mass
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