Climate Change Analysis

By: Connor Johnston and Rebecca Goresnstein

Environmental Issues (ENVL 4300)

Spring 2023

Stockton University

Environmental Science and Geology Program

Instructor: Dr. Tait Chirenje

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Abstract

This study analyzes climate change and its impact on temperature and precipitation.

National, state, city, and global data are included to show the wide variety of places affected by

climate change. The first part of the discussion/results in this report includes data that were

collected and monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) telemetry equipment

that are scattered along the Atlantic Coast of New Jersey. The New Jersey telemetry system is

necessary to determine tide level rise and find mitigation techniques for sea level rise. Our results

show that New Jersey and Miami sea levels (Figure 1 and Figure 11) have been rising in recent

decades. The objective of this portion of the report is to discover how a monitoring system works

and the importance of monitoring water levels in coastal areas. The second part of this report’s

discussion analyzes time series data collected from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The results of this

data shows the overall pattern of temperature and precipitation globally, within the US, Florida

and Miami. Global temperature graphs show that temperatures are increasing worldwide (Figure

2). Miami and Florida were chosen due to the climate crisis seen there, as the state is sinking and

Miami experiences considerable flooding compared to other cities in the US. Additionally,

temperature and precipitation are closely correlated. Not only is the temperature in Miami rising

(Figure 6), but precipitation is also increasing (Figure 5). Furthermore, our study shows that

there is clear and measurable sea level rise in Miami (Figure 11). The objective of this part of the

report is to show the importance of monitoring temperature and precipitation as well as show the

complexity of data collection. The third and final part of our results and discussion analyze

global temperature and precipitation. Our country of choice is Egypt, where we show the general

temperature increase over time (Figure 13). The reasoning behind including this country’s data
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being included is to display the importance of including worldwide data and seeing how it relates

to other countries such as the United States. The last part of the lab involves analyzing Egypt’s

dedication to the Paris Climate Agreement which was found to be very poor (Climate Action

Tracker, 2023). It is important to analyze other countries' efforts too because we are all in this

together so everyone needs to do their part in mitigating climate change.

Table of Contents

Introduction 3
Methods 4
Results and Discussion 6
Part One: 6
Part Two: 10
Part Three: 22
Conclusion 24
References 25
Appendix 28

Introduction
Climate change is a global phenomenon that has been driven by human activities in the

last century. Shifts in temperatures, weather patterns and precipitation occur due to the burning

of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. The term greenhouse gas has been coined to describe

how the emissions of burned fossil fuels “act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping

the sun’s heat and raising temperatures” (United Nations, 2023). Carbon dioxide and methane are

examples of greenhouse gases that are released into the atmosphere due to “Clearing land and

forests…landfills for garbage…energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use”

(United Nations, 2023). Since carbon dioxide and methane are released due to these human

activities, these greenhouse gases are at the highest level “in 2 million years” and Earth is “1.1°C

(2 Fahrenheit) warmer than it was in the late 1800s… (and) the last decade (2011-2020) was the
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warmest on record” (United Nations, 2023). Catastrophic events across the globe and the United

States are occurring more frequently, such as stronger storms (hurricanes, tornadoes), more

droughts in certain areas, rising sea level, melting glaciers and sea ice, uncontrollable wildfires

and diminishing biodiversity to name a few (United Nations, 2023). Furthermore, certain areas

are more prone to climate change. In fact, researchers have placed “Miami and Tampa

metropolitan regions among the world’s top 10 most vulnerable regions to climate

change–enhanced hazards” (Butler et al., 2021).

Despite all of this, the world is working to deliver climate change solutions. Global

agreements to mitigate the impacts of climate change include “Sustainable Development Goals,

the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement” (United Nations,

2023). These include broad parameters such as cutting emissions, adaptation to impacts, and

providing funds for any climate-related settlements. Other solutions include decarbonization by

switching to renewable energy, and many countries even committed to having “net zero

emissions by 2050, (and) about half of emissions cuts must be in place by 2030” (United

Nations, 2023). This is to keep warming below the 1.5° C (2.7 F) threshold for the future.

Industrialized countries must achieve their commitment of providing “$100 billion a year to

developing countries so they can adapt and move towards greener economies” (United Nations,

2023). Action is required now or the future of the planet and its inhabitants are in trouble. We

must move forward as a global collective to ensure that climate change does not continue to ruin

the environment and negatively impact human health.

Methods
To start part one, we created a map in arcgis of the New Jersey telemetry stations along

the coastline. We did this by collecting data for the locations of all the sites in the form of
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latitude and longitude coordinates. We then used the add xy data function on arcgis to add in the

coordinates as points on the map. We then added a New Jersey state boundary shapefile to show

where they are located in retrospect to the state. To find the annual tidal level we found data that

shows the mean tidal level for different tidal gauges across New Jersey. We then picked three

stations that would represent north, central, and south Jersey to properly represent the state. We

took the data and plotted it in excel and used linear trendlines to show the change in mean tidal

elevation overtime.

For part two, we relied on NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

to collect the data we needed. For global temperature data, we were able to use the graph directly

from the site that displays the increase in Earth’s temperature over the last century. For the

national, state, and city data we had to use data from the website to create graphs to show the

trends. We obtained the data for mean, maximum, and minimum temperature and plotted it in

excel to show how the temperatures are changing overtime. For the precipitation data, we

obtained the graphs from NOAA’s website. For this part we also needed to calculate heating and

cooling degree days for Miami, Florida. We used degreedays.net to calculate the amount of

heating and cooling degree days Maimi has and graphed them in excel. For this lab it was

important to evaluate sea level change as well as temperature and precipitation changes. To do

this, we obtained a graph of the sea level rise of Miami from NOAA’s website.

For the last part, the steps were very similar to part two, only now we are evaluating a

country that is not the United States. We picked Egypt for our assessment as we believe it will be

highly prone to climate change as it is a coastal country that can be threatened by sea level rise.

We used the climate knowledge portal to obtain the average annual temperature and precipitation
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and graph them in excel. We also used the climate action tracer to determine Egypt’s dedication

to the Paris climate agreement.

Results and Discussion

Part One:

Figure 1- A graph showing the change in mean tidal elevation (feet) for 3 tidal gauge

stations across New New Jersey from 2000 to 2018. Data was not available for all years for

Watson Creek and Absecon Channel.

For our data collection we took the average tidal elevation from 2001 to 2018 for three

sites across New Jersey. To make the data representative of New Jersey, we took a site from

south, central, and north Jersey to accommodate for spatial variation among our vast coastline.

All three sites (Figure 1) show an increase in average tidal elevation over the last two decades. If

more data was available, we would assume the increase would be even larger. The likely reason
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for this is climate change. Climate change changes tidal elevation by contributing more water to

the ocean from melting glaciers but also causes the water to expand in the ocean as warm water

is less dense than cold water (Lindey, 2022). We predict the effects of sea rise will only get worse

overtime due to two factors. The first is simply that we are going to keep putting more carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere unless something radically changes that soon. The second is that

melting ice caps is a positive feedback loop. What this means is that as ice melts the albedo rate

(rate of reflection of light) decreases as there is less ice. With a more open ocean which is much

darker, it will absorb more heat and melt the ice caps at an even faster rate (NASA, 2019). All

three tidal gauge stations show similar slopes for predicted increase in mean tidal elevation

(Figure 1). The only difference between the three is their average tidal elevation specific to their

geographic area. This suggests that climate change is equally affecting New Jersey's coastline as

north, central, and south Jersey are experiencing the same level of sea level rise.

The data could indicate climate change, to some extent. The data does show an increase

in sea level tides which as mentioned previously, is an indicator of climate change. But it could

be argued that due to the sample size being just one state out of the entire world, there is not

enough evidence to conclude that climate change is real. There can also be examples of areas

where sea level is rising which people could use to argue against climate change. We know

despite this information being true, that climate change is still real and disproportionately affects

different parts of the world. Looping back to before, the sample size of just New Jersey’s coast is

not enough to determine climate change’s existence, the sample size needs to be much larger.

One of the greatest influences on earth’s tides is the gravitational pull of the Sun and

Moon. Their gravitational pull and position influence the tides causing coastlines to have mixed

tides, diurnal tides, or semidiurnal tides (NOAA, 2013). This should not matter for the data
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because the data is collated over each year. Had the data been collected at random times where

there were different phases of the moon, the data would be significantly different as the moon

dictates the Earth’s tides. Another factor that affects tides is local weather. Local wind patterns

and weather can change the tides by blowing them offshore or onshore (NOAA, 2013). This can

cause waves to either pile up onshore, or stay out at sea causing longer low tides. This could

explain the difference in mean tidal elevation across New Jersey’s shore (Figure 1).

New Jersey is fighting climate change by earning federal grants to build climate resilient

infrastructure (EPA, 2023). In 2020, New Jersey met its greenhouse gas reduction goal and was

awarded three million dollars towards infrastructure. The New Jersey goal is to become a “low

carbon” economy by 2050 which entails a eighty percent reduction in carbon emissions (EPA,

2023). This also includes building resilient communities across the state. While Hurricane Sandy

was not caused by climate change, it serves as a reminder of what is to come in the future due to

climate change. The storm rocked New Jersey and New York causing billions in damage. The

storm caused a shift in legislature. New Jersey altered the Flood Hazard Area Control Act rule as

it now requires you “to elevate and/or meet new construction standards if your house is located

in a flood zone and was declared substantially damaged by your local floodplain administrator or

is new construction. You have no legal obligation to elevate if your home was not declared

substantially damaged or is not in a flood zone” (NJDEP, 2013). The idea of raising houses is to

mitigate the effects of storm surges and climate change. While this is a solution, it is temporal at

best. It is like treating the symptoms of a disease rather than the cause. The core problem is

climate change which needs to be tackled, not the rising sea level by just raising homes to

prevent property damage.

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We believe the system needs to be on route for a faster goal for reducing greenhouse gas

emissions. 2050 to not even be net zero is slow considering China is promising to be net neutral

by 2060, which is a whole country compared to one state (Luo, 2022). I believe we should also

be enacting policy at the county and local level to improve the odds of hitting our climate change

reduction goals. We need to get more people involved as this issue affects everyone on Earth so

everyone should have a stake in helping the planet.

California is one of, if not, the state suffering the most from climate change. Increasing

temperatures means more heat waves, snow is melting earlier in the season, and less rainfall is

present (EPA, 2016). This will likely contribute to increasing droughts and problems with food

security. In Florida, rising sea levels from climate change mean the shorelines are retreating,

there will be more hot days, and damage to coral reefs due to ocean acidification EPA (2016).

The issues Florida is facing are similar in coastal areas, but still vary due to its geographic

position. It is estimated that billions of dollars of property will be lost due to climate change in

the coming decades. Hawaii is also suffering due to it being an island. Hawaii faces loss of

infrastructure from rising ocean levels and damage to coral reefs just like Florida (EPA, 2016).

The damage caused by climate change greatly outweighs any benefits that could come from it

and so people and nations should be taking more interest in the issue as everyone’s liveliness and

welfare is at stake.
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Part Two:

Figure 2- A graph of global annual temperatures from 1850 to 2023.

Global temperatures are rising at an unparalleled rate as seen in Figure 2. Starting in the

1940’s, we can see there is an upward trend in temperature (the red bars), and begins to

exponentially increase in the 1980’s. Given the massive size of the ocean and its ability to serve

as a carbon sink that absorbs heat, large amounts of energy are required to drive the temperature

of the ocean and land up this much. Global temperatures have increased roughly 2° Fahrenheit as

graphed above. This additional heat is “driving regional and seasonal temperature extremes,

reducing snow cover and sea ice, intensifying heavy rainfall, and changing habitat ranges for

plants and animals” (Lindsey & Dahlman, 2023). Global temperatures are increasing at an

extreme rate over the last 100 years, and even NOAA notes that “The 2022 surface temperature

was 1.55 °F (0.86 °Celsius) warmer than the 20th-century average of 57.0 °F (13.9 °C) and 1.90

˚F (1.06 ˚C) warmer than the pre-industrial period (1880-1900)” (Lindsey & Dahlman, 2023).

This is also shown in our graph which further proves that global warming is occurring at an

accelerated rate in the post-industrial period.

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Figure 3- A graph showing the average precipitation across the contiguous 48 states of the

United States from 1901 to 2020.

Figure 3 is a graph that displays the precipitation in the United States over the course of a

little over 100 years. There is a clear trend showing that precipitation has increased in areas over

the last 100 years. After the year 1970, there was a more clear and consistent increase in

precipitation. The EPA notes that they retrieved their data from this graph from weather stations,

and “At each weather station, annual precipitation anomalies were calculated from total annual

precipitation in inches” (EPA, 2023). Furthermore, the EPA also impresses that “precipitation in

the contiguous 48 states has increased at a rate of 0.20 inches per decade” (EPA, 2023).

Limitations in available data from Hawaii and Alaska are the reasoning for these states not being

included in this discussion.

Precipitation and availability of freshwater resources is vital for life on Earth.

Precipitation has a wide variety of impacts that affect ecosystems and the human well-being.

Rainfall, snowfall and “the timing of snowmelt can all affect the amount of surface water and

groundwater available for drinking, irrigation, and industry” (EPA, 2023). Precipitation also
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influences “river flooding and can determine what types of animals and plants (including crops)

can survive in a particular place” (EPA, 2023). Changes in precipitation will impact natural

processes, and if there continues to be quick changes, plants and animals will not be able to adapt

to these new conditions (EPA, 2023).

Furthermore, single-day catastrophic precipitation/storm events are occurring more

frequently. As a matter of fact, “Nine of the top 10 years for extreme one-day precipitation

events have occurred since 1996” (EPA, 2023). Warming oceans due to climate change increase

evaporation, so when “more moisture-laden air moves over land or converges into a storm

system, it can produce more intense precipitation—for example, heavier rain and snow storms”

(EPA, 2023). Heavier precipitation events lead to “crop damage, soil erosion, and an increase in

flood risk due to heavy rains—which in turn can lead to injuries, drownings, and other

flooding-related effects on health” (EPA, 2023). Heavy precipitation events do not necessarily

imply that overall precipitation has increased in all places. However, changes in intensity of such

events, due to climate change, can in fact increase “overall precipitation totals” of an area (EPA,

2023). Increased precipitation in some places and an increased rate of single-day catastrophic

events can disrupt natural processes in ecosystems and impact human health. Therefore, global

climate change mitigation agreements are crucial to lessen the occurrences of these events.
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Figure 4- A graph showing the average precipitation of Florida from 1895 to 2022.

Figure 5- A graph showing the average precipitation of Miami, Florida from 1948 to 2022.

Precipitation observed in Florida has been shown graphically in Figure 4 and Miami in

Figure 5. Precipitation trends in Florida (Figure 4) show a gradual increase in precipitation from

2005 to 2022, but it is not completely clear if there is a trend that is established. There was not a

drastic increase, however there has been a steady increase in precipitation since 2005. The

overall trend of Figure 5 shows that Miami is experiencing more precipitation over time. This is

accelerated in the years starting at about 1993 until present-day or 2022 for the sake of available
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data. This is likely due to anthropogenic driven climate change. Temperature and precipitation

are closely related and measures are necessary for mitigation. Recognizing this relationship

“between the temperature of the Atlantic Ocean and Florida precipitation” is crucial for planning

for the repercussions of climate change in Florida (Klavans et al., 2020). This connection is

proven by connections made about greenhouse gas emissions, pollution from industrial activities,

etc. in Florida that result in warming temperatures and more precipitation. This correlation will

exist because as “long as Atlantic Ocean temperatures continue to rise, we expect wetter late

summer months in Florida in the future” (Klavans et al., 2020). Overall, our results show that

precipitation in Miami has been accelerating in recent decades, most likely due to rising

temperatures, and solutions are vital to ensure the livelihood of vulnerable cities like Miami.

Figure 6- A graph showing the average, maximum, and minimum temperature of Miami,
Florida from 1948 to 2022.
The average, minimum and maximum temperatures seen in Miami (Figure 6) are plotted

to visually recognize the relationship between the three variables from 1948 to 2022. It is hard to
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identify a trend in (Figure 6) of the changes in temperature in Florida. It appears that the

minimum temperature has decreased over time, and the average temperature has increased.

Average temperatures in Florida have risen “more than 2°F since the beginning of the 20th

century” (Kunkel, 2023). It also appears that the maximum temperature in Florida has decreased

over the decades. In Figure 6, after the year 2010, there is a clear upward trend in temperature

across all three variables in Miami. Therefore it is safe to state that temperatures in Miami are

increasing at an unprecedented rate. Not only is temperature rising in Miami, but humidity

combined with temperature increases in the state impacts human health, the economy,

agriculture, energy etc. Studies show that “heat-related illness among vulnerable populations

places excess stress on agricultural production, water supplies, and energy generation” (Kunkel,

2023). Much more planning is necessary to mitigate these problems.

Figure 7- This bar graph represents the seasonal changes in temperature in the Contiguous

48 states over the years 1896-2021. Seasons are categorized as: Winter (December, January

and February), Spring (March, April and May), Summer (June, July and August) and Fall

(September, October and November).

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Figure 8- The average temperature and precipitation in Miami, FL from

January-December. Green bars represent average precipitation and the three lines
represent temperature: the red line represents annual maximum, the brown line represents
average, and the blue line represents minimum temperatures seen in Miami between 1991
and 2020.
Figure 7 represents temperature changes based on each season. The bar graph includes

data from the 48 Contiguous states from 1896 to 2021. Since 1896, winter temperatures have

increased nearly 3°F. Spring temperatures have increased about 2°F, and summer and fall have

seen a 1.5°F temperature increase. Winter has experienced the most dramatic rise in temperature

compared to the other seasons and the EPA notes that this is “consistent with observed reductions

in snow… and shorter ice seasons” (EPA, 2023). This is problematic because many people rely

on snowmelt as a crucial water resource, especially “millions of people in the western United

States, where snowmelt provides 75 percent of the water supply” (EPA, 2023). Additionally,

plants rely on snow and snowmelt for survival (EPA, 2023). Furthermore, warmer temperatures

in spring, summer and fall are consistent with the observable lengthening of growing seasons. In
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fact, “The length of the growing season has increased in almost every state” (EPA, 2023).

Observable heat waves and “extremely hot temperatures” in the summer are proven by the

increase in average summer temperatures over the years (EPA, 2023). Winter is especially

vulnerable to the effects of climate change, as proven by the 3°F increase in temperature over the

years. While the US may still observe abnormally low temperatures, these occurrences are

becoming more rare in recent decades. Consistent increase in temperature in the United States

will only continue to grow if there is no action taken.

(Figure 8) shows a combination of temperature and precipitation averages in Miami, FL

throughout every month between 1991 and 2020. This graph is important as it shows the

seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation throughout the seasons. The temperature

coincides with precipitation for each month, so as precipitation increases, so does temperature. In

fact, the EPA notes that “As average temperatures at the Earth’s surface rise, more evaporation

occurs, which, in turn, increases overall precipitation” (EPA, 2023). Thus, warming temperatures

will cause many regions to experience more precipitation. However, not all areas of the world are

impacted by warming temperatures and increasing precipitation. By “shifting the wind patterns

and ocean currents that drive the world’s climate system, climate change will also cause some

areas to experience decreased precipitation” (EPA, 2023). Hence, the increased severity of

droughts observed in certain areas across the western US. In places where temperatures are high

and evaporation occurs at an accelerated rate, more precipitation “will not necessarily increase

the amount of water available for drinking, irrigation, and industry” (EPA, 2023). Therefore,

more precipitation is not automatically beneficial for the environment or for human use.
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Figure 9- A graph of the cooling degree

days of Miami, Florida from February
8th, 2022 to May 4th, 2023.

Figure 10- A graph of the heating

degree days of Miami, Florida from
February 8th, 2022 to May 4th,
2023.

Heating and cooling degree days as shown in Figures 9 and 10 relate to energy

consumption. Degree days assume that when the “outside temperature is 65°F, we don't need

heating or cooling to be comfortable” (US Department of Commerce, 2010). Above this

threshold is a cooling degree day, and below the threshold implies it is a heating degree day. To
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calculate this when “the temperature mean is above 65°F, subtract 65 from the mean and the

result is Cooling Degree Days” and “if the temperature mean is below 65°F, subtract the mean

from 65 and the result is Heating Degree Days” (US Department of Commerce, 2010). The

graphs show that there are more cooling degree days in Miami than the contrary. There are more

cooling degree days in June-October due to it being summer in Miami and air conditioning is

necessary to live comfortably in the Florida extreme heat and humidity. Heating degree days

show a peak between December and January, likely due to it being cooler in the winter. In order

to be more sustainable and reduce energy consumption, utilizing heating and cooling degree day

calculations is important. The generally accepted “comfortable” temperature is 65°F, so heat/air

conditioning can be turned off at this temperature. This would result in a decrease in

heating/cooling degree days, as there would be no heat or air conditioning powered on. However,

with a more sporadic climate as a result of climate change, it can be assumed that there will be

more degree days than in previous years. More degree days results in more energy consumption,

which produces more greenhouse gases.

Figure 11- A graph of the estimated sea level rise in Miami, Florida from 1931 to 2022.
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Sea level is clearly rising quickly in Miami, as seen in Figure 11. Between 1931 and

2022, sea level has risen about 0.45 m within the last 100 years roughly as seen in the Figure.

Planning in Florida is crucial in order to minimize flooding due to sea level rise. Planning

includes Florida’s Peril of Flood Act (2015), which “requires that coastal localities incorporate

sea level rise (SLR) planning policies into their comprehensive plans” (Butler et al., 2021). A

study has monitored how local communities have adapted their planning to this policy. Surveys

of coastal planners and managers in 2019 were performed to determine actual commitments

rather than “procedural compliance” (Butler et al., 2021). Of the surveyed municipalities, further

analysis was done to determine if sea level rise planning was actually meaningful.

It has been found that after the Act’s creation, “By 2019, the number of Florida’s

municipalities integrating SLR adaptation into their plans quadrupled since its inception in 2015,

and nearly all are likely to do so when the mandatory 7-year plan review cycle is completed by

2023” (Butler et al., 2021). Furthermore, 60% of coastal planners that were surveyed stated that

they have incorporated sea level rise into their plans. However, Florida’s Peril of Flood Act

represents the minimum level of planning required for mitigation (Butler et al., 2021). And the

Act is vague enough that it requires local municipalities to use their own discretion for the extent

to which they plan for sea level rise. Therefore, most local plans offer ambiguous “‘most of the

above’ options when determining whether to protect coastal development, accommodate periodic

flooding, remove some areas from future development, or relocate existing development” (Butler

et al., 2021). This Act is the epitome of the lack of action with regard to climate change. Policies

are only as strong as those who enforce them, which is clearly seen with the situation in Florida.

On top of that, planning mandates and policies are only as strong as the “strategies they inspire

as well as the implementation of those policies in communities that adopt them” (Butler et al.,
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2021). This is in line with the EPA’s expectations for mitigation in the state, however stricter

planning and enforcement is necessary in Florida, especially Miami, in order to minimize the

effects of sea level rise.

Figure 12- A graph of the amount of hurricane landfalls by decade in Florida from 1900 to
2009.
There is no clear evidence of increases in minor and major hurricanes in Florida, as

displayed in Figure 12. No evidence supports that there are more or less hurricanes that make

landfall in Florida and frequency varies between years. However, the toll that hurricanes take on

Florida is costly in many ways. A noteworthy example is Hurricane Katrina that made landfall in

Florida on August 23, 2005. Hurricane Katrina “is the costliest hurricane to ever hit the United

States” and is one of five of the most deadly hurricanes to impact the country (US Department of

Commerce, 2022). Furthermore, studies show that Hurricane Katrina was “responsible for 1,833

fatalities and approximately $108 billion in damage (un-adjusted 2005 dollars)” (US Department

of Commerce, 2022). In southern Florida, “Katrina produced 10 to 20 inches of rain, flooding,

tornadoes” etc. (US Department of Commerce, 2022).

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However, this was not even the worst hurricane to strike Florida. Hurricane Irma became

a category 5 hurricane with winds of 185 mph. The hurricane was “the strongest hurricane ever

observed in the open Atlantic Ocean” and “one of only 5 hurricanes with measured winds of 185

MPH or higher in the entire Atlantic basin” (US Department of Commerce, 2021). The eye of

hurricane Irma finally made landfall “in Cudjoe Key as a 130 mph Category 4 at 9:10am” and

then again “near Marco Island in southwest Florida around 3 pm EDT on September 10th (2017)

as a category-3 storm with 115 mph winds” (US Department of Commerce, 2021). Six million

Floridians were evacuated, and luckily many of them complied, with others voluntarily leaving

their homes seeking refuge. Major flooding and damage to infrastructure was noted, with floods

up to 8 feet seen in the keys, and at least 5 tornadoes were reported to be associated with

Hurricane Irma (US Department of Commerce, 2021). Hurricanes are costly and even deadly for

Americans living in Florida. It is important to listen to officials and evacuate when told to in

order to ensure everyone’s lives.

Part Three:

Figure 13- A graph of the observed mean temperature by year from 1901 to 2021 of Egypt.
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Figure 14- A graph of the observed annual precipitation in Egypt from 1901 to 2021.

The temperature data for Egypt agrees with our global and national data in regard to an increase

in temperatures over time (Figure 2, 3, 13). The trends mainly lead to an increase in temperature

overtime but some areas remain unaffected or could be experiencing decreases in temperature. It

can be argued that the data is skewed when assessing just the average compared to the average,

maximum, and minimum. Evidence suggests that some parts of the world are experiencing

colder and harsher winters as a result of climate change (The Climate Reality Project, 2022).

This means that highs and lows for countries are exasperated for data. This means that the

average will still look the same as the hotter summers and colder winters which may make it

seem like temperatures are not actually changing. In (Figure 5) Florida looks unaffected by the

effects of climate change, perhaps because it is already hot there as it is located in a semi tropical

climate. Egypt suggests that precipitation is on a decline (Figure 14) while the other graphs do

not show a clear trend or direction in rainfall. Less rain is detrimental as it means less

agricultural production and can compromise food security. This can cause havoc in an area that is

already politically unstable. This seems to be the trend for many countries across the globe. I
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believe information such as sea level rise in Egypt and surrounding countries could also be

useful information to have when studying the effects of climate change on these areas. Egypt is

rated highly insufficient by the climate action tracker which came as a surprise to me (Climate

Action Tracker, 2023). Egypt has no net target and is ramping up fossil fuel production and use

currently. The Paris Climate Agreement wants at least a goal of stabilizing emissions by 2030 but

Egypt has refused to establish this criteria. It is funny that they hosted cop 27 yet made such a

horrible promise to “mitigate” their emissions. They should not be allowed to host unless they

are actively implementing policy to reduce emissions. Egypt rates somewhat high for a relatively

small country in terms of carbon dioxide emissions. It is rated as twenty seven in top polluting

countries and released 219,377,350 metric tons of carbon dioxide in 2016 (Worldometer, 2023).

With the aforementioned climate policy, I believe this number will only increase for another

decade then peak and begin to decrease. While the country is developing, they should have

chosen a less fossil fuel heavy path and invested in more green infrastructure, but now they will

inevitably be locked into a large fossil fuel dependency that will be hard to break.

Conclusion
The obtained results give insight into the future prospects of climate change on our planet. We

obtained data on a global, national, and country level (Figure 2, 3, and 13) that shows increasing

temperatures due to anthropogenic activity. The data also suggests rainfall is decreasing on

certain parts of the globe (Figure 14). Trends also suggest that sea level is on the rise due to the

melting of glaciers (Figure 1 and 11). The results imply climate change is a national issue but

disproportionately affects different parts of the world. The data should alarm people, especially

those living in coastal communities. Climate change threatens millions, if not billions of peoples
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existence and not enough is being done to prevent it from harming the welfare of the eight billion

people on our planet.

References
Butler, W., Holmes, T., & Lange, Z. (2021). Mandated Planning for Climate Change:

Responding to the Peril of Flood Act for Sea Level Rise Adaptation in Florida. Journal of

the American Planning Association, 87(3), 370–382.

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Appendix

Figure 1- A map of the tidal gauge sites across New Jersey.

Figure 2- A graph showing the average, maximum, and minimum temperature from 1895
to 2022 of Florida.
 29

Figure 3- A graph of the average, maximum, and minimum temperature across the United

States from 1895 to 2022.