Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters

of galaxies, and large-scale structure

The following is a timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure of the universe.

Pre-20th century
5th century BC — Democritus proposes that the bright band in the night sky known as the
Milky Way might consist of stars.
4th century BC — Aristotle believes the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery
exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the
"ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is
continuous with the heavenly motions".[1]
964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), a Persian astronomer, makes the first recorded
observations of the Andromeda Galaxy[2] and the Large Magellanic Cloud[3][4] in his Book of
Fixed Stars, and which are the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from
Earth.
11th century — Al-Biruni, another Persian astronomer, describes the Milky Way galaxy as a
collection of numerous nebulous stars.[5]
11th century — Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham), an Arabian astronomer, refutes Aristotle's theory
on the Milky Way by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's
parallax.[6] and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very
remote from the Earth and did not belong to the atmosphere".[7]
12th century — Avempace (Ibn Bajjah) of Islamic Spain proposes the Milky Way to be made
up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in
the Earth's atmosphere.[1]
14th century — Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya of Syria proposes the Milky Way galaxy to be "a
myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and that these stars are
larger than planets.[8]
1521 — Ferdinand Magellan observes the Magellanic Clouds during his circumnavigating
expedition.
1610 — Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to determine that the bright band on the sky, the
"Milky Way", is composed of many faint stars.
1612 — Simon Marius using a moderate telescope observes Andromeda and describes as a
"flame seen through horn".
1750 — Thomas Wright discusses galaxies and the flattened shape of the Milky Way and
speculates nebulae as separate.
1755 — Immanuel Kant drawing on Wright's work conjectures our galaxy is a rotating disk of
stars held together by gravity, and that the nebulae are separate such galaxies; he calls
them Island Universes.
1774 — Charles Messier releases a preliminary list of 45 Messier objects, three of which
turn out to be the galaxies including Andromeda and Triangulum. By 1781 the final
published list grows to 103 objects, 34 of which turn out to be galaxies.
1785 — William Herschel carried the first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and
the position of the Sun in it by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of
 the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the
center.
1845 — Lord Rosse discovers a nebula with a distinct spiral shape.

Early 20th century

1912 — Vesto Slipher spectrographic studies of spiral nebulae find high Doppler shifts
indicating recessional velocity.
1917 — Heber Curtis find novae in Andromeda Nebula M31 were ten magnitudes fainter
than normal giving a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs supporting the "island universes"
or independent galaxies hypothesis for spiral nebulae.
1918 — Harlow Shapley demonstrates that globular clusters are arranged in a spheroid or
halo whose center is not the Earth, and hypothesizes, correctly, that its center is the Galactic
Center of the galaxy,
26 April 1920 — Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis debate whether Andromeda Nebula is
within the Milky Way. Curtis notes dark lanes in Andromeda resembling the dust clouds in
the Milky Way, as well as significant Doppler shift.
1922 — Ernst Öpik distance determination supports Andromeda as extra-galactic object.
1923 — Edwin Hubble resolves the Shapley–Curtis debate by finding Cepheids in the
Andromeda Galaxy, definitively proving that there are other galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
1930 — Robert Trumpler uses open cluster observations to quantify the absorption of light
by interstellar dust in the galactic plane; this absorption had plagued earlier models of the
Milky Way,
1932 — Karl Guthe Jansky discovers radio noise from the center of the Milky Way,
1933 — Fritz Zwicky applies the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and obtains evidence for
unseen mass,
1936 — Edwin Hubble introduces the spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxy
classifications,
1939 — Grote Reber discovers the radio source Cygnus A,
1943 — Carl Keenan Seyfert identifies six spiral galaxies with unusually broad emission
lines, named Seyfert galaxies,
1949 — J. G. Bolton, G. J. Stanley, and O. B. Slee identify NGC 4486 (M87) and NGC 5128
as extragalactic radio sources,

Mid-20th century
1953 — Gérard de Vaucouleurs discovers that the galaxies within approximately 200 million
light-years of the Virgo Cluster are confined to a giant supercluster disk,
1954 — Walter Baade and Rudolph Minkowski identify the extragalactic optical counterpart
of the radio source Cygnus A,
1959 — Hundreds of radio sources are detected by the Cambridge Interferometer which
produces the 3C catalogue. Many of these are later found to be distant quasars and radio
galaxies
1960 — Thomas Matthews determines the radio position of the 3C source 3C 48 to within
5",
1960 — Allan Sandage optically studies 3C 48 and observes an unusual blue quasistellar
object,
1962 — Cyril Hazard, M. B. Mackey, and A. J. Shimmins use lunar occultations to determine
a precise position for the quasar 3C 273 and deduce that it is a double source,
 1962 — Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage theorize galaxy formation by a
single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.
1963 — Maarten Schmidt identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar 3C 273
1973 — Jeremiah Ostriker and James Peebles discover that the amount of visible matter in
the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks
from flying apart or drastically changing shape,
1973 — Donald Gudehus finds that the diameters of the brightest cluster galaxies have
increased due to merging, the diameters of the faintest cluster galaxies have decreased due
to tidal distention, and that the Virgo cluster has a substantial peculiar velocity,
1974 — B. L. Fanaroff and J. M. Riley distinguish between edge-darkened (FR I) and edge-
brightened (FR II) radio sources,
1976 — Sandra Faber and Robert Jackson discover the Faber-Jackson relation between
the luminosity of an elliptical galaxy and the velocity dispersion in its center. In 1991 the
relation is revised by Donald Gudehus,
1977 — R. Brent Tully and Richard Fisher publish the Tully–Fisher relation between the
luminosity of an isolated spiral galaxy and the velocity of the flat part of its rotation curve,
1978 — Steve Gregory and Laird Thompson describe the Coma supercluster,
1978 — Donald Gudehus finds evidence that clusters of galaxies are moving at several
hundred kilometers per second relative to the cosmic microwave background radiation,
1978 — Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, N. Thonnard, and Albert Bosma measure the rotation curves
of several spiral galaxies and find significant deviations from what is predicted by the
Newtonian gravitation of visible stars,
1978 — Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn theorize that galaxy formation occurs through the
merger of smaller groups.

Late 20th century

1981 — Robert Kirshner, August Oemler, Paul Schechter, and Stephen Shectman find
evidence for a giant void in Boötes with a diameter of approximately 100 million light years,
1985 — Robert Antonucci and J. Miller discover that the Seyfert II galaxy NGC 1068 has
broad lines which can only be seen in polarized reflected light,
1986 — Amos Yahil, David Walker, and Michael Rowan-Robinson find that the direction of
the IRAS galaxy density dipole agrees with the direction of the cosmic microwave
background temperature dipole,
1987 — David Burstein, Roger Davies, Alan Dressler, Sandra Faber, Donald Lynden-Bell,
R. J. Terlevich, and Gary Wegner claim that a large group of galaxies within about 200
million light years of the Milky Way are moving together towards the "Great Attractor" in the
direction of Hydra and Centaurus,
1987 — R. Brent Tully discovers the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a structure one
billion light years long and 150 million light years wide,
1989 — Margaret Geller and John Huchra discover the "Great Wall", a sheet of galaxies
more than 500 million light years long and 200 million wide, but only 15 million light years
thick,
1990 — Michael Rowan-Robinson and Tom Broadhurst discover that the IRAS galaxy IRAS
F10214+4724 is the brightest known object in the Universe,
1991 — Donald Gudehus discovers a serious systematic bias in certain cluster galaxy data
(surface brightness vs. radius parameter, and the method) which affect galaxy distances
and evolutionary history; he devises a new distance indicator, the reduced galaxian radius
parameter, , which is free of biases,
 1992 — First detection of large-scale structure in the cosmic microwave background
indicating the seeds of the first clusters of galaxies in the early Universe
1995 — First detection of small-scale structure in the cosmic microwave background
1995 — Hubble Deep Field survey of galaxies in field 144 arc seconds across.
1998 — The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey maps the large-scale structure in a section of the
Universe close to the Milky Way
1998 — Hubble Deep Field South
1998 — Discovery of accelerating universe
2000 — Data from several cosmic microwave background experiments give strong evidence
that the Universe is "flat" (space is not curved, although space-time is), with important
implications for the formation of large-scale structure

Early 21st century

2001 — First data release from the ongoing Sloan Digital Sky Survey
2004 — The European Southern Observatory discovers Abell 1835 IR1916, the most distant
galaxy yet seen from Earth.
2004 — The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager begins to map the distribution of distant clusters
of galaxies
2005 — Spitzer Space Telescope data confirm what had been considered likely since the
early 1990s from radio telescope data, i.e., that the Milky Way Galaxy is a barred spiral
galaxy.[9][10][11]
2012 — Astronomers report the discovery of the most distant dwarf galaxy yet found,
approximately 10 billion light-years away.[12]
2012 — The Huge-LQG, a large quasar group, one of the largest known structures in the
universe, is discovered.[13]
2013 — The galaxy Z8 GND 5296 is confirmed by spectroscopy to be one of the most
distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the Big Bang,
expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 13 billion light years
away from Earth (30 billion light years comoving distance).[14]
2013 — The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, a massive galaxy filament and the
largest known structure in the universe, was discovered through gamma-ray burst
mapping.[15][16][17]
2014 — The Laniakea Supercluster, the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way is
defined via a new way of defining superclusters according to the relative velocities of
galaxies.[18][19] The new definition of the local supercluster subsumes the prior defined local
supercluster, the Virgo Supercluster, as an appendage.[20][21][22][23][24]
2020 — Astronomers report the discovery of a large cavity in the Ophiuchus Supercluster,
first detected in 2016 and originating from a supermassive black hole with the mass of 10
million solar masses. The cavity is a result of the largest known explosion in the Universe.
The formerly active galactic nucleus created it by emitting radiation and particle jets,
possibly as a result of a spike in supply of gas to the black hole that could have occurred if a
galaxy fell into the centre of the cavity.[25][26][27]
2020 — Astronomers report to have discovered the disk galaxy Wolfe Disk, dating back to
when the universe was only 1.5 billion years old, possibly indicating the need to revise
theories of galaxy formation and evolution.[28][29][30][31]
2020 — The South Pole Wall is a massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of
galaxies (a galaxy filament) that extends across at least 1.37 billion light-years of space, and
is located approximately a half billion light-years away.[32][33][34][35][36][37]
 2020 — After a 20-year-long survey, astrophysicists of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey publish
the largest, most detailed 3D map of the universe so far, fill a gap of 11 billion years in its
expansion history, and provide data which supports the theory of a flat geometry of the
universe and confirms that different regions seem to be expanding at different speeds.[38][39]
2022 — James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) releases the Webb's First Deep Field.
2022 — JWST detects CEERS-93316, a candidate high-redshift galaxy, with an estimated
redshift of approximately z = 16.7, corresponding to 235.8 million years[40] after the Big
Bang.[41] If confirmed, it is one of the earliest and most distant known galaxies observed.[42]

See also
Illustris project
Large-scale structure of the cosmos
Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys
Timeline of cosmological theories
UniverseMachine
List of largest cosmic structures

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