The Developmental Authorities Reflection and/or Promotion of Diversity

Your name

Presented to the graduate faculty of the University of West Georgia in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Master of Public Administration degree

Exit Paper Committee:

Dr. David Smith, Chair
Dr. Julie Smith
Dr. John Smith

University of West Georgia

Summer 2021
 ABSTRACT

One of the current challenges lies in underscoring whether the diversification of government
institutions and public organizations in practice, as detailed in this case, continues to improve
their scope and capacity in delivering services to other underserved and diverse populations.
Haque (2019) was convinced that several factors exist and are unclear in regard to the public
administration of diversity in government institutions. This further suggested that determining
whether the growth in societal challenges that include social, legal, and political issues posed a
challenge for public administrative institutions to consider issues of diversity.

In response, this research study took stock and examined the state of public administrative
institutions in practising and promoting diversity. The research study was informed by the need
to assess developmental authorities and how they reflect and practice or promote diversity. In
other words, the research study examined the impact of community diversity, inclusion, and
equity on development authorities.

To this effect, this research utilized a conceptual and content analysis model in the analysis of
previous research and literature on diversity management in public administrative entities. Given
this, the use of a content analysis method and a conceptual model detailed the need for the
inclusion of research procedures that would help in quantifying the appearances of phrases and
concepts in the collected journals. According to Williams & Shepherd (2016), using this
approach remains essential in selecting, treating, and examining different texts to determine the
frequency of variables.

According to the findings of the study, public administrative institutions need to consider
measures and strategies that detail the need for organizations to focus more on measures that
include different populations in diverse programs in companies remains critical. This view
establishes the importance of diversity and inclusivity within organizations, suggesting that the
highest levels of diversity among minority populations play a fundamental role in the
management and operations of public administrative institutions. The findings established that
diverse and inclusive work environments remain critical in increasing the performance of
organizations and the job commitment of the workers. According to the outcomes of this study,
women and other minority population groups are frequently excluded from enjoying the benefits
of diversity within organizations.
 Table of Contents
1.1 Background................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Problem Statement.....................................................................................................................5
1.3 Research Objectives...................................................................................................................7
1.4 Research Questions....................................................................................................................7
2. Literature Review........................................................................................................................7
3. Hypothesis.................................................................................................................................13
4. Data and Method........................................................................................................................15
4. Analysis.....................................................................................................................................18
4.1 Diversity in Public Administrative Institutions Coded in the Research..................................18
4.2 Diversity Research as Coded in the Journals...........................................................................25
4.3 Diversity Research Coded in the Research by Decade............................................................29
4.4 Gender Differences as Coded in the Diversity Research.........................................................34
5. Analysis.....................................................................................................................................35
6. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................39
7. References..................................................................................................................................39
 Introduction

1.1 Background

Often viewed as accepting, recognizing, and understanding individual differences,

diversity plays a proverbial role in public administration. Society today has turned out as diverse

and more complex than before. This explains the reasons why individuals are primarily

categorized into different segments based on several variables. These variables, as provided by

Ritz & Alfes (2017), include the classification of people based on their race, gender, and

religiosity, among other factors. These factors all point to diversity that has, over the recent

years, turned fundamental in public administration. Recently, research studies revealed that the

preoccupation of individuals with issues of justice and equality within society resulted in the

identification of social equality as a fundamental pillar in public administration. Further, research

studies reveal that institutions that perform the best understand the dynamics of diversity and

inclusivity. Literature establishes that public administrative institutions and research rarely

reflect on diversity matters. Earlier in 1990, evidence collected from the research revealed that

diversity in public administration remained a nonexistent element at its best (Ritz & Alfes,

2017). Notably, this occurred following the passage and ratification of the "Civil Rights Act of

1964 and later in 1964," as established by Ritz & Alfes (2017). As viewed in the ratification of

the policy, evidence provided that issues of race and gender have significantly gained attention in

the administration of public institutions. This factor caught the attention of researchers.

Later in the 70s, public discourse on diversity ensued as a factor that changed the racial

card (Ritz & Alfes, 2017). Very little attention was directed to women and the other minority

population groups until later in the 80s when these cohorts began voicing their issues and

concerns due to a lack of representation in different leadership and managerial positions. Most
recently, an unprecedented growth in the representation of women and other minority population

groups in managerial, leadership, and public office has occurred. Moreover, an increase in the

prospect of diversity in public administrative institutions and government organizations has

recently paralleled changes in society and culture (Ding & Riccucci, 2022). The effects of this

have seen color and gender no longer viewed and treated as predominant in diversity, even as

ethnicities, religion, sexual identity, educational background, and language continue to grow in

prominence. To this effect, diversity plays a critical role in shaping the societal views of minority

groups and women in leadership roles in different institutions. A typical example of this is

evident in the recent election of Sonia Sotomayor as the first lady Chief Justice, Kamala Haris as

the first female American President, and Valarie Jarrett as the first Black female to have been

elected to assist and offer services to the current President of the US.

1.2 Problem Statement

Notably, one of the current challenges lies in underscoring whether the diversification of

government institutions and public organizations in practice, as detailed in this case, continues to

improve their scope and capacity in delivering services to other underserved and diverse

populations. Haque (2019) was convinced that several factors exist and are unclear in regard to

the public administration of diversity in government institutions. This further suggested that

determining whether the growth in societal challenges that include social, legal, and political

issues posed a challenge for public administrative institutions to consider issues of diversity.

Baracskay (2020) opines that several research studies conducted on diversity management within

government organizations and public administration are uninformative and deceptive. These

research studies gave public administrators and managers the least emphasis on improving and

enhancing work-related engagements and outcomes. Assumably, Haque (2019) and Baracskay
(2020) argue for the need to consider the use of recent data in validating the proponent of

diversity in research, a phenomenon that informs the purpose of this research study. This

research study went above the constraints faced by diversity researchers to bridge the existing

gap in the literature on diversity and inclusion in public administrative entities.

The research differentiated its approach into empirical and descriptive methods to

achieve the best and most validated data in this context. Given this, this research study had

several implications that revolve around addressing and finding solutions to the current diversity

issues, specifically in public management and government institutions. For example, one of the

outstanding legal disputes and cases brought before the Supreme Court Obergefell v. Hodges,

2015 typified the progress made on diversity in public administrative institutions. In light of the

ruling, Choi & Rainey (2014) argued that "the legalization of same-sex marriages took effect.

Therefore, public administrative institutions, nonprofit, and health administrators must draw a

line between professional conduct and the relevance of diversity" (Choi & Rainey (2014).

Further, as adduced in a research study by Choi & Rainey (2014), diversity is frequently tied to

gender and race. According to the research study results, public administrative firms and

government institutions in Georgia have often focused on cultivating a culture of diversity. These

efforts have, over time, played a critical role in the extension of procedures of managing

diversity beyond the existing challenges that place constraints on women and other minority

groups from enjoying several privileges.

1.3 Research Objectives

Research studies conducted over the past years assessing diversity and how it

significantly transformed society failed. Half a century later, limitations in research on diversity

and its impact on public administrative functions led to policy and legislative deficiencies in the
formulation of measures that embrace differences and promote equality. In response, this

research study took stock and examined the state of public administrative institutions in

practising and promoting diversity. The research study was informed by the need to assess

developmental authorities and how they reflect and practice or promote diversity. In other words,

the research study examined the impact of community diversity, inclusion, and equity on

development authorities. The objectives of the research study, therefore, included the need to:

 Examine how developmental authorities reflect and practice and/or promote diversity.

 Scrutinize the impact of community diversity, equity, and inclusion on developmental

authorities.

1.4 Research Questions

 How do developmental authorities reflect and practice, and promote diversity?

 How do community diversity, equity, and inclusion impact developmental

authorities?

2. Literature Review

In consideration of the significant changes in the evolution of demographic factors,

research studies conducted on diversity management play a critical role in streamlining the

diversity management process. In the early 90s, research studies, as adduced in the views of

Wang et al. (2019), drew focus and attention to affirmative actions, representative bureaucracy,

and equal employment opportunities in public administration. The research studies dwelled much

on normative measures that provided the most negligible impact on the management of

institutions. This factor significantly yielded adverse outcomes in practising diversity in different

work environments. According to Valldeneu et al. (2021), the quest for representation in
leadership for diverse populations and interests in public administration was promoted more

significantly by the views that the concept of bureaucracy would play a democratic role in

representing the demographic prospects of populations. However, the representation in

leadership and management of diverse people played a critical role in pushing for pluralism in

the inclusion and implementation of programs and public policies (Valldeneu et al., 2021). Given

the dynamics of such normative suppositions, research studies only drew focus on the level at

which bureaucracy provided a reflection of how larger populations were composed and the

impact of such factors on the prevalence of minority groups and bureaucrats. Notably, Ali

Abdullah et al. (2022) argued that the interest in representation from a passive and bureaucratic

perspective motivated the need to share many demographic factors. This, therefore, means that

the values that exist between the citizens and the minority bureaucrats in public administrative

institutions would only lead to the pursuit of policies that would benefit diverse populations in

institutions. Ali Abdullah et al. (2022) and Prabu & Namratha (2019) focused on several

transformations likely to occur in their research study on diversity during this period. The

researchers recognized that diversity would be fundamental in sharing valued decisions,

programs, and policies in public administrative functions. As evidenced in these research studies,

confirmation remained probable that the minority populations and bureaucrats widely used their

discretion to benefit several minority populations in different settings.

Recent research studies on the representation of minorities and bureaucracy, as examined

in Georgia, significantly shied away from the issues of active and passive minority representation

through diversity. Prabu & Namratha (2019) argued that research focused on the prospects of

representative bureaucracy and the factors that may play a critical role in moderating the

connections between purposive representative actions and shared demographical features and
characteristics in diversity. Therefore, recent research inquiries demonstrated and revealed that

representation in this age may be enhanced typically when administrative, institutional

structures, and cultures are designed to give opportunities to minority populations at

administrative levels. Other research studies, as demystified in the views of Ann (2021), equally

drew focus on the perceptions and the attitudes of the minority populations on issues related to

racial representation. Given this, an invigorated need for research on some of the problems of

diversity in public institutions remains critical. Ann (2021) for instance established that public

administrative institutions need to focus on the formalization and the formulation of proper

measures intended at managing the prospects of diversity in institutions (Ann, 2021). To this

effect, it is arguable that literature observed three fundamental public administration areas that

embrace diversity. As established in this case, one of the areas emerged from the idea of

democratic representation in civil service. The second idea further built significance from the

works of Park & Liang (2019), revealing that diversity promotes legitimate and democratic

interests in organisations. Lastly, evidence from literature realizes the manner in which

bureaucracy evolved through diversity. These efforts called for including managerial skills to

abet diversity management in public administration.

Park & Liang (2019) went further in research and broadened the scope of research

inquiry by examining diversity as ethnicity or race and as the management of diverse

populations. The research study defined diversity management as a process inspired by the need

to create and maintain work environments that enable different populations to make their full

contributions and potential toward achieving administrative objectives. In supporting these

views, Nentwich & Binswanger (2020) argued that diversity management revolved around

including measures to understand differences. Therefore, these findings emphasized the need for
public administrative institutions and organisations to focus on ensuring that all employees,

based on gender, race, function, ethnicity, and education, required a conducive environment that

allowed them to achieve their goals at work (Birdsall, 2018). In further broadening the scope of

the research, Nentwich & Binswanger (2020) drew a difference between diversity management

and equal employment opportunities, especially in how managers conduct their daily operations

in implanting the best practices of working and serving diverse populations. Nentwich &

Binswanger (2020) and McKay-Jackson et al. (2021) defined diversity management in public

administration as a planned and systematic commitment approach in which organizations focus

on recruitment and promotion, retention, and retention and reward of heterogeneous employees.

McKay-Jackson et al. (2021) posited that diversity management revolves around the inclusion of

multifaceted methods and concepts defined by proper recruitment programs intended to raise

cultural awareness toward pragmatic managerial strategies and policies. The management of

diversity is thus treated and considered as a proactive process that acknowledges the place of

diversity in its entirety that the targeting of specific groups (McKay-Jackson et al., 2021). The

realization of the importance of diversity from this perspective remains critical in supporting

public administrative institutions to create opportunities and environments that harness the

realization of employees' potential.

Diversity management, as opined in the views of Kumar & Suresh (2018), encompasses

human resource management strategies and policies that play a fundamental role in the

management of organisations. The management strategies further involve the integration of

training programs and initiatives, mentoring opportunities, family-friendly programs, and

advocacy privileges in organisations. Kumar & Suresh (2018) in this accord conducted a study

on diversity management in some of the emerging conglomerates in the US. According to the
research study findings, nearly nine out of every ten federal administrative organisations in the

US over the recent years initiated strategies and programs to abet their diversity management

programs (Bosua & Venkitachalam, 2015). In this regard, the findings of the research study

served as an indicator that the element of diversity management remains an evolving factors in

different sectors of the economy (Kumar & Suresh, 2018). This reveals that little or no empirical

studies have been designed with the objective of investigating the existing connections and ties

between the performance of an organization and diversity in public administrative institutions.

Krammer (2021), to advance this line of thought, conducted a research inquiry that was

driven by the need to examine the impact of diversity management on the performance of public

administrative entities. The research study's findings established that procedure and standard

administrative policies have widely been used by organisations to cast their nets wide in the

management of diversity (Garcia Martinez et al., 2016). Among the strategies commonly used in

public administrative organisations span from the incorporation of diversity in the mission

statements and vision of the organisations, the inclusion of family-friendly and flexible working

hours policies, implementation of work-life balance and mentoring programs, the establishment

of alternative work methods and arrangements, and the linkage of diversity management in

enhancing the performance of these institutions (Krammer, 2021). Krammer (2021) further

supported the findings of this research study, establishing that creating work environments that

allow employees to share their opinions and views in making managerial decisions accorded

their voices in the strategic management of public administrative institutions. This played a

critical role in the improvement of the performances of these institutions. According to Arora

(2021), the consideration of the measures and strategies details the need for organizations to

focus more on measures that include different populations in diverse programs in companies.
This view establishes the importance of diversity and inclusivity within organisations, suggesting

that the highest levels of diversity among minority populations play a fundamental role in the

management and the operations of public administrative institutions (Kerr & Franco-Santos,

2023). For instance, Arora (2021) ‘s views establish that diverse and inclusive work

environments remain critical in increasing the performance of organizations and the job

commitment of the workers. However, women and other minority population groups are

frequently excluded from enjoying the benefits of diversity within organizations. This shows the

lack of commitment and work engagement as key to their seclusion (Birdsall, 2018). This,

therefore, establishes the need for public administrative institutions to consider establishing safe

environments that allow workers to feel significantly valued. These environments equally play a

critical role in allowing the workers to enjoy the right of expressing their opinions and views on

decisions. Arguably, it is therefore assumable that the success of an inclusive work environment

lies in a well-fostered commitment of the leadership to establish an environment that allows

workers' opinions to thrive in decision-making.

Besides this, the element of representative bureaucracy as well as the prospects and

aspect of diversity management play critical roles in standing as pillars in public administration.

According to Park & Liang (2019), the prospects of social equity remains critical in enhancing

practical tools that may be used in enhancing the process of public administration. To this effect,

it is assumable that social equity in diversity primarily encompasses ensuring that all the

members of different groups have access to similar prospects of success (Park & Liang, 2019).

This plays a fundamental role in ensuring that different population groups are accorded similar

opportunities to be protected from life adversities. Prabu & Namratha (2019) viewed equity,

fairness, and justice as central in public administration and government institutions since the
declaration of independence. This view establishes that the principle of social equity denotes the

need to view all individuals as equal. In public administration, besides holding equity, values

significantly grapple with and suffer from the challenge of achieving equity (Prabu & Namratha,

2019). Research studies on diversity have, in this case, focused attention on representative

bureaucracy, employee and engagement opportunities with the intent of averting the legal

ramifications resulting from the discriminatory measures that imbue organizations in the hiring,

advancement, and promotion of women and people of color in administrative entities (Haque,

2019). The lack of diversity since the early 90s saw the emergence of a need to value and respect

differences presented in different forms. Diversity to this effect is viewed as a legal approach

emphasizing the need to ensure a diverse workforce benefit (Bosua & Venkitachalam, 2015).

Diversity management research and literature, in their nascency and focus on public

administrative functions, advocate for diversity within the work environment, a factor that has

gained significant traction over the years (Bosua & Venkitachalam, 2015). As viewed in this

case, challenges in diversity management and the delivery of equitable services within public

administrative institutions were dominant. As argued in this view, research studies and

organizations have made efforts toward advancing diversity in organizations through social

equity.

3. Hypothesis

As established, public discourse on diversity has, over the recent years, been a factor that

changed the racial card. This study revealed that very little attention was directed to women and

other minority population groups until later in the 80s when these cohorts began voicing their

issues and concerns due to a lack of representation in different leadership and managerial

positions. To this effect, it is assumable that unprecedented growth in the representation of

women and other minority population groups in managerial, leadership, and public office has

occurred. Moreover, an increase in the prospect of diversity in public administrative institutions

and government organizations has recently paralleled changes in society and culture. The effects

of this have seen color and gender no longer viewed and treated as predominant in diversity,

even as ethnicities, religion, sexual identity, educational background, and language continue to

grow in prominence. As established in the earlier sections of this research study, studies

conducted over the past years in assessing diversity and how it transformed society significantly

failed. Half a century later, limitations in research on diversity and its impact on public

administrative functions led to policy and legislative deficiencies in the formulation of measures

that embrace differences and promote equality. In response to this, this research study took stock

and conducted an examination of the state of public administrative institutions in practicing and

promoting diversity. The research study was informed by the need to conduct an assessment of

developmental authorities and how they reflect and/or practice or promote diversity. In other

words, the research study focused on examining the impact of community diversity, inclusion,

and equity on development authorities. In light of this, the research study hypothesized that:

H1. Developmental authorities have, over recent years, resorted to promoting diversity.

H2. Community diversity, equity, and inclusion have direct impacts on developmental

authorities.

4. Data and Method

Efforts driven toward the achievement of the purpose of this research study established

the need for a research method. Research methods play a critical role in guiding research. To this

effect, this research utilized a conceptual and content analysis model in the analysis of previous

research and literature on diversity management in public administrative entities. Given this, the
use of a content analysis method and a conceptual model detailed the need for the inclusion of

research procedures that would help in quantifying the appearances of phrases and concepts in

the collected journals. According to Williams & Shepherd (2016), using this approach remains

essential in selecting, treating, and examining different texts to determine the frequency of

variables. The research study engaged a search strategy on full texts and abstracts with the

objective of identifying the selected concept in different public administrative published journals

(Williams & Shepherd, 2016). Data was, in this case, captured during the process and from the

inception of the collected journals. In this regard, the research identified nearly 350 journal

articles and other public administrative literature that mentioned the concept of diversity in full

text and the abstract.

In advancing its prospects, the research study recruited five students trained in coding.

Following the completion of the training process, the coders underwent independent procedures

that allowed them to code the collected articles. The process deployed a pilot test that was to

achieve an intercoder reliability of 0.8. The coders ensured that the selected articles were

primarily coded on different elements and dimensions of diversity (Schäfer & Vögele, 2020).

The first coding process required the coders to ensure that the articles were relevant and within

the scope of the research. Notably, while all the collected articles, 350, captured the concept of

diversity and inclusion in full text and their abstracts, a section was irrelevant for this study. An

example of this is evident in articles that only mentioned the concept of diversity for formality

and not within the context of this research study. In such a case, the selected articles were coded

in the study as nonrelevant. This, therefore, means that of the selected 350 articles included in

the study, only 10% were found to be relevant to the context of this research study (n=35).
 In this case, different dimensions and prospects of the concept of diversity were coded in

the research study. The selected articles, therefore, fit in more than one domain of the concept of

diversity. An instance of this remained evident in a case where articles discussed issues related to

gender, race, affirmative action, employee engagement, and religion within the context of public

administration. This aspect yielded a code of 1 in each of these dimensions (Schäfer & Vögele,

2020). The research, therefore, ensured that the coded dimensions were significantly larger in

scope than the total number of the selected articles for the examination. The coders played a

critical role in ensuring that the articles were necessarily coded for analysis and interpretation of

the concept in the study. An example of this is evident in articles that focused discussions on the

concept of race and failed to mention other images regarding representative bureaucracy. Such

articles were equally coded for race (1) and representative bureaucracy (0). The only measure of

inclusion of the articles was determined if the articles discussed the concept issue in-depth to

receive a higher code. The research study equally coded other different concepts and dimensions

that added more depth to the research. The ranking of the authors was similarly taken into

account by the coders, which coding was granted on different grounds. Further, the coders took

note of the research models that were used in the articles. In this regard, a coding of 1 was

granted to quantitative research studies, 2 to qualitative studies, 3 to mixed research studies, and

4 to the other studies. Additionally, the coders equally took into consideration the sites in which

the studies were conducted.

Finally, the hired coders considered the types of research studies that were used in the

articles. This coding approach was used to determine whether the articles were empirical or

descriptive. Descriptive research studies from this point provided important explanations and in-

depth analysis of the concepts selected, a move that furthered knowledge of the phenomenon.
The primary objective of the descriptive research studies was pegged on examining the manner

in which things unfold. However, the studies do not in any way make recommendations for

policy changes that impact any form of organizational outcome. The descriptive articles,

therefore, provided a synthesis of the existing literature and other findings related to the concept

in question. The studies were classified as either quantitative or qualitative (Hallesson & Visén,

2016). The quantitative and the descriptive research studies as viewed within the context of this

study primarily focused attention on the presentation of the collected data on gender and the

element of race through the plotted and the tabulated formulas. Studies examined by the

empirical coders conducted an assessment of the impacts of the concept in question on public

administrative institutions.

In this line, the empirical studies collected for the study focused attention on the currently

existing ties between the variables of diversity and inclusion and their impact on organizations.

The coders determined features that pointed to the impact of the variables on administrative

institutions' commitment to their employees, retention, as well as performance outcomes. This,

therefore, meant that the studies marked as empirical by the coders had some level of impact on

administrative organizations. To this effect, the coders relied on a Kappa statistical analysis

model in calculating the identified intercoder variables and their reliabilities (Hallesson & Visén,

2016). The coders revealed a data consistency during coding and an interrater reliability of 0.6

and a 0.85 variance. The preference for the Kappa values was informed by the need to test the

reliability of the studies, rated at 6 and with the highest integer of 0.7. The codes, as provided in

this case, played a critical role in examining the selected articles and, in the coding process, a

move that provided a basis for the analysis of the data and interpretation.
4. Analysis

4.1 Diversity in Public Administrative Institutions Coded in the Research

Descriptive statistics and findings of the variables noted in the earlier sections of this

study were coded and further presented as tabulated below. The tabulated table provides most of

the research studies primarily conducted within a specified cohort—the US. Public

Administrative Reviews (PAR) further serves as one of the oldest sources of journals within this

discipline, given that it has existed for over 83 years. Since Public Administrative Reviews

(PAR) serve as one of the most reliable and oldest literature sources for this study, it beats the

odds in establishing why it provided adequate information on diversity-related issues. On the

other hand, Public Administration Management (PPM) and Review of Public Personnel

Administration (ROPPA) databases provided additional diversity data. The journals primarily

focused on personnel issues within the domain of public administration, which served as another

fundamental outlet for this study (Williams et al., 2022). However, it is essential to consider that

these journals were published as early as 2000, with more than half of the journals published on

them dating between 2000 and 2010.

 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics from the Coded Variables of the Study

Frequency n

(%)

The Type of Research Study

 International Based Research Studies 6.2 18

 U.S-Based Research Studies 93.2 130

 International and US-Based Research Studies

1.2 3

Journal Articles Selected

 Journals from Administration and the Society (A&S) 9.6 24

 Journals from Public Personnel Management (PPM)

22.4 38
 Review of Literature from Public Personnel Administration (ROPPA)

 Journals from the Public Administration Review (PAR)

18.6 32
 Journals from the Public Performance and Management Review (PPMR)

 Journals from the American Review of Public Administration (ARPA)

32.4 46
 Journal from the Public Administration Research and Theory (JPART)
 4.6 20

6.5 19

6.8 21

Years of Authorship/Publication

1970-1975 0.4 1

1975-1980 5.0 12

1980-1985 3.6 8

1985-1990 26.9 52

1990-1995 35.8 60

1995-2000 46.2 68

2000-2005 50.2 75

2005-2010 18.6 32

2010-2015 18.6 32

Genders of the Authors

Male 48.6 56
Females 68.9 85

The Number of Authors (s)

Co-Authored 58.8 198

Sole Authored 62.8 254

The Ranking of the Authors

Professor 16.8 26

Assistant Professor 28.7 38

Associate Professor 22.2 42

Research Model/Methodology

 Qualitative 42.6 86

 Quantitative 42.8 88

5.8 15
 Mixed Research

Dimensions and Approach to Diversity

 Gender 56.1 126

 Race 62.6 136

  Age 18.6 26

 Affirmative Actions 26.9 32

 Socioeconomic Status 8.6 18

8.8 19
 Religion
16.8 26
 Representative Bureaucracy
7.2 18
 Sexual orientation
7.2 18
 Disability
4.6 16
 Generations
4.9 19
 Immigration
5.6 24
 Diversity Management
0.1 2
 Cultural Competency
0.3 4
 Veterans

The Type of Research

 Empirical Research Study 26.1 48

 Descriptive Research 67.7 56

4.2 Diversity Research as Coded in the Journals

The coding process provided detailed outcomes of the results based on the journal’s

typologies and decades, as presented in Table 2 below. Several of the diversity-related research

studies were published primarily from 1970 onwards, this representing 89.6%, while other

articles and journals were equally published post-2020, this representing 60%. Given this, it is

imperative to note that several of the authors of the journals in the samples were of the male

gender. In contrast, sole or individual authors authored several of the publications (Stazyk et al.,

2021). Moreso, a significant split was evident between the research methodologies that primarily

encompassed the use of qualitative and quantitative research methods in examining the varied

dimensions of the diversity variable. Further, as presented in the coded data, several quantitative

research (68.2%) studies were used to collect primary data, while the remaining data were

secondary sources (Smith, 2018). This, therefore, means that half of the journals and the research

articles, which comprised 56% of the research study’s sample, were qualitative, establishing that

several undertook literature reviews.

Secondly, the findings of the research studies, as coded, were primarily descriptive.

These research as established in this case primarily focused attention on the present trends in

public administration and how diversity is related. Notably, close to 15% of the research studies

qualitative studies from the coding covered legal court battles and were used in the data

collection process (Romney, 2019). Close to one-third of the collected research journals relied on

the use of federal-level data. Further, close to three-fourths of the collected data from the

journals and articles were equally descriptive in nature, with only a section of them, 22% of the

collected and published shares taken through an assessment to test their impact on the variable of

diversity and its impact on organizational outcomes (Rees, 2009). Upon the analysis of the
variable of diversity, predictable patterns were noted in the research given the fact that several of

the studies primarily focused on several issues that include race and gender.

Table 2: Coding of the Journal Articles Based on their Decades

Journal Title (Year) 1970- 1975- 1980- 1985- 1990- 1995- TOTAL

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 (%)

Journal of Public Administration Review (1975) 2 4 8 12 15 18 59

(28%)

Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory (1980) - 2 1 18 12 6 39

(14%)

Journal on Public Performance and Management Review - - 2 12 18 3 36 (8%)

(1985)

Journal on American Review of Public Administration (1990) 3 2 - - 6 18 29 (6%)

Journal and Administration and Society (1995) - - 1 3 10 6 20 (4%)

Review of Public Personnel Administration (2000) - - - 10 12 4 26 (5%)

Journal of Public Personnel Management (2005) - 1 1 2 6 2 13 (3%)

Several variables including representative bureaucracy, age, and affirmative actions were

variables examined in this phase. According to the coded data, close to 222 journals were

collected. The journals primarily focused attention on the issues of ethnicity and color while

another cohort of 120 journals, published primarily on the element of gender-related issues and

sex were examined (Rees, 2009). In this regard, close to other 28 articles collected primarily

focused attention on issues related to affirmative action. Research studies and journals that

focused on age-related issues gained significant prominence in the research given the fact that

they were published between 2000 and 2005, a factor that primarily correlated with the issue and

growing concern that impedes the graying of populations and retirement in the public sector

(Pizarro Milian & Wijesingha, 2023). Public Personnel Administration (PPP) provided the

highest percentile of age-associated journals besides topping the list as a provider of publications

that focused attention on the elements of disability, immigration, cultural competency, diversity

management, veterans, and generations (Pizarro Milian & Wijesingha, 2023). Moreso, the

Journal of the Public Administration Research and Theory (JPART) and the Journals from the

Public Administration Review (PAR) provided the highest publications for journals that

researched issues of gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and representative

bureaucracy.

4.3 Diversity Research as Coded in the findings of this Research by Decade

As provided in Table 3 below, an analysis was conducted on the different prospects and

elements of diversity across different decades. Most of the journals collected and coded across

these dimensions were primarily conducted between 2000 and 2005, representing 46.87% and

62.63% conducted in the subsequent years respectively. In this regard, it is evident from the

coding that diversity research studies significantly gained prominence in the early 90s, thus
representing 27.86% of diversity-related issues (Parks et al., 2022). The journals primarily

conducted research driven toward examining the significant impact of diversity within a

workforce and its impact. Parks et al., (2022) for example established that the element of

diversity management differed from the need to comply with the established cases of affirmative

actions and laws, detailing this prospect as a critical element in the achievement of diversity

within an established workforce.

Parks et al., (2022) reveals that following the passage of the renowned Civil Rights Act in 1964

as evident in Title VII, prohibitions on different aspects of discrimination remain a factor that has

often been observed. The findings to this effect reveal that diversity as a term was over the past

years not used in depicting race differences (Ottensmeyer & Bozeman, 1988). The findings from

the coded results were probably different due to the keywords used in the searches on the

element of diversity.

Table 3: Diversity Research Coded in the Research by Decade

Diversity Variable (n) 1970- 1975- 1980- 1985- 1990- 1995- 2000-

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Gender (160) 0.8 6.3 5.8 23.2 12.7 43.9 32.7

Race (130) - 2.7 6.9 23.8 28.9 15.9 18.9

Affirmative Actions (18) - 6.9 8.6 26.8 18.9 16.2 7.6

Religion (12) - 1.8 2.9 4.6 32.7 26.8 28.6

Age (13) 2.2 7.6 - 12.9 34.9 40.2 12.8

Representative Bureaucracy 2.4 3.6 - 18.2 26.8 32.8 46.8

Disability (16) 3.6 16.2 4.6 20.1 32.8 36.9 12.9

Sexual Orientation (28) - 4.8 5.6 26.9 28.2 31.0 34.7

Diversity Management (32) - - - 36.9 48.9 38.6 46.9

Cultural Competency (2) - - - 24.7 42.9 36.8 23.7

Generations (8) 6.8 - - - 35.9 36.2 38.8

Veterans (3) - 5.6 - 42.8 32.8 43.1 16.6

Immigration (32) - - - - - - 86.8

 Notably, this remains a phenomenon that was beyond the level of this research study. In

this regard, it is therefore essential to note that the coded data revealed that diversity research

primarily revealed that affirmative action went far beyond the prospects of gender and race. As

provided in this research, diversity as a variable provided an understanding of a number of

factors that include the prospects of age among other variables in examining its impact in public

administrative entities (Ottensmeyer & Bozeman, 1988). A combination of this and other factors

such as the demographics of the US resulted in the rise of studies that were conducted in this new

era. Diversity as coded in this research had not necessarily moved from affirmative actions, a

factor that is evident in the fact that it continues to be researched to this date. To this effect,

several landmark cases increased that focused attention on learning institutions and diversity. For

example, in 2003, Nora (2021) revealed that “Grutter v. Bollinger represent cases that emerged

at the University of Michigan on issues of diversity in learning institutions. Another recent case

is that of Fisher v. the University of Texas which was primarily heard in Austin (Nora, 2021). To

this effect, evidence collected from the Supreme Court drew focus on the element of

discrimination in institutions within the public domain.

“The Family Medical Leave Act of 1993, “following its passage, focused attention on a

myriad of issues such as gendered bureaucracy, the glass ceiling, issues related to different

genders, job segregation, and other research studies focused on gender and its similarity or

prominence since the early 90s” as viewed by Nora (2021). However, evidence, as coded in the

data, revealed that cross-generational and age-related studies primarily escalated from the early

90s to 2000 (Nora, 2021). This period was marked by a rise in research studies that were

conducted with the intent of underpinning the measures that workforces may use in including

individuals with disabilities within the workforce (Munjal & Ferguson, 2023). Later, research

30
studies related to the elements of sexual orientation are revealed in the coded data to have risen

and gained significant momentum around 2000. This period saw journals published on the issue

of sexual orientation published around this period. This was then followed by the introduction of

the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) in Congress, a move that focused on the

prohibition of affirmative actions, matters related to race, and gender that were in-depth

investigated within the domains of public administration. Years later, studies were conducted to

examine different elements, a factor that posed a significant impact on the literature (McGinnis

Johnson, 2015). Within this context, issues associated with affirmative action as viewed in the

literature declined to a significant level from 2010 to 2013.

4.4 Gender Differences as Codified and Examined in the Diversity Research

The coded data in this study drew focus on the issue of gender differences and its

primacy in diversity. An example of this remains evident in the fact that female authors as seen

within this context were found as significant, a factor that is evident in the publication of

research studies that arose during the early years of 2000 that saw issues of diversity

management and gender emerge. To this effect, the outcomes and the findings of this study as

tabulated in Table 4 provide an understanding of these factors (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). The

coded data as provided in the research did not provide proper statistical and racial essence

(Maynard-Moody et al., 1989). Trends from the coded data revealed that the prospects of

research remain a phenomenon that has widely ensued in providing a reflection of the element of

affirmative actions, religion, gender, and the variable of age. As viewed in the data, there is a

significant surge in research studies related to diversity since 1990. This brought in the question

of whether diversity is only focused on numbers.

Figure 4: Gender Differences as Coded in the Diversity Research

31
 Male (%) Females

n=132 (%) n=99

Gender 26 12

Race 12 8

Age 6 6

Affirmative Action 3 4

Representative Bureaucracy 8 10

Disability 12 2

Socioeconomic Status 4 7

Immigration 2 2

Religion 8 8

Veterans 6 6

Generations 12 9

Immigrations 1 4

Cultural Competency 14 11

Sexual Orientation 10 4

Diversity Management 8 6

5. Analysis

Since the emergence of the renowned Civil Rights Act in 1964, evidence, as provided in

this case, reveals that policymakers focused attention on resources and energy intended at

achieving and redefining fair representation. In other words, the element of fair representation

remains a phenomenon that was widely focused on the political and social representation of

different diverse population groups in government institutions and among employee populations

32
(Lyall, 2020). Empirical evidence from the context of this research reveals that federal agencies

hold substantial roles in revamping the manner in which public institutions practice workforce

diversity. This involves the provision of several opportunities that include the employment of the

women populations and the minority groups from different racial and ethnic groups. To this

effect, over the past few decades as seen in this study, the demographic outlook of the American

working population remains a phenomenon that has significantly diversified, with this affected

by affirmative action programs and civil rights laws and legislations (Douglas, 2021). Due to

this, public entities have widely cast their safety net on the diversification of their work

environments through the provision of access to opportunities for racial/ethnic minorities and

women. Objectively, evidence equally established that public institutions within the sector have

experienced instances of unprecedented growth of demographic diversity and heterogeneity

(Bilimoria & Singer, 2019). As seen in the coded data of this study, research reveals that in the

US, employees, or rather workers within the public sector are turning out to be older and more

diversified within the confines of gender, race, and ethnicity. As a result of this phenomenon, an

increase in the element of attention on the management of these factors remains a factor that

continues to increase significantly.

The findings of this study, therefore, established that the prospects of race remain one of

the widely researched elements and topics. In light of the rise in cases of police brutal killings

and shootings in different states, race is widely considered and viewed as a critical issues in the

US. The findings of this research study agree with those of Bilimoria & Singer (2019) who

reported that in 2017, close to 49% of the population that was polled in the US believed that the

element of race was a significant problem the nation was grappling with than it was close to 20

years ago. Responses of the research study as held by different races, blacks (20%), Hispanics

33
(64%), and the other minority groups equally held that racism remained a significant challenge

that continues to span to this day. Another research study conducted by Argueza et al., (2021)

equally supported this view by establishing that close to 83% of the black race revealed that

more work was evident before the achievement of the element of equal rights. The findings of

this research study equally reported that over 50% of the American population believes that the

race card remains one of the biggest challenges that society and public administrative institutions

continue to face in this age and time.

In response to the research questions that were posed for this research study, it is,

therefore, assumable from the findings of this study that despite the establishment of attention on

issues of race, research studies conducted on diversity within the domain of public administration

remains a factor that continues to progress. Diversity within the context of public administration,

therefore, points to the changes that are required within society and the need for laws to address

the very issues that eat the structural and organizational performance of public institutions. This

research study further established that data collected from the Journals of the Public

Administration Review (PAR) took the lead in publishing close to 30% of research on diversity-

related issues (Argueza et al., 2021). This factor justifies the importance as well as the relevance

of the issue and the concept of diversity within the domain of public administration. As provided

and indicated in this research study, the issue of diversity remains a factor that is associated with

the element of gender and race. However, public administration as a domain and discipline is

revealed to have cultivated a broader perspective and view of the element of diversity. This

phenomenon primarily extends far beyond the issues of affirmative action, gender, representative

bureaucracy, and race to the inclusion of issues such as religion, disability, veterans, religion,

sexual orientation, diversity management, generations, and the element of cultural competency

34
(McGinnis Johnson, 2015). Apart from the examination of the issues of gender and race,

research studies in the future may consider the adoption of a synergetic approach and view of the

construct of diversity as well as the values of the concept of diversity in public administrative

institutions.

In regards to the element of public administration and research, evidence from this study

established that the construct of diversity research remains a factor that has been broadened over

the recent years, several studies are rather descriptive. Close to 18% of the journals that were

examined within this context empirically established that diversity has had positive outcomes

within the administration of public institutions and governments. According to the findings of

this study, equity, fairness, and justice remains central in public administration and government

institutions since the declaration of independence (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). This view

establishes that the principle of social equity denotes the need to view all individuals as equal. In

public administration, besides holding equity, values significantly grapple with and suffer from

the challenge of achieving equity. Research studies on diversity have, in this case, focused

attention on representative bureaucracy, employee and engagement opportunities with the intent

of averting the legal ramifications resulting from the discriminatory measures that imbue

organizations in the hiring, advancement, and promotion of women and people of color in

administrative entities (Haque, 2019). The lack of diversity since the early 90s saw the

emergence of a need to value and respect differences presented in different forms. Diversity to

this effect is viewed as a legal approach emphasizing the need to ensure a diverse workforce

benefit. Diversity management research and literature, in their nascency and focus on public

administrative functions, advocate for diversity within the work environment, a factor that has

gained significant traction over the years. As viewed in this case, challenges in diversity

35
management and the delivery of equitable services within public administrative institutions were

dominant. As argued in this view, research studies and organizations have made efforts toward

advancing diversity in organizations through social equity. In this regard, diversity remains a

factor that is widely captured in this research as a necessary aspect of public institutions.

The empirical findings and outcomes of this research detail the essence of linking the

element of diversity in influencing organizational changes and cultures. An instance of this is

evident in the views of McGinnis Johnson (2015), establishing and the drafting of policies

remains a factor that may be assumed as critical in determining the need for institutions to

allocate resources. In other words, this details the essence of ensuring that future research studies

draw attention to proper measures that may play a critical role in improving the process of social

equity in an effort intended at addressing under-representation in diversity. the issue of diversity

remains a factor that is associated with the element of gender and race. However, public

administration as a domain and discipline is revealed to have cultivated a broader perspective

and view of the element of diversity. This phenomenon primarily extends far beyond the issues

of affirmative action, gender, representative bureaucracy, and race to the inclusion of issues such

as religion, disability, veterans, religion, sexual orientation, diversity management, generations,

and the element of cultural competency (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). Apart from the examination

of the issues of gender and race, research studies in the future may consider the adoption of a

synergetic approach and view of the construct of diversity as well as the values of the concept of

diversity in public administrative institutions

The findings of this research equally revealed that public administrative institutions need

to consider measures and strategies that detail the need for organizations to focus more on

measures that include different populations in diverse programs in companies remains critical.

36
This view establishes the importance of diversity and inclusivity within organizations, suggesting

that the highest levels of diversity among minority populations play a fundamental role in the

management and operations of public administrative institutions. The findings established that

diverse and inclusive work environments remain critical in increasing the performance of

organizations and the job commitment of the workers. However, women and other minority

population groups are frequently excluded from enjoying the benefits of diversity within

organizations (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). This shows the lack of commitment and work

engagement as key to their seclusion. This, therefore, establishes the need for public

administrative institutions to consider establishing safe environments that allow workers to feel

significantly valued. These environments equally play a critical role in allowing the workers to

enjoy the right of expressing their opinions and views on decisions. Arguably, it is therefore

assumable that the success of an inclusive work environment lies in a well-fostered commitment

of the leadership to establish an environment that allows workers' opinions to thrive in decision-

making.

Given the context of this research study, in the future, focus may be directed towards

examining the elements of diversity may be examined from different lenses. These lenses may be

focused on the outcomes as well as the predictors of the construct. This primarily means that

future research studies may draw the attention of public administrators to the effects of the

element of diversity and the prospect of inclusion from critical organizational issues. To this

effect, several organizational issues may ensue that need proper attention. The issues primarily

include the prospects of employee relations, the increase in employee turnover rates, the aspect

of job satisfaction, and the need to increase performance. A further assessment of the impacts of

such modifying factors remains critical in determining the manner in which these variables

37
correlate. Arguably, the prospects of diversity management from the context of this research

continue to play a critical role in detracting the current attention of public administrative

institutions (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). Other research studies further maintain that the construct

of diversity at its core remains critical in management. These studies hold the need for the

exploration of diversity in continuing emphasis on the element of recruitment, promotion, and

selection that may play a critical role in establishing a leveled played ground specifically for all

the population groups. The looseness of the construct of diversity management and its functions

as found in this study poses challenges in the operationalization of public administrative duties.

This significantly results in limited research studies published within this domain on drawing a

connection and link between the construct of performance and diversity management within the

public administrative sector. This details the need for diversity studies to provide a reflection of

the 21st-century workforce and society, hence pushing the need for research on understanding

the intersection between diversity and other comparative variables. As viewed in the context of

this research study, close to 3% of the articles that were analyzed provided an overview of the

comparative framework of the scope of diversity (McGinnis Johnson, 2015). Arguably, this

supports the fact that the diversity perspective remains a factor that is slowly gaining relevance

in public administration and research in different contexts globally. This points to the view that

diversity management remains one of the fundamental players and interested stakeholders in the

evolving society that is widely defined by the element of globalization, interracial couples,

immigration, and the issues of biracial families and individuals.

6. Conclusion

As found in this study, research studies conducted over the past years assessing diversity

and how it significantly transformed society significantly failed. Half a century later, limitations

38
in research on diversity and its impact on public administrative functions led to policy and

legislative deficiencies in the formulation of measures that embrace differences and promote

equality. In response, this research study took stock and examined the state of public

administrative institutions in practicing and promoting diversity. The research study was

informed by the need to assess developmental authorities and how they reflect and practice or

promote diversity. In other words, the research study examined the impact of community

diversity, inclusion, and equity on development authorities. This research study found and

revealed that public administrative institutions need to consider measures and strategies that

detail the need for organizations to focus more on measures that include different populations in

diverse programs in companies remains critical. This view establishes the importance of

diversity and inclusivity within organizations, suggesting that the highest levels of diversity

among minority populations play a fundamental role in the management and operations of public

administrative institutions. The findings established that diverse and inclusive work

environments remain critical in increasing the performance of organizations and the job

commitment of the workers. According to the outcomes of this study, women and other minority

population groups are frequently excluded from enjoying the benefits of diversity within

organizations. Due to this, public entities have widely cast their safety net on the diversification

of their work environments through the provision of access to opportunities for racial/ethnic

minorities and women. Objectively, evidence equally established that public institutions within

the sector have experienced instances of unprecedented growth of demographic diversity and

heterogeneity. As seen in the coded data of this study, research reveals that in the US,

employees, or rather workers within the public sector are turning out to be older and more

diversified within the confines of gender, race, and ethnicity.

39
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