Stress-Strain Relationship

Stress and strain

DIRECT STRESS 
 WHEN A FORCE IS APPLIED TO AN ELASTIC BODY,
THE BODY DEFORMS. THE WAY IN WHICH THE BODY
DEFORMS DEPENDS UPON THE TYPE OF FORCE
APPLIED TO IT.

Compression force makes the body shorter.

A tensile force makes the body longer

Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES
Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.

Force F
Stress     ….. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or N / m 2
Area A

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

DIRECT STRAIN , 
In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. In engineering, we
usually change this force into stress and the deformation into strain
and we define these as follows:
Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length.

Strain   
x  called EPSILON
L

Strain has no unit’s since it is a ratio of length to length. Most

engineering materials do not stretch very much before they damage or
fail, so strain values are very small figures. It is quite normal to
change small numbers in to the exponent for 10-6( micro strain).
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

•Elastic materials always spring back into shape when released. They
also obey HOOKE’s LAW.

•This is the law of spring which states that deformation is directly

proportional to the force. F/x = stiffness = kN/m

•The stiffness is different for the different material and different sizes of
the material. We may eliminate the size by using stress and strain instead
of force and deformation:
•If F and x is refer to the direct stress and strain , then

x  L F A and FL 
F  A hence
x  L Ax  
 •The stiffness is now in terms of stress and strain only and this
constant is called the MODULUS of ELASTICITY (E)

E FL 

Ax 

• A graph of stress against strain will be straight line with

gradient of E. The units of E are the same as the unit of stress.

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS

•If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress has
reached the absolute limit and this stress level is called the
ultimate tensile stress.
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Elastic behaviour
The curve is straight line trough out most of the
region
Stress is proportional with strain
Material to be linearly elastic
Proportional limit
The upper limit to linear line
The material still respond elastically
The curve tend to bend and flatten out
Elastic limit
Upon reaching this point, if load is remove, the
specimen still return to original shape
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Yielding
A Slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will
result in breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently.
This behavior is called yielding
The stress that cause = YIELD STRESS at YIELD
POINT
Plastic deformation
Once yield point is reached, the specimen will
elongate (Strain) without any increase in load
Material in this state = perfectly plastic
 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
 STRAIN HARDENING
 When yielding has ended, further load applied, resulting in a curve that
rises continuously
 Become flat when reached ULTIMATE STRESS
 The rise in the curve = STRAIN HARDENING
 While specimen is elongating, its cross sectional will decrease
 The decrease is fairly uniform

 NECKING
 At the ultimate stress, the cross sectional area begins its localised region
of specimen
 it is caused by slip planes formed within material
 Actual strain produced by shear strain
 As a result, “neck” tend to form
 Smaller area can only carry lesser load, hence curve donward
 Specimen break at FRACTURE STRESS
 Hooke’s law for plane stress
• Materials that meet two important conditions:
1)The material is uniform throughout the body and has the same
properties in all directions
2) The material follows Hooke’s law (i.e., linearly elastic)
•For e.g. the strain εx in the x direction due to the stress σx is equal to σx/E
where E is the modulus of elasticity. But we also have a strain εx due to the
stress σy and is equal to -v σy / E where v is the Poisson’s ratio.

FIG. 7-23
Element of
material in
plane stress
(z = 0)

Element of material subjected

FIG. 7 - 2 4
to normal strains  x ,  y , and  z
Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of T homson Canada Limited

Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

 Hooke’s law for plane stress

Special cases of Hooke’s law

-Biaxial stress: σx = σy = 0
-Uniaxial stress: σy = 0
-Pure shear: σx = σy = 0, εx = εy = εz = 0
and γxy = τxy / G
•Volume change: The change in volume
can be determined if the normal strains
In the three perpendicular directions

•Strain – Energy density in plane stress

Numerical
 Plane strain

•If the only deformations are those in the xy plane, then three strain components may exist
– the normal strain εx in the x direction (fig 7-29b), the normal strain εy in the y direction
(fig 7-29c) and the shear strain γxy (fig 7-29d). An element subjected to these strains (and
only these strains) is said to be in a state of plane strain
•It follows that an element in plane strain has no normal strain εz in the z direction and no
shear strains γxz and γyz in the xz and yz planes respectively
•The definition of plane strain is analogous to that for plane stress

Strain components x, y, and xy

FIG. 7-29
in the xy plane (plane strain)

Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

FIG. 7-30 (1 of 2)
Comparison of
plane stress and
plane strain

Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

FIG. 7-30 (2 of 2)
Comparison of
plane stress and
plane strain

Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

DOUBLE SHEAR

Consider a pin joint with a support on both ends as shown. This is

called CLEVIS and CLEVIS PIN
 By balance of force, the force in the two supports is F/2 each
The area sheared is twice the cross section of the pin
So it takes twice as much force to break the pin as for a case of
single shear
Double shear arrangements doubles the maximum force
allowed in the pin
LOAD AND STRESS LIMIT

DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Will help engineers with their important task in Designing
structural/machine that is SAFE and ECONOMICALLY perform
for a specified function

DETERMINATION OF ULTIMATE STRENGTH

An important element to be considered by a designer is how the
material that has been selected will behave under a load
This is determined by performing specific test (e.g. Tensile test)
ULTIMATE FORCE (PU)= The largest force that may be applied
to the specimen is reached, and the specimen either breaks or
begins to carry less load
 ULTIMATE NORMAL STRESS
(U) = ULTIMATE FORCE(PU) /AREA
 ALLOWABLE LOAD / ALLOWABLE STRESS

Max load that a structural member/machine component will be allowed

to carry under normal conditions of utilization is considerably smaller
than the ultimate load
This smaller load = Allowable load / Working load / Design load
Only a fraction of ultimate load capacity of the member is utilised when
allowable load is applied
The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is
kept in reserve to assure its safe performance
The ratio of the ultimate load/allowable load is used to define FACTOR
OF SAFETY

FACTOR OF SAFETY = ULTIMATE LOAD/ALLOWABLE LOAD

or
FACTOR OF SAFETY = ULTIMATE STRESS/ALLOWABLE STRESS
SELECTION OF F.S.

1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member under

considerations
2. The number of loading that may be expected during the life of the
structural/machine
3. The type of loading that are planned for in the design, or that may
occur in the future
4. The type of failure that may occur
5. Uncertainty due to the methods of analysis
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor
maintenance / because of unpreventable natural causes
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole
structure
 AXIAL FORCE & DEFLECTION OF BODY

Deformations of members under axial loading

If the resulting axial stress does not exceed the proportional limit of
the material, Hooke’s Law may be applied   E
Then deformation (x / ) can be written as

FL

AE
 Example problem
y

The square block is in plane strain and is

2 subjected to the following strains
2 1

2
 x  2xy
3 4
x  y  3xy2
 xy  x2  y3
Compute the displacement field (i.e., displacement components
u(x,y) and v(x,y)) within the block
Solution

Recall from definition

 x  u  2xy (1)
x
 y  v  3xy 2 (2)
y

 xy  u  v  x 2  y 3 (3)
y x
Arbitrary function of ‘x’
Integrating (1) and (2)

u(x, y)  x 2 y  C1( y) (4)

v(x, y)  xy3  C2(x) (5)

Arbitrary function of ‘y’

Plug expressions in (4) and (5) into equation (3)

u v
  x 2  y 3 (3)
y x


  
 x2 y  C1 ( y)  xy3  C2 (x)


 x2  y 3
y x
C ( y) C (x)
 x2  1  y3  2  x2  y3
y x
C1 ( y) C2 (x)
  0
y x

Function of ‘y’ Function of ‘x’

 Hence

C1 ( y) C2 (x)

  C (a constant)
y x
Integrate to obtain

C1 ( y)  Cy  D1 D1 and D2 are two constants of integration

C2 (x)  Cx  D2

Plug these back into equations (4) and (5)

(4) u(x, y)  x2 y  Cy  D1
(5) v(x, y)  xy3  Cx  D 2

How to find C, D1 and D2?

Use the 3 boundary conditions

y
u(0,0)  0
v(0,0)  0 2

v(2,0)  0 2 1

To obtain 2

C0 3 4
x
D1  0
D2  0
Hence the solution is

u(x, y)  x2 y
v(x, y)  xy3
REFERENCES
1. James M. Gere (2006) “ Mechanics of Materials”. 6th Edition, Thompson
2. R.C. Hibbeler (2003) “ Mechanics of Materials”. 5th Edition, Prentice Hall
3. Raymond Parnes (2001), “Solid Mechanics in Engineering”. John Willey
and Sons