RD 2011

ECRD 03

EVALUATION OF ROCKFILL PROPERTIES BASED

ON INDEX TESTS
A. Veiga Pinto1, M. Quinta-Ferreira2
1, Executive Director – Mecasolos, Rua Xavier Araújo, 11, Núcleo 8 - 6ºB, 1600-226 Lisboa, Portugal,
vpinto@mecasolos.com
2, Dep. Earth Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-272 Coimbra, Portugal, mqf@dct.uc.pt

ABSTRACT

A rockfill material can be idealized as a continuous model whose properties depend on individual particles. The
characteristics of strength and durability of the granular matrix can be idealized as a discrete model. Correlations
between the components of the discrete model and the continuous model are presented. A methodology to
characterize the collapse of rockfill materials based on strength loss and increased fragmentation from air dried
to saturated samples is presented. Types of stress-strain behaviour of rockfill materials and its correlation with
the structural behaviour of prototypes are discussed. The long term observation of the rockfill behaviour, also
allowed the establishment of some correlations with the results of the index property tests for the
characterization of the sensitivity of the rockfill to the water, i.e., the collapse. The Portuguese experience
obtained with the construction of rockfills with unweathered and high strength materials, allowed concluding
that the best mechanical characteristics were obtained, by decreasing order, with the following materials: basalt,
greywacke, limestone, granite and schist. When using weathered rocks in the construction of the rockfill,
materials like greywacke, marly limestone and schist, have presented a defective behaviour, as a result of the
weakening of rock fragments in the presence of water. It can be considered that granite can also be sensitive to
the effects of collapse, but to a lesser extent than the other previously mentioned materials. As basalts present a
low weathering grade they are almost insensitive to collapse, allowing concluding that they are a remarkable
material for rockfill construction. Concerning limestones, greywackes and schists materials it is advisable to
determine their ability to lead to collapse settlements. The advantage of testing expeditious and inexpensive
procedures for the characterization of physical and mechanical properties of rockfill material is presented.

Keywords: Rockfill, index-properties, mechanical properties, collapse, dam structural behaviour

1. INTRODUCTION

In the late 50s, Paradela Dam was the tallest dam in the world with an upstream concrete curtain. Due
to the accident at the first stage of filling, caused by large displacement of the dam, this led their
designers to conclude for the need to develop research in order to characterize this type of construction
material. In reality, the reliability of the design of rockfill structures depends on having a
representative estimate of the mechanical properties of such material. By this reason intense research
on the physical and mechanical properties of rockfill was developed in Portugal.

From the analysis of the tested materials, it was possible to conclude that there is a significant
variation in the mechanical properties of rockfill materials, depending on the lithological nature of the
rock fragments.

One indirect way to estimate the mechanical properties of rockfill materials, is relating the values of
the index properties of rock fragments with the physical and mechanical properties of the granular
material, considering it as a continuous material. The methodology that has been followed in the
structural design of rockfills, including dams, is based on index tests on rock samples, of fast and
simple execution.

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2. DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS MODELS
Rockfill materials consist of rock blocks that can reach large sizes of about 1.5 m. Therefore, particles
are the basic elements of a particulate medium and, as such, the latter can be represented by a discrete
model. Furthermore, they are expected to be part of an integrity criterion, i.e., the particles are to be
linked by certain connections, the contact forces, and the voids between particles are also to be
considered.
In fact, that behaviour mainly depends on four factors, which are listed below in decreasing
importance [1]: 1. State of stress; 2. Void ratio; 3. Strength of rock fragments; 4. Grain size
distribution. The first factor depends on the size of the structure to be built and, therefore, the
mechanical characteristics of the granular medium will take into account the magnitude of the applied
pressures. In fact, it has been observed that, with the increase in the state of stress, there is a significant
decrease in the mechanical properties of the rockfill material. The compactness began to loose its
importance in the behaviour of those materials when, as from the 60s, heavy vibrating rollers began to
be used in compaction, which led to reduced void ratios, generating highly homogeneous materials
with high shear strength and reduced deformability. It has also been observed that the materials
resulting from excavations, in the case of road works, or from quarries of good quality rock
formations, almost invariably led to rockfill materials with fairly extensive grain size curves.
Consequently, the consideration about the distribution of rock fragments in rockfill materials also
became an almost irrelevant factor in the study of their mechanical behaviour.
Thus, it has been observed that the physical-mechanical characteristics of the rock fragments of
rockfill materials are the factor that, as regards the particulate medium, has a higher relevance in the
mechanical characterisation of rockfill materials. From among these characteristics, reference must be
made to the crushing strength of the individual granular elements. The strength of rockfill blocks to
crushing is one of the main factors that influence stress-strain behaviour of this particulate medium.
The Elasticity and Plasticity theories assume the rockfill materials as a continuous medium, separating
their existence from their component materials. An application of this theory is, for instance, the
determination of the mechanical properties of rockfill materials in large test cells or the integration of
constitutive laws in the finite element method, which has been increasingly used in the stress-strain
mathematical modelling of embankments, namely in dams.

3. INDEX-PROPERTIES

The physical-mechanical characteristics of rockfill fragments are usually designated as index-

properties. Those properties, which are determined in a rather expedite and inexpensive way, have
made possible to estimate the mechanical characteristics of rockfill materials [2], in a first magnitude,
without having to use time-consuming tests in large test cells.
The authors collaborated on studies of index properties performed at the National Laboratory of Civil
Engineering (LNEC, Lisbon). In these studies tests have been performed on 110 samples of carbonate
rocks; as well as on 30 samples of granite and 23 samples of metagreywacke [3], [4]. Table 1 presents
the index-property tests carried out.
Characterisation of: Parameter Symbol References
Porosity n [5]
Texture
Bulk density γdg [5]
Uniaxial compressive strength σc [6]
Compression strength Point Load Test PLS [7], [8]
Crushing strength Pa50 [9], [10]
Los Angeles LA [11]
Durability
Slake durability test Id2 [5]
Swelling strain - [5]
Water sensitivity
Non-soluble residue - [12]
Table 1 Index-property tests

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From the analysis of results obtained for the index-properties, it was considered that a classification of
rockfill materials distributed by the 3 lithologic types that prevail in Portugal could be experimentally
proposed: carbonate rocks (Table 2), greywacke rocks, which occurrence is usually associated with
schist (Table 3), and granitic rocks (Table 4). The values of the parameters presented in Tables 2 to 4
concerns the average values obtained in the tests, in an air drying condition. An attempt was made to
roughly distribute the same number of tests per each class mentioned above. Only a reduced number
of basalts were tested and, therefore it was not possible to establish a distribution of index-properties
by classes for this rock type. However, it was observed that this type of material was the one
exhibiting the best mechanical characteristics between all the rockfill materials tested.

Based on LNEC experience, it is considered that rockfills consisting of rock fragments of the same
class number even in different lithologic types, roughly presents identical structural behaviour of the
rockfills. The materials consisting of class 1 rock blocks, which exhibit less weathering or less
weatherability, higher strength, less abrasion and less susceptibility to water, are likely to produce
rockfills with high mechanical characteristics. When placed in embankments, those materials have
exhibited an excellent structural behaviour, even when they are used in the compaction of 1.60 m thick
layers, such as the embankments built in expressway A1, in the stretch Torres Novas-Fátima
(limestone) and the works for extending Ponta Delgada Airport in the Azores (basalt).

On the other hand the materials of Class 3 would meet a low strength rockfill soil mixture. Both
materials have shown a poor performance when used in the construction of embankments, which was
not predictable, even when compaction was carried out in layers of only 0.60 m thick. In the light of
experience, it should be considered mandatory testing individual samples of material of Class 3, both
in dried and saturated states, to determine the sensitivity of those materials to the influence of water
and subsequent collapse.

Table 2 – Index-properties of carbonate rocks

Parameter Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
n (%) 1-3 3-8 8-20
γdg (kN/m3) 27.6-26.4 26.4-25.2 25.2-22.0
σc (MPa) 180-90 90-60 60-20
PLS (MPa) 8.2-6.2 6.2-5.0 5.0-3.0
Pa50 (kN) 15-12 12-8 8-5
LA (%) 24-31 31-34 34-42
Id2 (%) 0.2-0.7 0.7-1.5 1.5-4.0
Swelling strain (∆l/l.10-4) 0-1.2 1.2-5.0 5.0-50.0
Non-soluble residue (%) 0-3 3-6 6-40

Table 3 – Index-properties of greywacke rocks

Parameter Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
n (%) 1-3 3-5 5-12
γdg (kN/m3) 27.5-26.5 26.5-25.5 25.5-24.0
σc (MPa) 220-150 150-100 100-50
PLS (MPa) 11-8 8-6 6-2
Pa50 (kN) 18-14 14-8 8-4
LA (%) 15-25 25-35 35-45
Id2 (%) 0.3-0.7 0.7-1.2 1.2-3.0
Swelling strain (∆l/l.10-4) 2-6 6-10 10-15

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 Parameter Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
n (%) 0.5-2.0 2.0-4.0 4.0-8.0
γdg (kN/m3) 27.0-25.8 25.8-25.0 25.0-23.0
σc (MPa) 120-80 80-40 40-15
PLS (MPa) 7.0-5.0 5.0-3.0 3.0-1.5

Pa50 (kN) 18-10 10-7 7-3

LA (%) 12-20 20-30 30-40

Id7 (%) 0.3-0.7 0.7-1.4 1.4-1.8

Swelling strain (∆l/l.10-4) 0.5-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-10.0

Table 4 Index-properties of granitic rocks

The analysis of results of Tables 2 to 4 allow to immediately demonstrate the difference in the limit
values of some properties of rock fragments of a certain type of rock, comparatively with the others.
Those limits should therefore be taken into account in the analysis of results of new tested materials.

The correlations between index-properties and the mechanical characteristics led to a significant
dispersion. Therefore, there is the need to increase the size of samples, i.e., to carry out a higher
number of tests to be able to define the mentioned correlations. Other authors have also observed the
difficulty in defining good correlations between the strength and the durability of stone fragments,
namely in weathered materials [13].

4. CHARACTERISATION OF ROCKFILLS AS REGARDS TO COLLAPSE

Collapse in rockfills occurs when there are volumetric deformations by compression, only due to the
decrease in the strength of rock fragments when in contact with water. Collapse is related with the
crushing of particles, even for low confining pressures [1] and [14], when the crushing strength
decreases to a value lower than the contact forces among rock fragments.

In the limit it can be assumed that all embankment materials are sensitive to water. However, by the
observed phenomena it was found that the more serious situations (excessive settlement) have been
observed when the decrease of strength or the decrease in the wear resistance exceeds certain values.

Class 3 materials of classifications presented in Tables 2 to 4 should correspond to low strength

rockfills or to rockfill soil mixtures, which already present a significant quantity of fine soils. Both
materials have presented a defective behaviour when used in the construction of embankments, with
worse behaviour than expected, even when compaction was performed in layers of only 0.60 m
thickness. In view of the experience gained, tests on samples of class 3 material must be performed
also in dry and saturated conditions, in order to evaluate the possible decrease in the strength of rock
fragments due to the increase in the water content.

From the statistical analysis of the embankments materials that collapsed and of the results of the
tested materials in the dry and saturated states, the threshold values beyond which it is anticipated the
rockfill materials exhibit collapse are presented in Table 5. The limit relationships of potential collapse
are variable, depending on the lithological type and the test procedure considered.

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 Carbonate Greywacke
Granitic rocks
rocks rocks
σc sat/σc dry (%) 70 70 -
PLS sat/PLS dry (%) 90 80 90
Pa50 sat/Pa50 dry (%) 90 90 90
Id2 dry/ Id2 sat (%) 50 50 70
sat - saturated; dry - dry samples
Table 5 Proposed limit relation of potential collapse of rockfill materials

Therefore, it must be considered that an unsaturated rock sample is water sensitive when the values of
the relations of index-properties in tested fragments, both in saturated and in dry states, are less than
those indicated in Table 5 and, therefore, preventive measures should be adopted in the dimensioning
of embankments, so as to reduce the effects of collapse.

5. CORRELATION BETWEEN INDEX TESTS AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Rockfill materials exhibit relatively high mechanical characteristics, when compared with other
materials of soil mechanics. For this reason, in rockfill embankments the inclination of slopes is
usually significantly more pronounced than the one adopted in soils. It can be assumed that the rockfill
materials, when properly placed in fills, exhibit Young’s Modulus up to 200 MPa and internal friction
angle up to 60 degrees. Using the current rockfill construction techniques that lead to relative densities
close to 100%, they exhibit reduced deformation, consistent with the functional limitations of the
structures. Even so, in the design it has been considered appropriate, that the modules of elasticity of
these materials have values above 50 MPa.

Despite the work developed we consider that research is still necessary to assure a reliable relation
between the index-properties of rock fragments used in rockfills with the mechanical properties of the
particulate medium. Nonetheless, Figure 2 presents a correlation between the oedometric modulus
(Eoed, secant obtained from no-lateral-strain compression tests, for a vertical stress of 1 MPa) and the
values of the crushing strength for an average diameter of particles of 50 mm, in an air dryed
condition.

Fig. 1 Relation between the oedometric modulus (Eoed) of rockfill samples and the crushing
strength of their rock fragments

It is observed that in most materials, the deformability of the granular sample decreases with the
increase in the strength of particles. Reference must also be made to the fact that the moduli of
deformability may vary within a range, of about 10 times (Figure 1).

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The high variation of shear strength of rockfill materials is easily explained by the way these materials
react when subjected to a distortional strain. For low strength particles, the fracturing of the blocks
begins to be pronounced even at low average stresses. Thus, the behaviour of the material is not very
different when the material is subjected to high stresses. However, when the rockfill consists of high
strength particles, for low stresses, there is virtually no fracture, so that particulate materials tend to
increase in volume in the shear zone [1]. However, when stress states increases, the law that defines
the strength of the blocks decreases more sharply than the contact forces between them, occurring high
fracturing of the blocks and hence a marked decrease in strength of the rockfill material. Thus, it
justifies the sharp curvature of the Mohr-Coulomb envelope in the rockfill materials of better quality.
This leads to the need, in rockfill materials, to consider two parameters to characterize the shear
strength. The law that has generally been adopted is of type:

φ = φ0 - ∆φ log (σ3/pa) (1)

Being φ0 the value of the internal friction angle at σ3 of 1 atmosphere (pa) and ∆φ the reduction in the
friction angle due to the increase of the confining stress from 1 to 10 atmospheres.

Figure 2 presents the values of the shear strength parameters of rockfill materials tested in the cell of
Figure 3 [1]. It is possible to observe that, in average, there is less shear strength in saturated samples,
aspect that is related with the collapse of rockfill materials, which shall be addressed in a subsequent
section.

In most cases, the value of φ0 is higher than or equal to 50º, but ∆φ is also fairly high, reaching very
often values higher than 10º. The high values of the shear strength of rockfill materials explains the
fact that embankments containing those materials have high inclination faces, of about 45º, and, in that
type of works only a very few accidents occur due to sliding of embankment slopes.

From among rockfill materials tested at LNEC, basalts were the ones presenting higher friction angles.
The materials that were used in the expansion of Ponta Delgada Airport led to very high values,
having reached values of φ0=63º and ∆φ=15º.

Large cells should be used to carry out the mechanical characterisation of rockfill materials. Figure 3
presents LNEC triaxial cell, which allows testing 0.30 m diameter cylinder specimens. Some authors
consider that there are a few limitations in the laboratory determination of the mechanical properties of
rockfill materials, by considering that those properties are usually overestimated [14] and [15].

It can be considered that the rockfill materials, compacted with powerful vibrating rollers, as is usual
nowadays, make possible to construct embankments with high rigidity and strength, i.e., with a
modulus reaching 500 MPa and internal friction angles up to 60º.

30

Limestone dry
Limestone-dolomite dry
25
Granite dry
Greywacke dry
20 Schist dry
Limestone-dolomite sat
Greywacke sat
(0)

15
∆Φ

Schist sat
Basalt sat

10

0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Φo(0)
Fig. 2 Values of the relation between the φ0 and ∆φ of rockfill samples

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 Figure 3. Triaxial cell of rockfill materials

From LNEC experience, it was concluded that the modulus of elasticity, in the rockfill materials,
comparatively with soils, is, in average, about 4 times higher. It was also concluded that the rockfill
materials, by adopting the current construction techniques, lead to relative densities close to 100% and
exhibit reduced deformations, compatible with satisfactory behaviour of the structures. Therefore, and
in view of the experience gained, LNEC has recommended a modulus of elasticity for rockfill
materials, after placement on site, higher than 50 MPa, to ensure structures with proper serviceability
levels.

6. CHARACTERISATION OF ROCKFILLS AS REGARDS COLLAPSE

Collapse in rockfills occurs when there are volumetric deformations by compression, only due to the
decrease in the strength of rock fragments in contact with water. Collapse is related with the crushing
of particles, even for low confining pressures [1] and [14], when the crushing strength decreases to
such a value that becomes less than the forces of contact among them.

Class 3 materials of classifications presented in Tables 2 to 4 should correspond to low strength

rockfills or to soil-rockfill mixtures, which already present a significant quantity of fine soils. Both
materials have presented a defective behaviour when used in the construction of embankments, with
behaviour worse than the expected, even when compaction has been performed in layers of only
0.60 m thickness. In view of the experience gained, tests on samples of class 3 material must be
performed both in dry and saturated conditions, in order to determine the possibility of decrease in the
strength of rock fragments due to the increase in the water content.

7. STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF ROCKFILL EMBANKMENTS

Based on results of index-properties tests and on the mechanical characteristics obtained in laboratory
tests done in large cells, it has been possible to estimate the behaviour of rockfills. Figure 4 presents
the settlements observed, during construction in the maximum cross-section, on 3 Portuguese rockfill
dams with an upstream membrane.

Odeleite Dam is a 65 m maximum height dam and has been constructed with metagreywacke;
Apartadura Dam is a 46 m high dam constructed with limestone-dolomitic rock and Arcossó Dam is a

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40 m high granite dam. Further details on the characteristics of those dams are presented in another
paper [16].

The higher settlements observed in Odeleite Dam are fairly significant. The maximum observed
deformation at mid-height of the embankment was about 2.4%. From a back-analysis, for the bottom
15 m of embankment, the modulus of deformability (E) obtained was 35 MPa and for the upper 50 m
the value of E obtained was 50 MPa. Those fairly low values were less than those determined in the
stage of design, which are the values of the greywacke material presented in Figure 2. Probably, the
fact that, in the construction stage, moderately weathered metragreywackes were used, which proved
to be highly sensitive to compaction with abundant water, might justify the fact that higher settlements
than those expected were obtained. Mention must be made of the fact that the moduli determined for
the material of Odeleite Dam, presented in Figure 1, were the most reduced. The settlements observed
in Odeleite Dam, during the first filling, were less than those expectable in view of the behaviour
observed during construction (Figure 4). At the end of the first filling, the long-term settlements were
estimated, by assuming the variation over time, using a semi-logarithmic law. Nonetheless, the
settlements observed, in the first five years of the dam operation, were less than half of the expected
ones [16].

70
Apartadura
60 Arcossó
Embankment height (m)

Odeleite
50

40

30

20

10

0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
Settlement (m)
Fig. 4 Settlements measured during construction in faced rockfill dams

In Apartadura Dam, the settlements observed during construction were less than the predicted ones,
even by taking into account the high moduli of deformability determined in the design stage and which
are presented in Figure 1 (limestone-dolomite). Considering the results of Figure 4, the maximum
creep settlements estimated in Apartadura Dam were about 0.3 to 0.4%, for the highest cross-section.
Nevertheless, after 8 years, a maximum settlement of only 8 mm was observed, which is fairly less
than the maximum long-term expectable value that was estimated to be around 15 to 20 cm.

On the expansion work of Ponta Delgada Airport, the preliminary study for the embankments
recommended the use of slopes with an inclination of 1V:2H. Nevertheless, during the construction of
the basalt rockfill materials, it was necessary to extend the width of the runway, which led to the need
of carrying out triaxial compression tests in the cell shown in Figure 3. The results obtained allowed to
assume as feasible to construct embankments with a greater inclination, of about 1V:1.5H. Actually, it
was necessary to adopt, in some zones, slopes with an inclination of about 450 (Figure 5). The
observation of the 20-year old embankment has demonstrated that the slopes are perfectly stable, even
after the occurrence of small earthquakes.

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 Fig. 5 Rockfill built in the expansion work of Ponta Delgada Airport

Beliche Dam was built in the 80s, a highly brittle rockfill having been used in the zone of the
transition material [17]. The dam was instrumented ever since the beginning of construction with
inclinometers that made it possible to obtain the vertical internal displacements under construction.
The significant settlements observed led to the decision of constructing a berm in the upstream face, at
level 45.00 m, which initially had not been predicted, allowing to install surface marks and to measure
vertical displacements by precision levelling, when the first filling of the reservoir was to take place.

That procedure proved to be completely adequate because, in 1984-85 winter, when the construction
of the dam was under way, the partial and almost instantaneous filling of the reservoir up to a level
close to the berm was observed, which led to a very high collapse settlement that exceeded 0.40 m
(Figure 6). The settlements were extended, even though with less variation rate, to the operation stage.

a) b)
Fig. 6 Beliche Dam. a) Berm built on the upstream face. b) Settlements measured during the
first filling

In view of the loss of crest level comparatively with the maximum operation level, it was necessary, in
1998, to increase the crest level by about 1.5 m (Figure 7).

High collapse settlements were also observed in abutment embankments of a bridge in an expressway,
in Algarve region, which was built with low strength marly limestone blocks, which were highly
sensitive to collapse [18].

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 Fig. 7 Heightening of the crest of Beliche Dam

8. CONCLUSIONS

The results of index-properties tests make possible, on the basis of fairly simple tests, to estimate the
mechanical properties of rockfill materials, using the experience of test results obtained on similar
materials, as well as correlations and abacuses. A contribution to the physical-mechanical
characterization of rockfill materials is also presented. The long term observation of the rockfill
behaviour, also allowed the establishment of some correlations with the results of the index property
tests for the characterization of the sensitivity of the rockfill to the water, i.e., the collapse.

From the experience obtained with the construction of rockfills in Portugal, it is concluded that when
the rock materials have a high strength and a reduced weathering grade, the rockfills with better
mechanical characteristics are, by decreasing order, as follows: basalt, greywacke, limestone, granite
and schist.

Nevertheless, when the rock materials are weathered, rockfills, consisting of greywacke, marly
limestone and schist, have led to a defective behaviour, as a result of the weakening of rock fragments
in the presence of water. Furthermore, it can be considered that granite can also be sensitive to the
effects of collapse, but to a lesser extent than the other previously mentioned materials. Basalts
presented a reduced weathering grade and, as such, it is almost insensitive to collapse. In brief, it can
be concluded that basalts are a remarkable material for rockfill construction, and particularly, as far as
limestones, greywackes and schists materials are concerned, it is advisable to determine their ability to
lead to collapse settlements.

REFERENCES

[1] Veiga Pinto, A. (1983) – “Structural behaviour forecast of rockfill dams”, Laboratório Nacional
de Engenharia Civil Thesis, Lisbon, 1-157 (in Portuguese);

[2] Quinta Ferreira, M. (1990) – “The use of engineering geology in the study of rockfill dams”,
University of Coimbra PhD Thesis, Coimbra, 1-322 (in Portuguese).

[3] Veiga Pinto, A., Monteiro, B., Quinta Ferreira, M. and Delgado Rodrigues, J. (1995) –
“Properties and classifications on rockfill materials”, LNEC Pub., Lisbon, 1-88 (in Portuguese);

[4] Quinta Ferreira, M., Veiga Pinto, A., Monteiro, B. and Delgado Rodrigues, J. (2000) –
“Contribution of index tests for the caracterization of rockfills materials”, 7º Congresso

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 Nacional de Geotecnia, Porto, Vol. I, 287-297 (in Portuguese);

[5] ISRM (1979) – “Suggested methods for determining water content, porosity, density, absorption
and related properties, and swelling and slake-durability index properties”, 154-156;

[6] ISRM (1978) – “Suggested method for determining the uniaxial compressive strength and
deformability of rock materials”, Int. J. Rock Mech., Vol. 16, nº 2, 135-140;

[7] ISRM (1985) – “Suggested method for determining the point load strength”, Int. J. Rock Mech.,
Vol. 22, nº 2, 51-60;

[8] Guifu, X., Hong, L. (1986) – “On the statistical analysis of data and strength expression in the
rock point load tests”, Proc. 5th Int. Cong. of the IAEG, 1.5.7, London, 383-394;

[9] Marsal, R. J. (1973) – “Mechanical properties of rockfill”, in Embankment-Dam Engineering,

Casagrande Volume, John Wiley & Sons Pub., 109-200;

[10] Quinta Ferreira, M., Delgado Rodrigues, J., Veiga Pinto, A. and Jeremias, F.T. (1990) –
“Evaluation of strength of irregular rock lumps for characterization of rockfills”, 6th Int. Cong.
of the IAEG, Vol. 4, Amsterdam, 3119-3124.

[11] LNEC (1971) – “Los Angeles test”, Specification E 237, Lisbon, 1-14 (in Portuguese);

[12] ASTM (1981) – “Chemical analysis of limestone, quick lime and hydrated lime”, ASTM C25,
Part 13;

[13] Parish, D.W., Borden, R.H. (2001) – “Engineering properties and slake durability of weak
Triassic Basin rock”, Proc. of the 15th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Found. Eng., Vol. 1,
Istambul, 475-478;

[14] Reiffsteck, P., Blivet, J., Valle, N. and Khay, M. (2001) – “Écueils de la mesure en laboratoire
du comportment mécanique des sols grossiers”, Proc. of the 15th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics
and Found. Eng., Vol. 1, Istambul, 255-258;

[15] Veiga Pinto, A. (1982) – “Rockfil modelling”, MS Thesis at UNL, Lisbon, 1-76 (in Portuguese);

[16] Pardo de Santayana, F., Fortunato, E. and Veiga Pinto, A. (2005) – “Behaviour of Portuguese
rockfill dams with impervious membranes”, Proc. of the 16th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and
Found. Eng., Vol. 3, Osaka, 1905-1908.

[17] Naylor, D., Maranha das Neves, J., Maranha das Neves, E. and Veiga Pinto, A. (1997) – “A
back-analysis of Beliche Dam”, Géotechnique 47, Nº 2, 221-233;

[18] Veiga Pinto, A., Papadimitropoulos, I. and Prates, M. (1995) – “The failure of two approach
embankments of the bridge over Rio Seco”, Proc. of the 11th Eur. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and
Found. Eng., Vol. 8, Copenhagen, 137-142.

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