SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of elements from

the population to determine the characteristics of the variable understudy and to
draw inference about the larger group or population . Is the process of selecting
a representative of population to determine the characteristics of the variables of
population understudy. The larger group is known as the population being the
totality of cases being studied

JUSTIFICATION FOR SAMPLING or REASONS OR PURPOSE OF

SAMPLING

Some of the advantages of sampling as compared to the collection of data on the

whole population or census
i) Gathering data on a sample is less time consuming
ii) Gathering data on a sample is less costly since the costs of research are
proportional to the number of hours spent on data collection
iii) Sample study permits concentration more on study rather than
worry about collecting data from the field. If the entire population is
to be studied, a great deal of effort is exhausted, simply in pooling up
the data rather than on its analysis and interpretation. P
iv) Sample study permits higher overall level of accuracy. More
checks and test for accuracy can be afforded at all stages.
v) Sampling may be the only practicable method of data collection
especially in studies where the characteristics under investigations
necessitate the destruction of the object.
vi) Sampling is the only practical way of collecting data when the
population is infinity or extremely large
vii) Only way of collecting information where the population is widely
distributed
viii) Offers easy control of procedures

What are the disadvantages of sampling?

TERMS USED IN SAMPLING

a) Population/ Universe
The entire set of objects and events which is the object of research, about
which the wants to determine some characteristics e.g. all college
students in Zimbabwe. Is the large pool of sampling units.
 Target population is a specified large group of many cases from which a
researcher draws a sample and to which results from a sample are
generalized. Is a specific pool of cases the researcher wants to study.eg
students at Kushinga Polytechnic

b) SAMPLE FRAME
Is a list of all the elements of the defined target population from which
the sample is to be selected or drawn e.g. a list showing all college
students at KushingaPhikelela Poly, telephone directories, driver’s
licence records etc

c) SAMPLE
The sub—set of the whole population which is usually investigated by the
research and whose characteristics will be generalized to the entire
population. Is a small proportion of the population selected for
observation and analysis

d) CENSUS means the same as population. Counting all the elements of

the population

e) Sampling element is the unit of analysis or a case in a population or a

unit to be sampled

f) Sampling ratio is the number of cases in the sample divided by the

number of cases in the population or the sampling frame or the
proportion of the population in the sample

g) Population parameter is a characteristic of the entire population that is

estimated from a sample. Is the true characteristics of the population eg
% of residents who smoke cigarettes
h) Sampling error is the deviation between the sample results and a
population parameter due random process

SAMPLING PROCEDURES /STEPS

Below are common sampling procedures or steps:

i) Population definition is a large group of many cases from which
the researcher draws a sample and to which results from the sample
are generalized.
This is the target population the researcher wishes to make an
inference. The population must be defined in terms of time, ages
and characteristics. First there is need to understand the research
 topic and objectives because objectives specify the specific
information to be sort, hence identification of who can provide
necessary and important information

ii) Census Vs Sampling

There is need to decide where the survey is to be conducted after
definition of population ie on the whole or sub-set of the
population. Choice depends on:
a) Size of the population
b) Size of the precise boundaries of the population
c) Accuracy required
d) Administration consideration
e) Ability to control sampling and non-sampling errors
f) Costs and time

Census may be called for when:

-Population is small
-Where cost of error is high
-Fixed costs of sampling are high
-Where the variance in the characteristics being measured is high

iii) Determine and select the appropriate sampling frame

Sample frame is a list of study objects from which the sample is to
be drawn. The list can exist in physical and non-physical form and
should contain all characteristics of the population once and
information is both complete and accurate
-Can be acquired through commercial research

vi) Select sampling methods

The researcher should choose between probability and non
probability sampling methods
a) Probability sampling methods is where all elements of the
population have equal chances of being included in the
sample. Is an objective and scientific method of sampling.
Make use of randomness when selecting sample elements

b) Non-probability sampling methods is where sample elements

are selected using other methods other than randomness.
Elements do not have equal chances of being included in the
sample. Elements are purposively included or excluded
from the sample at the discretion of the researcher hence is a
subjective method of sampling. Sometimes known as
purposeful sampling method
 vi) Determine the most adequate sample size
Number of elements or size of sample should be decided using
either mathematical approach or judgmental approach among other
methods

vii) Select the sample and gather data

viii) Validate the sample by comparing the characteristics obtained

from the sample with those present in entire population
Attributes of sample so as to meet requirements of management and
researcher

i) The sample should be a representative of the population. The larger

the sample the more representative of the population
ii) Sample should be sufficient, accurate and provide stable results
iii) All research resources should be used as efficiently as time permits

TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sub-set of the population to

determine the characteristics of the variable under study. There are two basic
methods of sampling techniques which are non-probability sampling methods
and probability sampling methods.

The method to use depends on:

-Objectives of data collection
-Cost of sampling
-Time factor
-Expertise of the researcher
-Accuracy required or expected. Probability produces accurate sample,
results etc

Non- Probability Sampling Designs

- Are sampling methods in which the sample units are not selected
randomly.
- Criteria other than randomness are the basis for selecting elements from
the population. Rely heavily on personal judgment. Prohibit estimating
or chancing. Useful in exploratory research to probe ideas and insights.
More subjective or biased method
- Mostly used by qualitative researchers
- May not require determination of sample size in advance before sampling
 Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
- The sample may not be representative of the population from which it is
drawn. This is likely to produce biased results. Influences based on an
unrepresentative sample are likely to be misleading
- The sampling error cannot be predicted and quantified. This means that
statically inferences based on a non-probability sample data would be
invalid.

What are the advantages of Non-Probability Sampling?

*Despite the above weakness, non- probability sampling designs are useful
tools in the exploratory phase of research, a phase in which ideas and insights
are more important than scientific objectivity.

Non-profitability sampling procedures include convenience sampling, judgment

sampling and quota sampling.

1. Convenience Sampling
- Also known as haphazard or accidental sampling
- This represents a sample drawn to suit the convenience of the researcher
e.g. it may be convenient to interview only employees within one
company instead of selecting employees from a number of companies or
those available during the study or readily accessible with minimum
effort and costs or friendly to the researcher
- The researcher may also selects anyone he or she happens to come across
- Saves costs and time
- Systematic errors are unpredictable and not measurable on the resultant
sample.
- The sample may not be a representative of a the defined population

Convenience sampling is a useful tool in the exploratory phase of

research, phase in which h ideas and insights are more important than
scientific objectivity.

2. Judgment Sampling
- The sample consists of sampling units deliberately selected from the
population on the basis of the experience, judgment and expertise used
by the researcher to select the best sampling units to include in the sample
e.g. a sample of four of the most influential economists is asked to
estimate the next year’s rate of inflation
- Researcher uses his or her judgment to select what he or she thinks to be
the best satisfactorily
- This type of sample may be subject to error which although relatively,
can still not be measured or predicted.
- Pilot studies are based on such samples

Advantages of judgmental sampling

-Greater elimination of costs and time
-Non-essential are dropped immediately
-Since the researcher is aware of objectives hence only relevant elements
and data is gathered

Disadvantages of judgmental sampling

-Bias in estimation
-Strong assumption based upon thorough knowledge of the population
may
mislead
-Elimination of the use of inferential parameters and statistical tools
increase
sampling errors

3. Quota Sampling
- Is a non random sampling in which the researcher first identifies general
categories into which cases or people will be fall and then selects cases
from each category to reach a predetermined number of cases in each
category.
- The population is divided into a number of segments and the researcher
arbitrarily select a quota e.g. a certain percentage of sampling units of
each segments eg under 10, 20 etc
- Chosen in a way that the proportion of sample elements possessing a
certain characteristics is approximate the same as the proportion of the
elements with the characteristics of the population
- Elements are assigned a quota that specifies the characteristics of
elements to be contacted believed by the researcher to be more realistic

Advantages of quota sampling

- Permits substitution in case of inability or refusal
- Less expensive and quick sampling method
- Suitable for a population on which no stable population frame is possible

Disadvantages of quota sampling

There is high increase in errors in that:
- Characteristics are not the same characteristics of the population and the
sample
- Sample size is not determined using a consistent method
- danger of an error of omission
- Supervision of the interview work is impossible

4 Snowball sampling
Used where respondents are difficult to identify and are based on referrals
network.
An individual is initially discovered mostly using a non-probability
method, although probability can be used, and is used to locate others
who posses similar characteristics through referrals, who in turn identifies
others until the desired sample size is attained.
This method is used on issues which individuals are unwilling to come up
openly; hence incentives can be used to encourage elements to participate

5 Purposive sampling method

-Considered a form of judgmental sampling
-Selection of the cases is governed by some criterion acting as a
secondary control
-A group is selected by the researcher to constitute a sample because is
considered to mirror characteristics in question
-There is purposively selecting and leaving some elements of the
population
-Selected sample is to yield quickly averages and proportions of
characteristics to be studied e.g. an editor can be selected to represent the
public
-Units are restricted to units considered to be a typical of the population

Advantages
-Only cases considered judgmentally make the sample quite
representative
-Unnecessary elements are dropped out
-Purpose of the study can be fulfilled even if the sample is small
-The investigator clearly knows the objective of the research hence only
necessary elements are included

Demerits
-Selection can be biased and the resultant sample not representative of the
population
-Method cannot be used by an average investigator to select sample units
-Difficult to detect mistakes and inaccuracy till end
 6) Deviant case sampling also called extreme case sampling. Is a
nonrandom sampling in which a researcher selects unusual
nonconforming cases purposely as a way to provide greater insight into
processes or a setting. Used to seek cases that differ from predominant
characteristics of other cases

7) Sequential samplingis a non random sampling in which a researcher tries

to find as many relevant cases as possible until time, financial resources
or his or her energy is exhausted or until there is no new information or
diversity from the cases. Is similar to purpose sampling in that it tries to
find as many relevant cases as possible

8) Theoretical samplingis a non-random sampling in the researcher selects

specific times, location or events to observe in order to develop a theory
or evaluate theoretical ideas. A growing theoretical interest guides the
selection of sample cases

Probability Sampling Designs

- Probability sampling includes all selection methods where the sampling
units to be included in a sample are selected on a purely random or
chance basis from the population.
- All elements of the population have equal chances of being selected
- Is a more objective method of sampling, that is, not subjective and not
biased because is not dictated by human feelings
- The sample is thus representative of the population
- The sampling error can be measured and predicted
- Valid statistical inferences can be applied to data collected from
probability sample
- The common type of probability sampling designs aresample random,
systematic, stratified, cluster and multi- stage sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

- Also known as accidental sampling
- Each sampling unit in the entire population has an equal chance of being
selected. This method of sampling is used when it is assumed that the
population is relatively homogenous in respect of the variables or
characteristics understudy.
- Uses the lottery system. The sampling units can be selected using
numbered pieces of paper put in a drum or hat and the numbers are
selected one at a time until the required size is reached or by using
random dig its or numbers. One unit at a time is picked form a pool of
 units. Lucky ones are picked and included in a sample. A picked element
is not returned into the pool or drum

1 2 3 45 = 1 4

2. Systematic Sampling
- Follows a systematic or uniformity process when selecting sample
element. Sampling begins by randomly selecting the first sampling
units, thereafter subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform
interval, relative to the first sampling unit.

Procedures on systematic sampling

i) Population elements are numbered and put on a list on ascending
order
ii) Determine sample size
iii) Divide the population by the sample size to get the sampling
interval(population
segments). Sampling interval is the inverse of sampling ratio
iv) An element is picked randomly from the first segment of the
population
v) Subsequent sample units are selected at a uniform interval relative
to the
first selected sampling unit being governed by sampling interval

3. Stratified Sampling
- Use when the population is believed to or regarded as heterogeneous
with respect to the various variables or characteristics understudy
- The population is divided into mutual exclusive segments or strata where
the sampling units in each strata are relatively homogenous
- Thereafter random sampling can be done from each stratum. The
researcher needs to estimate the average mass of a large group of people.
First divides the group into strata e.g male and female and then selects a
sample from each stratum.

Steps for stratified sampling

i) Divide the population into mutual exclusive and exhaustive
segments or strata which are homogeneous
ii) Determine the sample size
iii) Determine the proportion of elements in each stratum to the size of
the population
iv) Determine the number elements to be picked from each stratum
 v) Pick randomly elements from each stratum until the required
number from stratum is reached
Heterogeneous Homogeneous Sampled
Population Stratas Elements

4. Cluster Sampling
- The population is divided into clusters where each cluster is similar in
profile to every other cluster, which is, containing the required number of
elements and characteristics of the population. A cluster is a unit that
contains final sampling elements but can be treated temporarily as a
sampling element.
- Used when researchers lack good sampling technique for a dispersed
population and the cost to reach a sampled element is very high
- A cluster is randomly selected from other clusters for investigation. The
sampling units within this randomly selected cluster maybe then be
randomly selected to provide a more representative sample from the
population.

5.Multi- Stage Sampling

- Multi-stage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling.
- It involves the process of selection at two or more successive stages
- The population is divided into clusters and a sample cluster is randomly
selected.
- The randomly selected clusters are divided into smaller clusters and are
randomly selected. The procedure is continued until the clusters are
small enough and the required sample size for investigation is attained.

6 Multiphase or Double sampling

-Is where the same elements are involved at each phase but with other
units (elements) asked to give more information or different information
than others. This result in differentiating details of questions to asked to
respondents.
-The process also involves collecting data from a sample using a
previously defined technique basing on the information found from the
previous sample and hence a sub sample is selected for further study.
Other statistical sampling methods are:
Block sampling
Discovery sampling
Acceptance sampling

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Is done before sampling to know the size of the sample
In order that the study be logical and meaningful the sample size should be
adequate to fulfill the objective of the research. Although various methods of
determining sample size are described separately below, rarely, will the
researcher rely only on one approach.

1. JUDGEMENT/SUBJECTIVE APPROACH
-The judgmental approach involves the researcher using informed intention
to
determine the most adequate sample size. Determination of sample size is
arbitrary, subjective and doesn’t consider the likely precision of the survey
results
or the cost of obtaining.
-Is a qualitative approach or subjective method depending on individual’s
feelings
-Is a convenient sample size determination technique, which is based on the
researcher’ judgment
-Is a cheaper and faster to obtain the required sample size and information
required
although the sample might not be a representative of the population

2. MATHEMATICAL APPROACH
- This is a quantitative approach based on statistical precision which relies on
the
traditional statistical formulae for determining sample size.
-Is objective, reliable, transmittable and measurable
-The sample size depends on 3 factors:
a) The level of confidence desired, obtained from the values of Z
scores
b) Maximum allowable error
c) The standard deviation of the population.

3. BAYESIAN DECISION ANALYSIS

This is a process that bases a decision on sample size on the expected value
of the
information obtained by the sample and the cost of taking the sample. The
approach
involves computing difference known as expected net gain from sampling for
various
sample size and choosing the sample size with the largest positive net gain.

4. COST LILMITATION
- This cost limitation methods determine sample size on the basis of budget
allocated to
the research project. This approach involves deducting from the available
budget all
non-sampling related cost such as fixed cost of designing the survey
questionnaires
preparation, data analysis and report generation to arrive at the desired sample
size.
This approach is unsatisfactory because its emphases on cost to the exclusion
of all
other factors especially precision. Time may also be considered.

5. INDUSTRY STANDARDS
- It refers to those rules of thump developed from experience that have
become
standard industry guidelines for determining sample size. Convectional
guidelines on
sample size vary with the type of research study.

Size of sample is also determined by

-Kind of data analysis the researcher plans
-How accurately the sample has to be for a researcher’s purpose
-Population characteristics
-The degree of accuracy required
-The degree of variability or diversity in the population elements
-The number of different variables examined simultaneously in data analysis

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

a) It must be representative of the population, that it should contain the
majority of the
characteristics of the universe, if not all.
b) It should be free from bias. Bias may creep into selection of the sample due
to reasons
like convenience substitution, mistake in the adoption of the sampling method
and
failure to cover the whole of the chosen population.
c) The sample should be adequate to yield reasonable conclusions regarding the
population from which the sample is drawn.
d) The sample must enable the researcher to measure the sampling errors.
Representative-ness of the sample and the validity of the conclusions
depends to a
large extend on these errors. The results of a good sample must be applicable to
all
items of the population with a reasonable level of confidence.
e) Should yield results applicable to all items of the population with a
reasonable confidence
f) Should be economic, that is, cost saving.

DISCREPANCIES (ERRORS) ARISING FROM THE SAMPLING

FRAME

1 OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Result when the defined population is extrme larger than the sampling
frame. Some objects in the population have no chance of being in the
sample because do not appear in the sampling frame although having
the required characteristics. This result in a less representative sample
Sampling frame Population

2 COMMISSION DISCREPANCY
Occurs when a sampling frame is larger than the defined population.
Results in objects being included more that once and also including of
unnecessary objects. Arises due to lack or incomplete information
about potential study objects. This can be reduced by screening before
data collection by using qualifying questions.

3 COMMISSION-OMISSION DISCREPANCY
Is a combination of omission and commission discrepancies. Caused
by, not including all objects in the population in the sampling frame
although these essentially containing the required characteristics or
not all objects in a sampling frame are in the population. Other
elements in the population are excluded while other objects in the
sampling frame are not from the population