Structural Guidance Note Revision 1

SGN.09 Jan 2005

WELD DESIGN, WELDING AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

CONSIDERATIONS

1. Introduction
The following offers guidance as to the considerations and international standards when
designing and specifying a weld. In addition non destructive testing is discussed and the key
weld requirements that should be inspected detailed.
This document is not a substitute for the weld procedure, which should be developed by the
welding contractor.

2. Weld Design and Welding Considerations

Guidelines
The American Welding Society (AWS) should be used, AWS D 1.1 – Structural Welding
Code, latest edition or equivalent.
Much valuable guidance and sound weld practice is contained in the books by Hicks and
Blodgett referenced at the end of this document.

Weld Symbols
The internationally recognised AWS symbols should be used; below is a summary of the most
common weld symbols and illustrates the significance of the location of the symbol (using a
fillet weld symbol as an example).

Definitions
All welds detailed on Noble Denton drawings shall be specified as leg length (the distance
from the joint root to the toe of the fillet weld) and noted as such.
When reviewing a drawing it is important to understand if the leg length, or throat thickness is
identified. The leg length and throat thickness of a fillet weld are detailed below.
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Welding Procedures
A Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) documents the important points that need to be
known when producing a given weld. It should be noted that many large projects will already
have a WPS for the welds to be used, and for those projects without, standard weld
procedures are specified by AWS for most weld types.
By using data provided in the AWS code individual qualified WPS are not required, for
standard joints on common base materials. It should be in the scope of the welding contractor
to propose the welding procedure, based on their equipment, skills and drawings provided by
the designer; thus the following is for background information and consideration when
designing or approving a weld detail.
The AWS definition for a welding procedure is "the detailed methods and practices including
all joint welding procedures involved in the production of a weldment." The joint welding
procedure mentioned includes "the materials, detailed methods and practices employed in the
welding of a particular joint".
A welding procedure is used to make a record of all of the different elements, variables, and
factors that are involved in producing a specific weld or weldment. Welding procedures should
be written whenever it is necessary to:
• Maintain dimensions by controlling distortion
• Reduce residual or locked up stresses
• Minimize detrimental metallurgical changes
• Consistently build a weldment the same way
• Comply with certain specifications and codes.
Welding procedures must be tested or qualified and they must be communicated to those
who need to know. This includes the designer, the welding inspector, the welding supervisor,
and last but not least, the welder.
When welding codes or high-quality work is involved this can become a welding procedure
specification, which lists in detail the various factors or variables involved. Different codes and
specifications have somewhat different requirements for a welding procedure, but in general a
welding procedure consists of three parts as follows:
• A detailed written explanation of how the weld is to be made
• A drawing or sketch showing the weld joint design and the conditions for making each
pass or bead
• A record of the test results of the resulting weld.
The variables involved in most specifications are considered to be essential variables. In
some codes the term nonessential variables may also be used. Essential variables are those
factors, which must be recorded, and if they are changed in any way, the procedure must be
retested and requalified. Nonessential variables are usually of less importance and may be
changed within prescribed limits and the procedure need not be requalified.
Essential variables involved in the procedure usually include the following:
• The welding process and its variation
• The method of applying the process
• The base metal type, specification, or composition
• The base metal geometry, normally thickness
• The base metal need for preheat or postheat
• The welding position
• The filler metal and other materials consumed in making the weld
• The weld joint, that is, the joint type and the weld
• Electrical or operational parameters involved
• Welding technique.
Any change to the essential variables detailed above may negate the validity of WPS. Some
specifications also include nonessential variables and these are usually the following:
• The travel progression (uphill or downhill)
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• The size of the electrode or filler wire

• Certain details of the weld joint design
• The use and type of weld backing
• The polarity of the welding current.
The procedure must include each of the listed variables and describe in detail how it is to be
done. The second portion of the welding procedure is the joint detail sketch and table or
schedule of welding conditions.
Tests are performed to determine if the weld made to the procedure specification meets
certain standards as established by the code or specification. If the destructive tests meet the
minimum requirements the procedure then becomes a qualified procedure specification. The
writing, testing, and qualifying procedures can become quite involved and are different for
different specifications.
Welding procedures take on added significance based on the quality requirements that can
be involved. When exact reproducibility and perfect quality are required, the procedures will
become much more technical with added requirements, particularly in testing. Tests will
become more complex to determine that the weld joint has the necessary properties to
withstand the service for which the weld is designed.

Welder Performance Qualifications (WPQ)

The welder must be qualified for the weld type and position (i.e. flat, horizontal etc.) that they
are required to perform. Typically the welder’s qualifications are governed by AWS.
The welding contractor should provide the welders certificates and proof that the welder is
pre-qualified for the welds required. Certifying agencies may also have additional, or project
specific requirements.

Preparation and Preheat

To make a sound weld the joint must be correctly cleaned and then preheated prior to
welding. Cleaning the joint can usually be accomplished by using a stiff wire brush.
All surfaces to be welded have to be unpainted and free from all loose or thick scale, slag,
rust, moisture, grease, or other foreign material. Mill scale that can withstand a vigorous wire
brushing, or anti-spatter compound may remain prior to welding.
The prepared joint must be free from any moisture and remain so during the application of the
weld. No welding shall take place when surfaces are wet, exposed to rain, snow or high wind
speeds.
Preheat is an important step prior to welding. Preheating the joint helps remove any moisture
from the joint and by heating the joint initially before welding commences will allow the joint to
cool at a slower rate which will allow for more time for hydrogen to diffuse out of the molten
weld metal.
Preheating is the required practice of providing localized heat to the weld zone. The preferred
method of preheating is by the use of a manual flame torch.
Required preheat shall be applied for a distance of 75mm in all directions from the weld joint.
The minimum level of preheat required can be found in Table 4.3 of the AWS Structural
Welding Code and is summarized below (actual values vary with steel grade):
To 19mm Over 19mm Over 38mm Over 63mm
Steel Thickness
Incl. to 38mm to 63mm Incl.
Typical Minimum Preheat
Temperature None - 10 10-66 66-107 107-150
(Degrees Celsius)
When the base metal temperature falls below 0 degrees Celsius the base metal shall be
heated to at least 21 degrees Celsius and maintained during welding.
No welding shall be done when the ambient temperature around the weld joint is below minus
18 degrees Celsius.
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Preheat can be checked by the use of a Tempstick or similar device which melts upon contact
with the specified temperature or greater.

Electrodes
Hydrogen is one of the major causes for weld defects so care must be taken to ensure no
moisture is picked up in the coating on the electrodes.
Immediately after opening of the hermetically sealed container electrodes not being used
must be stored as per the manufacturers instructions.
In any case any electrodes that have been wet shall not be used.

Arc Strikes
Arc strikes outside the area of permanent welds should be avoided on any base metals.
Cracks or blemishes caused by arc strikes should be ground to a smooth contour and
checked to ensure soundness.

Cleaning of Completed Welds

Slag shall be removed from all completed welds and the weld and any adjacent base material
cleaned by brushing (or other suitable means). Tightly adherent splatter may remain after the
cleaning operation, unless removal is required for any non-destructive testing that may be
required.
Welds shall not be painted until inspected and approved.

3. Non-Destructive Testing

Introduction
The purpose of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) or Non-Destructive Examination (NDE), as
sometimes referred to is to determine the integrity of a material, component or structure.
There are six main types of NDT:
• Visual Inspection
• Liquid Dye Penetrant
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Eddy Current Testing
• X-Ray Testing
This section covers visual inspections in some depth, as the attending engineer or surveyor
can readily perform this. The other detailed methods require qualified personnel so only an
outline as to the procedure is given.

Level of Inspection
The Noble Denton International “General Guidelines For Marine Transportations” (Ref.
th
0030/NDI, Revision 0, dated 18 May 2004) details the following as a minimum level of NDT
with regards to seafastening welds to the deck of a barge or heavylift ship.

• 100% visual
• Penetration welds - 40% UT and 20% MPI
• Fillet welds - 20% MPI
• All welds to barge/vessel deck - 100% MPI with additional 40% UT for penetration
welds
• In any case, the extent of NDT should be not less than the Project Specification
requirements
• For critical areas, where poor welding quality is suspected, then 100% inspection may
be required.
Other forms of welds that may require inspection should be agreed on a project-by-project
basis. If weld defects are found then the level of inspection should be increased. Where welds
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are subject less than full inspection, then NDT shall be extended to adjacent areas to
determine the full extent and nature of the defect.

Qualifications
An engineer or surveyor with suitable experience should perform visual inspections. For non-
visual inspections only a suitably qualified technician, for the specific method of NDT in use,
should perform the inspection, typically a Certified Welding Inspector (CWI).

The welding inspector’s certification should be reviewed to ensure that they are certified for
the inspection method and that the certification is in date.

Guidelines
NDT acceptance criteria should be to AWS D 1.1 – Structural Welding Code or equivalent,
such as ASME.

Weld Cooling Periods

Other than for visual inspection techniques the weld should be allowed sufficent time to cool
prior to the commencement of a non-destructive test. Typically this period of time is 24 to 48
hours, this is to allow any hydrogen inside the weld to become more readily detectable;
however the technician performing the inspection should be consulted with regards to this.
The weld cooling period may also depend on any relevant project specific or certifying
authority requirements.

Welding Inspectors Report

A Welding Inspector’s report should always be produced documenting the method(s) of
inspection and the areas inspected with details of any findings. This report should be retained
for future reference.

Visual Inspection
This is the most basic and common inspection method and should always be carried out. All
welds should be checked for conformance to the plans and the specifications. It is important
to confirm that all welds shown on the drawings are present and that they have the correct
dimensions.
Visual inspections are simple to carry out at minimal cost. Accuracy depends on the skill,
experience and knowledge of the inspector.
The profile of the weld should be checked to ensure that the profile is acceptable; for fillet
welds the AWS welding code details acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles, these are
shown on the following page. The AWS does also provide guidance on inspections of other
weld types.
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All welds should be visually checked for the following defects:

Cracks No cracks in the surface of the weld will be allowed. If a crack is found then
the crack must be removed and MPI performed to ensure the entire crack has
been removed prior to rewelding.
Lack of Fusion Full fusion shall exist between adjacent layers of weld metal and between
weld metal and base metal.
Porosity Porosity is a cavity in the weld that is formed by gas escaping from the
molten weld metal during solidification.
The AWS specification for porosity is that the sum of diameters of visible
piping porosity 1mm or greater in fillet welds shall not exceed 10mm in any
25.4mm length of weld and shall not exceed 19mm in any 305mm length of
weld.
Craters Craters are the ends of welds where the weld is not filled to its full cross
section. The stresses that are caused by the unfilled crater may cause cracks
to form because of tension on the weld in the affected area. All welds must
have full cross section the entire length of the weld.
Undercut Undercut occurs at the edge of the weld along the leg. Undercut actually
refers more to the base metal adjacent to the weld. Excessive current in the
welding operation normally causes undercut. Undercut will cause stress
risers and should be avoided. The AWS requirement for undercut is:
• For material less than 25.4mm thick undercut shall not exceed 1mm,
except that a maximum 1.6mm is permitted for an accumulated length of
50mm in any 305mm.
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• For material greater than 25.4mm thick undercut shall be no more than
1.5mm deep for all other cases

Liquid Dye Penetrant

The weld is first thoroughly cleaned and dried before the test. A liquid penetrant is applied to
the surface; spraying, dipping or brushing may do this. Over a period of time the liquid
penetrant is drawn into any surface faults by capillary action, any excess liquid is removed.
Depending on the process being used, the surface is coated with whiting or a developer.
Faults open to the surface will appear as a discoloured line in the whiting. Fluorescent or
coloured dyes drawn into the faults are readily seen under ultraviolet light or as a line in the
developer.
Liquid penetrant tests are simple, versatile, portable and inexpensive. The results are easy to
interpret but only surface faults can be detected. Normally the NDT inspector will produce a
report indicating the welds inspected and details of any defects found. The attending engineer
or surveyor should retain a copy of this report.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

This is the most common form of NDT, it should be noted that this form of inspection will only
determine surface defects.
Magnetic particle tests are suitable only for ferrous metals capable of being magnetised.
Almost any size or shaped weld can be tested.
The test specimen is first thoroughly cleaned and dried before the test.
The weld is normally coated in a contrasting solution prior to the application of the magnetic
particles to aid the detection of faults.
When magnetised ferromagnetic specimens have a distorted magnetic field in the region of
the fault or defect. This distortion can be seen with the application of magnetic particles as a
powder or suspended in a liquid. These particles are often coated in a fluorescent material
enabling inspection under ultraviolet light. The flaw can be seen as a disturbance in the flow
lines.
Faults perpendicular to induced field are easily detected, whereas faults parallel to the
induced field may be misinterpreted. To avoid this, inspections and magnetisation, should be
carried out from different orientations.
Normally the NDT inspector will produce a report indicating the welds inspected and details of
any defects found. The attending engineer or surveyor should retain a copy of this report.
Specialised techniques of recording the defect patterns are also available.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing offers immediate results and a high degree of accuracy for cracks and
internal faults such as gas porosity.
Ultrasonic testing involves sending high frequency vibrations (100 kHz to 200 kHz) through
the weld and sensing their reflections. The high frequency vibrations are produced by a
transducer, which uses a piezoelectric crystal to convert electrical oscillations into mechanical
vibrations. The transducer is placed on the surface of the material to be tested. Vibrations
penetrate the material and are refracted and reflected at discontinuities within the material.
Another transducer picks up the reflected signal, which is displayed on an oscilloscope. The
resulting reflection indicates the internal integrity of the weld. Flaws are shown as a peak, the
size of the peak indicates the size of the fault.
Ultrasonic signals can be recorded if a permanent record is needed.
This test is highly dependent upon the skill of the operator. However this form of NDT can
detect subsurface defects such as lack of fusion, internal cracks and slag inclusions.
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Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be
used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. A small surface
probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.
When an AC current flows in a coil in close proximity to a conducting surface the magnetic
field of the coil will induce circulating (eddy) currents in that surface. The magnitude and
phase of the eddy currents will affect the loading on the coil and thus its impedance.
As an example, assume that there is a deep crack in the surface immediately underneath the
coil. This will interrupt or reduce the eddy current flow, thus decreasing the loading on the coil
and increasing its effective impedance.

This is the basis of eddy current testing, by monitoring the voltage across the coil in such an
arrangement we can detect changes in the material of interest.

Note that cracks must interrupt the surface eddy current flow to be detected. Cracks lying
parallel to the current path will not cause any significant interruption and may not be detected.

This method of NDT can sometimes be considered advantageous to other forms of NDT, as
any surface paint need not be removed prior to the inspection (for example on existing
structures, such as jack-up legs).

X-Ray Testing
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of
the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray
generator or a radioactive source.
The weld is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The weld will stop some
of the radiation. Thicker and denser areas will stop more of the radiation.
The developed film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film
through the test object and thus highlighting any defects.
Due to the considerable precautions needed to limit human exposure to radiation this method
is seldom used in an offshore environment. This method is more commonly used on piping
and during topside construction.

4 References
American Welding Society “Structural Welding Code – Steel”, ANSI/AWS D.1.1 Latest Edition
J.G. Hicks “Welded Joint Design”, Second Edition, BSP Professional Books
O.W. Blodgett “Design of Welded Structures”, Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
O.W. Blodgett “Design of Weldments”, Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation