Compressed

Air Systems

PSD 151
Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design

OCTOBER 2008

PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

Compressed Air Systems
Introduction
Compressed air is a major source of power
possessing many advantages for industrial
and commercial applications. It is safe, eco-
nomical, easily transmitted, and adaptable.
There are over 1,000 applications for com-
pressed air.
Compressed air is used to produce linear
motion, as is required in hand tools, air ham-
mers, paving breakers, rock drills, positive
displacement pumps, paint chippers, and
vibrators. It also is employed to actuate linear
movement through a piston and cylinder or
a diaphragm for air-actuated valves, doors,
dampers, brakes, etc. Atomizing, spraying,
and moving hard-to-pump fluids are other
applications. Compressed air can be bubbled
up to measure fluid levels, agitate liquids,
and inhibit ice formation in bodies of water.
Another use of compressed air is for instru-
mentation. Air circuits solve the most com-
plex problems in automatic control, starting
and stopping, and modulation of valves,
machines, and processes. Some applications
would be almost impossible with any power
medium other than compressed air.
This chapter discusses compressed air for
industrial laboratory and commercial applica-
tions. For a discussion of compressed (medi-
cal) air used in healthcare facilities, refer to
the chapter “Plumbing Design for Healthcare
Facilities.”
General information
Air is a fluid. The two types of fluids are liquids
and gases. Gases have a weaker cohesive force
holding their molecules together than liquids
do, and this is why gases can be compressed.
Ambient air is a mixture of gases whose main
components are oxygen and nitrogen; it has
many other gases in minor concentrations.
The actual volume of an atom of gas in rela-
tion to the total volume of a gas molecule is
quite small, and so, gases are mostly empty
space. Pressure is produced when the mol-
ecules of a gas in an enclosed space rapidly
strike the enclosing surfaces. If the gas is
confined to smaller and smaller spaces, the
molecules strike the container walls more and
more frequently, producing greater pressure.
Because free air is less dense at higher
elevations, a correction factor must be used
to determine the equivalent volume of air at
low and high elevations. Temperature is also
a consideration. Because a volume of free air
at a high temperature will exert a higher pres-
sure than the same volume of air at a lower
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 3, Chapter 9: “Compressed Air Systems”
© American Society of Plumbing Engineers , 2007.
2  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008
temperature, a correction factor must be used
to determine the equivalent volume of air at
different temperatures. Additionally, ambient
air contains a certain amount of native mois-
ture that will be condensed during the transfer
from the ambient air state to the compressed
air state. The quantity of moisture carried
during the process between states will vary
widely with the ambient temperature and
relative humidity.
Air is a gas, and the state of the gas is deter-
mined at any given instance as measured by
its properties. A process occurs whenever the
air undergoes either a change in state or an
energy transfer. The following are basic com-
pressed air processes:
• Adiabatic process is one during which no
heat is added to or removed from the air.
• Isochoric process takes place under a
constant volume.
• Isothermal process is one in which no
change in temperature occurs.
• Polytropic process is one in which
changes in the characteristics and state
of the air are considered during com-
pression. This is a generalized expres-
sion for deviation from the adiabatic,
isochoric, and isothermal processes
listed above. The polytropic process of
compression is the most commonly used
process in industrial compressed air
production because it allows variations
in pressure, temperature, or volume to
occur during the compression cycle.
Other processes that are more applicable
to the transfer between gases and liquids are
the reversible and irreversible processes. The
reversible process is an ideal process that may
be stopped and made to retrace its steps and
restore to the system or surroundings all work
and heat previously removed. The irreversible
process is one in which a portion of the origi-
nal system energy is dissipated and cannot
be returned to the system through its own
operation. The system cannot be returned to
its original state.
DEFINITIONS
Absolute pressure The arithmetic sum of
gauge and atmospheric/barometric pressures.
It must be used in all calculations involving
the basic gas laws.
Absolute temperature The temperature
of a body referred to as absolute zero, at which
point the volume of an ideal gas theoretically
becomes zero. On the Fahrenheit scale, this is
-459.67°F; on the Celsius scale, it is -273.15°C.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
Engineering values of -460°F and -273°C are
typical values used.
Aftercooling Involves cooling of gas in a
heat exchanger following the completion of
compression to reduce the temperature and
to liquefy condensable vapors.
Altitude The elevation of a compressor
above sea level.
Barometric pressure The absolute atmo-
spheric pressure existing at the surface of the
Earth. It is the weight of a unit column of air
above the point of measurement. It varies with
altitude and, at any given location, with mois-
ture content and weather.
Capacity The quantity of air actually deliv-
ered when operating between specified inlet
and discharge pressures. For ejectors, capacity
is measured in pounds per hour. For all other
compressor types, capacity is a volume mea-
sured at the conditions of pressure, tempera-
ture, gas composition, and moisture content
existing at the compressor inlet flange.
Compressed air Ambient air stored and
distributed at a pressure greater than atmo-
spheric pressure (14.7 pounds per square inch
absolute [psia], 101 kilopascals [kPa]).
Compressibility The property of air or of
an air mixture that causes it to differ in volume
from that of a perfect gas when each is under
the same pressure and temperature condi-
tions. Occasionally it is called deviation. It
must be experimentally determined.
Compressibility factor (Z) The ratio of the
actual volume of the gas to the volume deter-
mined according to the perfect gas law. As
shown in the charts herein, it is a multiplier of
perfect gas volume.
Super-compressibility A term used with
various meanings, most frequently the
same as compressibility, although this
is not assured. A current ASME Power
Test Code uses it as a ratio of gas densi-
ties rather than volumes. Therefore, it is
1/Z in this case. Super-compressibility
should never be used unless its meaning
is clarified completely. Compressibility is
preferred and is used herein.
Compression efficiency The ratio of the
theoretical work requirement (using a stated
process) to the actual work required to be
done on the gas for compression and delivery.
Expressed as a percentage, compression effi-
ciency accounts for leakage and fluid friction
losses and thermodynamic variations from
the theoretical process.
Compression ratio The ratio of the abso-
lute discharge to the absolute intake pressure.
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It usually applies to a single stage of compres-
sion but may be applied to a complete multi-
stage compressor as well.
Critical pressure The saturation pressure at
the critical temperature. It is the highest vapor
pressure that the liquid can exert. Note: Criti-
cal conditions must be experimentally deter-
mined for each pure gas. When calculated for
a mixture, they are called pseudo (pretend)
critical conditions.
Critical temperature The highest temper-
ature at which a gas can be liquefied.
Dead-end pressure The suction pressure
attained by an ejector or positive displace-
ment vacuum pump at zero capacity with the
suction absolutely blanked off.
Degrees Kelvin (°K) An absolute tempera-
ture scale.
Degree Rankine (°R) An absolute tem-
perature scale.
Density The weight of a given volume of
gas, usually expressed in pounds per cubic
feet at standard pressure and temperature
conditions (air = 0.09 pound/cubic foot [1.3
kilograms/cubic meter]).
Design (built-in) compression ratio In a
rotary compressor, refers to the compression
ratio that has been attained when the fixed
discharge port is uncovered. A helical-lobe
compressor (and most other rotary units) can
have an operating ratio somewhat higher or
lower than the design ratio with little change
in efficiency.
Dew point The temperature at which the
vapor in a space (at a given pressure) will start
to condense (form dew). The dew point of a
gas mixture is the temperature at which the
highest boiling point constituent will start to
condense.
Discharge pressure The total gas pressure
(static plus velocity) at the discharge flange of
the compressor. Velocity pressure usually is
considered only with dynamic compressors.
Discharge temperature The temperature
existing at the discharge flange of the com-
pressor.
Displacement Applies only to positive dis-
placement compressors. It is the net volume
swept by the moving parts in a unit of time,
usually one minute.
Dry bulb temperature The ambient gas
temperature.
Dry gas Any gas or gas mixture that con-
tains no water vapor and/or in which all of
the constituents are substantially above their
respective saturated vapor pressures at the
existing temperature. (See wet gas.) Note: In
commercial compressor work, a gas may be
considered dry (even though it contains water
vapor) if its dew point is low at the inlet condi-
tion (say -50° to -60°F).
Dry unit One in which there is no liquid
injection and/or liquid circulation for evapo-
rative cooling or sealing. (See evaporative
cooling.)
Energy The capacity of a substance, either
latent or apparent, to exert a force through a
distance, that is, to do work.
External energy The energy represented
by the product of pressure and volume.
It may be regarded as the energy a sub-
stance possesses by virtue of the space it
occupies.
Internal energy The energy a substance
possesses because of the motion and
configuration of its atoms, molecules,
and subatomic particles.
Kinetic energy The energy a substance
possesses by virtue of its motion or
velocity. It enters into dynamic and ejec-
tor compressor calculations, but seldom
into positive displacement problems.
Potential energy The energy a substance
possesses because of its elevation above
the Earth (or above some other chosen
datum plane).
Enthalpy (heat content) The sum of the
internal and external energies.
Entrainment ratios Used with ejectors to
convert the weight of gas and/or water vapor
handled to or from equivalent air. They are
based on extensive tests.
Entropy A measure of the unavailability of
energy in a substance.
Equivalent air An ejector term—the cal-
culated pounds per hour of air at 70°F and
14.696 psia and containing normal atmo-
spheric moisture that is equivalent to, but not
necessarily equal to, the weight rate of the gas
handled by the ejector at suction conditions.
Entrainment ratios are involved.
Evaporative cooling Takes place when
a liquid (usually water) is injected into the
gas stream before or during compression. As
compression takes place, the gas temperature
rises and some or all of the liquid is evapo-
rated—the latent heat of liquid vaporization
being removed from the gas—lowering its
temperature.
Fixed compression ratio The design
(built-in) compression ratio for a rotary unit
having this feature.
Free air Air at ambient conditions at a spe-
cific location. Temperature, barometric pres-
sure, and moisture content may be different
from those of standard air. The term “free air”
is not to be used unless the ambient tempera-
ture, humidity, and barometric pressure con-
ditions at the compressor location are stated.
Gauge pressure Pressure as determined
by most instruments and gauges. Barometric
pressure must be allowed for to obtain the
true or absolute pressure.
Heat Energy transferred because of a tem-
perature difference. There is no transfer of
mass.
Horsepower A unit of work equal to 33,000
foot-pounds per minute.
Brake horsepower The total power input
required including gas horsepower plus
all friction losses.
Gas horsepower The actual work
required to compress and deliver a given
gas quantity, including all thermody-
namic, leakage, and fluid friction losses.
It does not include mechanical losses.
Indicated horsepower That obtained by
indicator card analysis of compression
or expansion in a cylinder of a recipro-
cating compressor. It is the same as gas
horsepower.
Peak horsepower The maximum power
required by a given compressor when
operating at a constant discharge pres-
sure with variable intake pressure or
constant intake pressure with variable
discharge pressure.
Theoretical horsepower The work
theoretically required to compress and
deliver a given gas quantity in accor-
dance with a specified product.
Humidity In normal usage, has to do with
moisture (water vapor) in the atmosphere.
There are two engineering terms involved.
Relative humidity The ratio of the actual
partial vapor pressure in an air and
vapor mixture to the saturated vapor
pressure at the existing dry-bulb mixture
temperature, usually expressed in per-
cent.
Specific humidity The ratio of weight of
water vapor in an air and vapor mixture
to the weight of dry air. It is usually
expressed as pounds of vapor per pound
of dry air.
Inlet pressure The total pressure (static
plus velocity) at the inlet flange of the com-
pressor. Velocity pressure is usually consid-
ered only with dynamic compressors.
Inlet temperature The temperature at
the inlet flange of the compressor. Note: In a
multistage compressor, the various stages may
have differing inlet temperatures.
Intercooling Involves the cooling of gas
between stages of compression to reduce
the temperature, to reduce the volume to be
compressed in the succeeding stage, to liquefy
condensable vapors, and to save power.
Maximum discharge pressure As applied
to ejectors, the maximum absolute static
recovery pressure against which the ejector
will operate with stability.
Mechanical efficiency The ratio, expressed
in percent, of the indicated horsepower to the
actual shaft horsepower (or steam indicated
horsepower in an integral steam-driven unit).
Normal air The term used for average
atmospheric air at sea level in a temperate
zone where it contains some moisture. It is
defined in the ASME Test Code for Displace-
ment Compressors as being at 14.696 psia,
68°F, 36 percent relative humidity, and weigh-
OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  3

ing 0.075 pound per cubic feet. The k-value is
1.395.
Piston displacement For a reciprocating
compressor cylinder, it is the net volume dis-
placed by the piston at rated machine speed,
generally expressed in cubic feet per minute
(cfm). For single-acting cylinders, it is the dis-
placement of the compressing end only. For
double-acting cylinders, it is the total of both
ends. For multistage compressors, the dis-
placement of the first stage only is commonly
stated as that of the entire machine.
Precooler A heat exchanger located imme-
diately preceding an ejector to condense and
remove a portion of the vapor in the mixture
and thus reduce the total pounds per hour to
be handled.
Psychrometry Has to do with the proper-
ties of air and water vapor mixtures in the
atmosphere.
Pumping The reversal of flow within a
dynamic compressor that takes place when
the capacity being handled is reduced to a
point where insufficient pressure is being gen-
erated to maintain flow.
Ratio of specific heats The ratio of the
specific heat at constant pressure to the spe-
cific heat constant volume. It may vary consid-
erably with pressure and temperature.
Recovery pressure That pressure of either
motive fluid or discharge at which an ejector
requires stable operation following a period of
unstable operation due to having previously
reached the breaking pressure. There are two
recovery pressures, one for motive fluid and
one for the discharge pressure.
Reduced pressure The ratio of the actual
absolute gas pressure to the absolute critical
pressure.
Reduced temperature The ratio in abso-
lute units of the actual gas temperature to the
critical temperature.
Saturation Occurs when the vapor is at the
dew point or saturation temperature corre-
sponding to its partial pressure. A gas is never
saturated with a vapor. The space occupied
jointly by the gas and vapor may be saturated,
however.
Degree of saturation The ratio of weight
of vapor existing in a given space to the
weight that would be present if the space
were saturated at the space temperature.
Saturated air and vapor mixture One
in which the space occupied by the mixture
is saturated with water vapor at the mixture
temperature.
Saturated vapor pressure The pressure
existing at a given temperature in a closed
vessel containing a liquid and the vapor from
that liquid after equilibrium conditions have
been reached. It is dependent only on tem-
perature and must be determined experimen-
tally.
Saturation pressure Another term for
saturated vapor pressure.
4  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008
CONTINUING EDUCATION: Compressed Air Systems
Saturation temperature The tempera-
ture corresponding to a given saturated vapor
pressure for a given vapor.
Slip The internal leakage within a rotary
compressor. It represents gas at least partially
compressed but not delivered. It is experi-
mentally determined and expressed in cfm to
be deducted from the displacement to obtain
capacity.
Slip RPM The speed required of a rotary
compressor to maintain a given discharge
pressure, supplying leakage only (zero actual
output). It is an experience factor.
Specific gravity The ratio of the density
of a given gas to the density of dry air, both
measured at the same specified conditions of
temperature and pressure, usually 14.696 psia
and 60°F. It should also take into account any
compressibility deviation from a perfect gas.
Specific heat (heat capacity) The rate
of change in enthalpy with temperature. It is
commonly measured at constant pressure or
at constant volume. The values are different
and are known as cp and cv respectively.
Specific volume The volume of a given
weight of gas, usually expressed as cubic feet
per pound at standard pressure and tempera-
ture conditions.
Standard air For the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Com-
pressed Gas Association, standard air is con-
sidered to be dry, with a relative humidity of
0.0 percent, a temperature of 60°F (15.6°C),
and a pressure of 14.7 psig (101.4 kPa). For the
chemical industry, standard air is 68°F (20°C)
at a relative humidity of 0.0 percent and a
pressure of 14.7 psig (101.4 kPa). Some manu-
facturers use a relative humidity of 36 percent,
a temperature of 68°F (20°C), and a pressure of
14.2 psig (100.0 kPa) for performance test rat-
ings. It is imperative that the conditions under
which a compressor rating is calculated are
obtained from the owner and manufacturer.
Actual cubic feet per minute (acfm)
(actual liters per minute [aL/min]) A
volume measurement of standard air
after it has been compressed. The term
“acfm (aL/min)” is not to be used unless
the pressure is stated.
Standard cubic feet per minute (scfm)
(normal liters per minute [nL/min]) A
volume measurement of air at standard
conditions. Outside the United States,
standard is commonly referred to as
normal, hence nL/min and nL/s.
Standard pressure and temperature
(SPT) 14.696 psia and 60°F unless specifically
stated otherwise.
State A gas’s condition at an instant of time
as described or measured by its properties.
Suction pressure The absolute static pres-
sure prevailing at the suction of the ejector.
Superheated air and vapor mixture One
in which the space occupied by the mixture is
above the saturation temperature at the mix-
ture temperature.
Temperature The property of a substance
that gauges the potential or driving force for
the flow of heat.
Thermal compressor An ejector used to
compress waste or exhaust steam or any other
gas through a moderate range of compression
above atmospheric pressure.
Vapor pressure The pressure exerted by
a vapor confined within a given space. The
vapor may be the sole occupant or the space
or may be associated with other gases.
Wet bulb temperature Used in psy-
chrometry and is the temperature recorded by
a thermometer whose bulb has been covered
with a wetted wick and whirled on a sling psy-
chrometer. Taken with the dry bulb, it permits
determination of the relative humidity of the
atmosphere.
Wet gas Any gas or gas mixture in which
one or more of the constituents is at its satu-
rated vapor pressure. The constituent at
saturation pressure may or may not be water
vapor.
Wet helical-lobe unit One which handles
a small constant flow of liquid with the gas,
utilizes evaporative (injection) cooling, or cir-
culates a liquid for sealing and/or cooling. The
last may or may not be evaporative cooling.
Work Energy in transition, defined in units
of force times distance. Work cannot be done
unless there is movement.
Units of Measure
Pressure
Pressure measurements are made using
force acting upon an area. In the United
States, pressure is commonly measured using
inch-pound (IP) units of measurement and
expressed as pounds per square inch (psi).
Another common unit of measurement
for low-pressure systems is inches of water
column (in. wc). In International System (SI)
units, pressure is commonly measured in kilo-
pascals (kPa).
The two basic reference points for measur-
ing pressure are standard atmospheric pres-
sure and a perfect vacuum. When pressure is
measured using standard atmospheric pres-
sure as the point of reference, the measure-
ment is called gauge pressure, expressed as
pounds per square inch gauge (psig). If the
reference pressure level is a perfect vacuum,
the term used is absolute pressure, expressed
as pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
Local barometric pressure, which is the pre-
vailing pressure at any specific location, is
variable and should not be confused with
standard atmosphere, which is mean theoreti-
cal barometric pressure at sea level. Theoreti-
cal standard atmospheric pressure at sea level
is equal to 14.696 (generally shortened to 14.7)
psia or 0 psig and 29.92 inches of mercury (Hg)
(101.4 kPa and 760 millimeters Hg). A perfect
vacuum has a value of 0 psia (0 kPa) and 0
inches Hg. Theoretical standard atmospheric
temperature is 60°F (15.6°C).
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Flow Rate
The most common IP unit of measure for
flow rate is cubic feet per minute (cfm). If the
flow rate is low, it is commonly expressed in
cubic feet per hour (cfh). The SI units used for
flow rate are cubic meters per minute (m3/
min), liters per minute (L/min), and liters per
second (L/s). Flow rate must reference scfm or
acfm (nL/min or aL/min). Some manufactur-
ers use nm3/min, which means normal cubic
meters per minute, or nL/min, which means
normal liters per minute. It is mandatory that
all equipment selection flow rate criteria be in
the same units.
Water Vapor in Air
Air contains varying amounts of water vapor,
depending on its temperature and pressure.
When a given volume of free air is com-
pressed under conditions used in facilities, an
increase in temperature occurs. An increase in
temperature results in an increased ability of
the air to retain moisture. An increase in pres-
sure results in a decrease in the air’s ability to
hold water. With each 20°F (5.6°C) increase in
temperature, the ability of air to accept water
vapor doubles. Because of the high tempera-
ture of the air during the compression cycle,
water is not precipitated during compression
inside the compressor; rather, it is precipitated
after the cycle has been completed. There are
various methods of expressing the water vapor
present.
Relative Humidity This is the amount
of water vapor actually present in the air
expressed as a percent of the amount present
when the air is saturated. Relative humidity
is dependent on both pressure and tempera-
ture.
Dew Point The dew point is the tempera-
ture at which water in the air will start to con-
dense on a surface; it is the preferred method
to express the dryness of compressed air. The
lower the dew point, the dryer the air. Since
the dew point of air varies with the air pres-
sure, it must be referred to as the pressure dew
point. The dew point of compressed air is not
affected by the temperature of compressed
air.
Contaminants
There are four general classes of contamina-
tion:
1. Liquids (oil and water)
2. Vapor (oil, water, and hydrocarbons)
3. Gas
4. Particulates
A knowledge of the various pollutants in the
air is helpful when an engineer has to decide
what equipment is required to effectively
reduce or remove them. The required level
of protection from the various contaminants
depends on the purpose for the air. The per-
formance criteria for each system, along with
the identity and quantity of pollutants, must
be determined prior to the selection of equip-
ment.
Air Compressors
The purpose of an air compressor is to con-
centrate free air, decreasing its volume and
thereby increasing its pressure. There are two
general categories of air compressors: positive
displacement and dynamic.
The positive displacement compressor is
essentially a constant volume, variable pres-
sure machine capable of operating over a wide
range of discharge pressures at a relatively
constant capacity. Positive displacement com-
pressors can be separated into reciprocating
and rotary machines. Typical reciprocating
compressors include piston and diaphragm
types. Rotary compressors include such types
as sliding vane, liquid ring (or liquid piston),
and screw. The most widely used types of
dynamic compressors include the centrifugal
and the axial flow.
Dynamic compressor characteristics are
opposite those of the positive displacement
compressor. This machine operates over a rel-
atively wide range of capacities at a relatively
constant discharge pressure.
Compressor Types
Reciprocating Compressor A reciprocating
compressor uses positive displacement, which
is accomplished by a piston moving in a cyl-
inder. When compression occurs on only one
stroke, it is called a single-acting cylinder, and
when compression occurs on both strokes, it
is called a double-acting compressor. The cyl-
inders can be horizontal, vertical, or angled.
The cylinders can be sealed and lubricated
with oil when traces of oil in the discharge air
will cause no problems. Oil-free machines are
also available, but at a higher cost than those
requiring oil.
Cooling is accomplished by air or water.
Water cooling is generally more effective than
air cooling and consumes less power, but the
initial and operating costs are higher. A two-
stage compressor consumes less power than a
single-stage unit for the equivalent output.
Sliding Vane Compressor Sliding vane
compressors work by utilizing vanes that are
mounted eccentrically in a cylindrical rotor
and are free to slide in and out of slots. As the
rotor turns, the space between the compres-
sor casing and the vanes decreases, and the air
is compressed.
These are compact units, well suited for
direct connection to a relatively high-speed
motor. Their efficiency is usually less than
that of an equivalent piston unit. Their best
application is for situations where small, low-
capacity compressors, generally in the range
of 100 cfm to 75 psi (2832 L/min to 517.1 kPa),
are required.
Liquid Ring Compressor Liquid ring
compressors, sometimes referred to as liquid
pistons, are rotary positive displacement units
that use a fixed-blade rotor in an elliptical
casing. The casing is partially filled with liquid.
As the rotor turns, the blades set the liquid
in motion. As they rotate, the blades extend
deeper into the liquid ring, compressing the
trapped air.
The resulting air is completely oil free. This
type of compressor can also handle wet, cor-
rosive, or explosive gases. Various liquids,
which are compatible with specific gases to be
compressed, can be used. This unit is very well
suited for hospital and laboratory use. A prac-
tical limitation of 100 psi (689.5 kPa) exists,
and there is higher power consumption than
with piston units of a similar rating.
Straight Lobe Compressor Straight lobe
(often referred to as rotary lobe) compressors
function in a manner similar to that of gear
pumps. A pair of identical rotors, each with
lobes shaped like the figure 8 in cross section,
are mounted inside a casing. As they rotate,
air is trapped between the impeller lobes
and pump casing and carried around with-
out compression. This air is then discharged,
using the existing pressure in the system to
increase pressure. These units are available oil
free and are generally recommended for pres-
sures up to 200 psig (1,379 kPa) and 150 scfm
(4,285 nL/min).
Rotary Screw Compressor Rotary screw
compressors use a pair of close-clearance,
helical-lobe rotors turning in unison. As air
enters the inlet, the rotation of the rotors causes
the cavity in which air is trapped to become
smaller and smaller, increasing pressure. The
air reaches the end of the screw at high pres-
sure and flows out smoothly at the discharge
port. The majority of rotary screw compres-
sors in use today are of the oil-flooded type.
Designs that produce oil-free air are available.
These compressors produce pulse-free air and
are generally available for pressures from 150
to 300 psi (1,034 to 2,068 kPa) and 300 scfm
(8,496 nL/min).
Centrifugal Compressor Centrifugal
compressors are dynamic machines that
utilize impellers to add kinetic energy to the
airstream by centrifugal action. The veloc-
ity of the air is increased as it passes through
each impeller. A diffuser section decelerates
the high-velocity air, converting the kinetic
energy into potential energy. The volute fur-
ther increases the pressure and directs the air
into the discharge piping.
Centrifugal compressors typically produce
large volumes of air at relatively low pressures.
Higher pressures can be attained by adding
stages with intercooling between the stages.
The centrifugal compressor takes up less floor
space but requires more power than a recipro-
cating unit of equal output. Its inherently oil-
free air delivery is a major advantage in many
applications.
Compressor Accessories
Silencers With today’s emphasis on noise
control, the installation of an intake silencer is
OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  5
 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Compressed Air Systems
probably necessary for most projects. There are two types of silencer: moisture separator is usually provided. The separator could be either
reactive and absorptive. The reactive type is used to attenuate (reduce) an integral part of the aftercooler or a separate unit.
low-frequency sound in the order of 500 hertz (Hz) and is most often Additional factors to be considered when selecting an aftercooler
found on reciprocating compressors. The absorptive type is often used are pressure drop through the unit, space and clearance requirements,
on centrifugal and screw type compressors, where frequencies are operation costs, and maintenance.
above 500 Hz. There is no practical limit in cfm (L/min) for either type. Filters The purpose of any filter is to remove or reduce impurities
Silencers may be combined with inlet filters for more economical or contaminants in the airstream to an acceptable or predetermined
installations. They can also be mounted directly on compressors, out- level. Filter nomenclature has been developed based on the type of
side the building walls, or at the roof level as separate units. filter medium used and generally on where it is placed in a compressed
Aftercoolers An aftercooler is a device used to lower the tempera- air system. Inlet filters, prefilters, after-filters and point-of-use filters
ture of compressed air immediately after the compression process. Air are some examples. Generally speaking, nothing prevents any kind of
leaving the compressor is very hot. It is desirable to reduce the tem- filter from being used for any application, provided that the required
perature of discharged air to the range of 70 and 110°F (21.1 and 43°C). reduction of contaminants is achieved and the filter is suitable for the
A primary reason the temperature is lowered is to remove moisture that purpose intended. Following is a brief, general discussion of various
would otherwise condense elsewhere in the system as the air cools to types of filters.
ambient conditions. Therefore, it is considered good practice to install Inlet filters of some type are required for every installation to protect
the cooling unit as close to the compressor discharge as practical. An the compressor from damage. They remove large amounts of contami-
aftercooler is also useful to precondition air where additional condi- nants, including particulates, at the inlet to the air compressor. These
tioning is necessary. There are three general types of aftercooler: filters are integral to compressors that draw air from the room they are
1. Water cooled installed in or from the building exterior.
2. Air cooled Prefilters are generally used before air enters a dryer to remove vari-
3. Refrigerant ous contaminants that might foul the unit. These filters are usually of
the coalescing type, so they remove particulates and vapors, such as
Air-cooled is the most often used type of aftercooler. Since large
oil, hydrocarbons, and water. When combined with separators at this
amounts of water are usually removed from the air in an aftercooler, a
point, these filters may be called separator/filters.
After-filters are generally used after the drying process to remove
Table 1  Compressed Air Requirements for Tools and Equipmenta
particulates smaller than those removed by a prefilter. Some dryers
Type of Tool Air Usage, scfm (nL/s)
produce a very small-diameter dust (fines) that must be removed
Hoist 1 (0.5)
from the airstream. These filters remove particulates only.
Car lift 6 (3.1)
Grease gun 4 (2.3)
Point-of-use filters are generally used immediately prior to any tool
Grinders, 6 and 8-in. (152.4 and 203.2-mm) wheels 50 (23.6) or individual piece of equipment that requires removal of particulates,
Grinders, 2 and 2½-in. (50.8 and 63.5-mm) wheels 14–20 (6.6–9.4) oil, or moisture to a greater extent than is done with an after-filter.
File and burr machines 18 (8.5) Oil-removal filters are special filters used only for the removal of
Rotary sanders, 9-in. (228.6-mm) pads 53 (25.0) unwanted oil aerosols that are too small to be removed by coalesc-
Rotary sanders, 7-in. (177.8-mm) pads 30 (14.2) ing. Activated carbon filters are used to remove gaseous oil and other
Sand rammers and tampers hydrocarbons as well as small particulates that are too small to be
  1×4 in. (25.4×101.6 mm) cylinder 25 (11.8) removed by coalescing.
  1¼×5 in. (31.8×127 mm) cylinder 28 (13.2) Separators A separator is a type of filter used to remove large
  1½×6 in. (38.1×152.4 mm) cylinder 39 (18.4) quantities of liquid water or oil, individually or in combination with
Chipping hammers, weighing 2–4 lb (0.9–1.8 kg) 12 (5.7) each other, from the airstream. Often, oil and water form an emulsion
  weighing 10–13 lb (4.5–5.9 kg) 28–30 (13.2–14.2) inside the compressor and are discharged together.
  weighing more than 13 lb (5.9 kg) 39 (18.4) Since suspended liquids are present after air leaves the aftercooler
Nut setters to ¼ in. (7.9 mm) weighing 8 lb (3.6 kg) 20 (9.4) or compressor, this is the most common location for a separator. The
Nut setters ½–¾ in. (12.7–19.1 mm) 20–30 (9.4–14) general design of these units should allow for the removal of between
Sump pumps, 145 gal (548.8 L) at 50 ft (15.2 m) head 70 (33.0) 90 and 99 percent, by weight, of liquids.
Paint sprayers, average 7 (3.3)
  range 2–20 (0.9–9.4) Compressed Air Dryers
Bushing tools (monument) 15–25 (7.1–11.8) Air dryers are devices used to remove water vapor from the airstream.
Carving tools (monument) 10–15 (4.7–7.1) Large volumes of water consisting of large droplets are removed by a
Plug drills 40–50 (18.9–23.6) moisture separator. If additional reduction of water vapor content is
Riveters, ½ –1 in. (12.7–25.4 mm) rivets 12 (5.7) desired, it must be accomplished by the use of an air dryer. There are
  5 in. (127 mm) 35 (16.5) five general categories of dryer, defined by the method of drying (see
Rivet busters 35–39 (16.5–18.4) the discussion below):
Wood borers to 1 in. (25.4 mm) rivets 12 (5.7) 1. High pressurization of the compressed air
  2 in. (50.8 mm) diameter 35 (16.5) 2. Condensation
Steel drills, rotary motors 3. Absorption
  Capacity up to ¼ in. (6.4 mm) 18–20 (8.5–9.4) 4. Adsorption
  Capacity ¼ – a in. (6.4–9.5 mm) 20–40 (9.4–18.9)
5. Heat of compression
  Capacity ½ – ¾ in. (12.7–19.1 mm) 70 (33.0)
  Capacity d – 1 in. (22.2–25.4 mm) 80 (37.8) High Pressurization High pressurization reduces the quantity
  Capacity 1 ¼ in. (31.8 mm) 95 (44.8) of water vapor by compressing air to pressures greater than those
Steel drills, piston type required for actual use. An increase in pressure decreases the ability
  Capacity ½ – ¾ in. (12.7–19.1 mm) 45 (21.2) of air to hold moisture. Since pressurization requires large amounts of
  Capacity d – 1 ¼ in. (22.2–31.8 mm) 75–80 (35.4–37.8) energy, this process is rarely used.
  Capacity 1 ¼ – 2 in. (31.8–50.8 mm) 80–90 (37.8–42.5) Condensation Condensation utilizes the principle of lowering the
  Capacity 2–3 in. (50.8–76.2 mm) 100–110 (47.2–51.9) temperature of the airstream through a heat exchanger to produce a
a
Free air, cfm at 90 psig (L/s at 620.5 kPa). lower dew point. Lowering the dew point reduces the capacity of air to

6  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

retain moisture. Moisture then condenses out
of the air onto the coils of the dryer. A moisture
separator removes the condensate. The cool-
ing medium in the coil could be water, brine,
or a refrigerant. The most common type of
dryer uses a refrigerant and is called a refrig-
erated dryer. A refrigerated dryer requires
operation within a small range of pressure and
airflow rate to be effective. In general, a mini-
mum of 20 percent of rated airflow is required
to achieve specified moisture removal.
The greatest limitation of these dryers is
that they cannot practically produce a pres-
sure dew point lower than 35°F (1.7°C). Oth-
erwise, the condensed moisture would freeze
on the coils. Advantages are that they have a
low operating cost and they do not introduce
impurities into the airstream.
Absorption Absorption dryers use either a
solid or a liquid medium and operate on the
principle that when the airstream containing
water vapor passes through or over a deliques-
cent material, the water causes the medium to
change state (or dissolve). The solvent is then
drained away; thus, the water is removed, and
the amount of material available for absorp-
tion is reduced. Solid absorbers are much
more common than liquid ones. The advan-
tage of this type of dryer is that it requires no
outside source of power or connection to any
other system. A disadvantage is that impuri-
ties may be introduced to the airstream.
Adsorption Adsorption dryers use a
porous, non-consumable material that causes
water vapor to condense as a very thin film on
the material’s surface. This material is called
a desiccant. There is no chemical interaction,
and the adsorption process is reversible. Des-
iccant dryers are capable of producing pres-
sure dew points as low as -100°F (-73.3°C). The
method of regeneration is the primary way
of distinguishing between types of desiccant
dryers.
The two general regeneration methods and
the two types of desiccant dryers are duplex
bed pressure swing (heatless) dryers, which
use approximately 15 percent of the compres-
sor capacity to dry one bed while the other is
operating, and heat-activated dryers, which
use internal or external heaters. Additional
compressor capacity is necessary to provide
this extra air.
Desiccant materials include silica gel, acti-
vated alumina, and aluminosilicate (molecu-
lar sieve). Each material also has applications
for the removal of specific impurities other
than water. Desiccant materials age when in
use over a period of years, which may affect
their capacity. In addition, care must be taken
to avoid contamination of the materials, par-
ticularly by oils.
Heat of Compression This type of dryer
also uses a desiccant to adsorb the moisture
in the compressed airstream. The desiccant
material is continuously regenerated using
a portion of the hot air directly discharged
from the compressor before it goes into the
aftercooler. The difference between this and
the pressure swing dryer is that for continu-
ous duty, the pressure swing regenerates one
whole bed at a time, requiring a second bed
to dry the airstream. The heat of compression
dryer has only one bed that rotates and regen-
erates a portion of the desiccant material on
a continuous basis, leaving the remainder of
the bed to dry the air. The air used to regen-
erate the desiccant is then returned into the
main airstream. There are no regeneration
air losses or electric heaters used. This dryer
could be cooled by a fan (air cooled) or water
cooled. Units that are cooled with air at 95°F
(35°C) often give a pressure dew point of -15°F
(-26.1°C).
Dryer Selection The single most impor-
tant requirement in the selection process is to
determine the lowest required pressure dew
point for the intended application. This may
eliminate some types of dryers. An excessive
flow rate may eliminate other dryer types.
The economics of initial and operating costs,
which vary from one unit to another, are
another determining factor. Space conditions
and maintenance availability should also be
considered.
Compressor Regulation
If the total system demand for both air pres-
sure and volume exactly matched the com-
pressor output for as long as the compressor
operated, no regulation would be required.
Since this does not usually happen, whenever
system demand varies, some method must be
found to regulate output to match the vari-
able pressure and flow rate demands of the
system.
Compressor capacity can be regulated by
either continuous or discontinuous methods.
One continuous means requires regulation of
the compressor either by using an adjustable-
speed coupling or controlling the drive motor
speed. Another continuous method is to bleed
compressed air from the discharge either to
the atmosphere or back into the inlet. This
is called unloading or blow-off and is waste-
ful of energy. A final continuous method is
alteration of the internals of a compressor,
by adjusting valves, clearances, etc., to make
it less efficient. The last method is the least
desirable of all, because the correct speed of
the compressor can only be determined and
the internal adjustment accomplished by the
manufacturer. This makes it almost impos-
sible for maintenance personnel to repair in
the field.
Discontinuous regulation is the most
common method of controlling compres-
sor capacity. This is accomplished by using a
mechanical or electromechanical pressure-
regulating device that is arranged to stop the
compressor at a preset high pressure and start
it again at a preset low pressure. A receiver
(tank) is used to store air. The tank gives a
reserve capacity to keep the compressor from
starting too often.
Also, pressure may be regulated at the point
of use. Combination point-of-use units allow
moisture removal, filtering, and regulation of
pressure from a single unit. This type of regu-
lator should be adjustable to allow flexibility
for the intended purpose of the outlet.
Starting Unloader
The starting unloader is used only when start-
ing a compressor. After the first time pressure
has been established in the system and the
compressor has stopped, the system remains
pressurized. When the compressor must start
again, it has to overcome the force exerted by
the air still under pressure in the casing. There
is not enough power in the drive motor to over-
come this pressure. Therefore, a means must
be provided to vent only the air under pres-
sure in the compressor casing to atmosphere
and to allow the compressor to start under no
load. This is done with a starting unloader.
Compressed Air Receivers
The primary purpose of a receiver is to store
air. A secondary purpose is to even out pulsa-
tions from a compressor. Determination of the
need for a receiver is always based on the type
of regulation the system uses. If the compres-
sor runs 100 percent of the time and has con-
stant blow-off, an air receiver is not required.
For most applications, an air compressor
is regulated by starting and stopping, with
a receiver used to store air and prevent the
compressor from cycling too often. Generally
accepted practice for reciprocating compres-
sors is to limit starts to about 10 per hour and
running time to 70 percent of the time. Cen-
trifugal, screw, and sliding vane compressors
are best run 100 percent of the time.
An air receiver serves the following pur-
poses:
1. Storage of air
2. Equalizing of pressure variations (pulsa-
tions)
3. Collection of residual condensate
Piping connections should be made in such
a way that the incoming air is forced to circu-
late and mix with the air already inside the tank
before being discharged. Receivers should be
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) stamped for unfired pressure ves-
sels. An automatic drain valve is required for
the receiver to discharge to an adjacent floor
drain through an air gap. Manufacturers have
standard receiver sizes measured in gallons
(liters) of water capacity.
Receivers should be sized on the basis of
system demand and compressor size, using the
starts per hour and running time best suited
for the project. The design engineer must keep
in mind that a compressor operates to satisfy
the pressure switch rather than the use of air
and that the receiver is an integral part of the
system that must function with respect to load
OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  7

conditions, amount of storage, and pressure
differential. Often, the manufacturer has a
standard size receiver for specific compressor
models. A commonly used formula to find the
receiver size is:
Equation 1
V×(P1−P2)
T = C×Pa
where
T = Time receiver takes to go from the
upper to lower pressure limits, min-
utes
V = Volume of tank, ft3 (m3)
P1 = Maximum tank pressure, psia (kPa)
C = Free air needed, scfm (nL/min)
Pa = Atmospheric pressure, psia (kPa)
P2 = Minimum tank absolute pressure,
psia (nL/min)
While it is common practice to locate a
receiver near the compressor equipment for
air storage, the designer should consider the
locations of the largest air consumers. Instal-
lation of a receiver at a remote point on the
piping system would allow the system to
handle surges and possibly eliminate the need
for an additional compressor.
A common piping scheme used in large
manufacturing facilities is to provide a loop
header around the plant. This scheme pro-
vides flexibility for future connections and
reduced pressure drops to remote locations.
Oversizing the header one pipe size also pro-
vides storage capacity and may eliminate the
need for a remote receiver.
Piping System Design
The compressed air system must be con-
trolled, regulated, and sized to ensure that
an adequate volume of air at a pressure and
purity that will satisfy user requirements is
delivered at any outlet, particularly the most
hydraulically remote, during the period of
heaviest use.
The design process is an iterative one
because the performance of one or several
components may have an effect on the per-
formance of other equipment. Therefore, vari-
ous adjustments are usually necessary as the
design progresses.
Design Sequence
1. Locate and identify each process, work
station, or piece of equipment using
compressed air. They should be located
on a plan, and a complete list should be
made to simplify recordkeeping.
2. Determine the volume of air used at
each location.
3. Determine the pressure range required
at each location.
4. Determine the conditioning require-
ments for each piece of equipment, such
as allowable moisture content, particu-
late size, and oil content.
8  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008
CONTINUING EDUCATION: Compressed Air Systems
5. Establish how much time the individual
tool or process will be in actual use for
a one-minute period of time. This is
referred to as the duty cycle.
6. Establish the maximum number of loca-
tions that may be used simultaneously
on each branch, on each main, and for
the project as a whole. This is known as
the use factor.
7. Establish the extent of allowable leakage.
8. Establish any allowance for future
expansion.
9. Select the piping material.
10. Make a preliminary piping layout and
assign a preliminary pressure drop.
11. Select the air compressor type, condi-
tioning equipment, equipment location,
and air inlet, making sure that scfm (nL/
min) or acfm (aL/min) is used consis-
tently for both the system and compres-
sor capacity rating.
12. Produce a final piping layout and size
the piping network.
The following paragraphs explain the items
in the design sequence.
Project Air-consuming Device Locations
This speaks for itself. To accomplish this task,
mark on a plan the location and requirements
of all air-consuming devices. This facilitates
the branch piping layout. Prepare a list, for
future reference, of all the devices marked
on the plan, noting their location and actual
required flow rate.
Pressure and Flow Rate Requirement
All tools use air, either through an orifice or to
drive a piston, to do work. Information about
pressure and flow rate parameters for individ-
ual equipment and tools is usually obtained
from the manufacturer, end user, facility
planner, or owner. Often, this information is
incomplete, and additional investigation is
required to find the specific values needed.
Very often, it is useful to assign preliminary
pressure and flow rate requirements of the
system to arrange equipment space and give
preliminary mechanical data to other disci-
plines. Table 1 lists general air requirements
for various tools.
The best approach is to obtain actual equip-
ment cuts from the manufacturer of the pro-
posed equipment due to the wide variation
in the requirements of similar air-consuming
devices from different manufacturers.
Compressed Air Conditioning The selec-
tion of conditioning equipment depends on
end-use requirements, usually obtained in the
process of doing above-listed steps 2, 3, and 4.
Conditioning equipment includes dryers, fil-
ters, lubricators, and pressure regulators.
Dryer selection is based on the most
demanding user requirement, except where
special, dedicated equipment may be
required. If a very low dew point is required,
the only selection possible is a desiccant-type
dryer. If, however, a high dew point is accept-
able, several different types of dryers can be
considered.
The deliquescent dryer is the least efficient
type, but it requires no power to operate and
has the lowest initial cost of all the dryers. It
has a moderate operating cost, since only the
drying medium must be replenished at regular
intervals. This type of dryer loses efficiency if
the inlet air temperature is over 100°F (37.8°C),
and so an efficient aftercooler is mandatory.
The type of deliquescent material used affects
the quality of air. Salt normally reduces the
dew point about 12 to 20°F (-11.1 to -6.7°C),
while potassium carbonate lowers the dew
point about 30°F (-1.1°C). A filter is necessary
after the dryer to remove any chemical carry-
over (fines) in the airstream.
Refrigerated dryers produce pressure dew
points as low as 36°F (2.2°C), but for practical
purposes, a figure in the range of 38 to 40°F
(3.3 to 4.4°C) is generally used. Both initial
and general operating costs are moderate.
External requirements are floor drains and
electric power. This type of dryer operates at
rated effectiveness only when the unit is run
at or near its rated capacity and pressure.
Consult the manufacturer for actual operating
parameters.
The twin-tower (pressure-swing) desiccant
dryer produces the lowest dew points. These
dryers have the highest initial and operating
costs. The pressure swing purge is the fastest,
but it uses about 15 percent of the system air
for purging. If the incoming air temperature
is too high, this can be detrimental to the
desiccant material. An aftercooler is usually
recommended for most dryer installations
because it is an economical way to reduce the
moisture content of air. The aftercooler should
be selected in conjunction with the dryer. The
aftercooler does add cost to the project, how-
ever, and it is not always used.
The heat of compression dryer uses the
heated air directly discharged from the com-
pressor to continuously dry a desiccant mate-
rial. The heated air is piped back into the main
airstream. This type of dryer does not require
additional compressor capacity.
Two factors are used to select a filter: effec-
tiveness and pressure drop. Do not specify a
filter that produces air that is cleaner than
necessary. If one station or process requires a
much higher purity than others, use a point-
of-use filter for that area and a less restricted
filter for the main supply. It is possible for a
filter to have the largest pressure drop of all
the equipment in the system. In general, a
filter produces a 3 to 10 psig (20.7 to 68.9 kPa)
pressure drop when dirty. If the actual figure
proves to be too much, it is a good idea to over-
size the filter to cut down the pressure drop.
In most cases, it is more economical to pay
the added initial cost of a larger filter than to
increase energy requirements to compress air
to a higher pressure for the life of the system.
WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
 Figure 1  Laboratory Use Factors Future Expansion The owner must give
guidance as to the possibility and extent of any
future expansion. In anticipation of expansion,
consideration should be given to oversizing
some components, such as filters, dryers, and
main pipes, to avoid costly replacement in the
future and to save downtime while expansion
is underway.
Compressed Air Piping Materials Con-
sult with the owner regarding which piping
materials are compatible with the facility envi-
ronment. Piping materials that could be used
include copper, carbon steel, stainless steel,
aluminum, and plastic. Temperature, pres-
sure, total installation cost, and location also
affect material selection. Care should be taken
to not use piping materials that are not accept-
able for high temperatures near the compres-
sor discharge (often 70°F [21°C] above ambi-
ent temperature). Valves include ball and gate
types and are selected using water, oil, and gas
(WOG) pressure ratings.
Piping Sizing Produce a preliminary piping
layout on the plans. Check for space, clear-
Note: To convert to metric, multiply scfm by 28.32 to obtain nL/min.
ances, interferences, and securely anchored
Source: Frankel, M. 1996. drops to equipment. Then make a final piping
layout incorporating all the above items.
Duty Cycle The duty cycle is how long a tool and type of connections, number of repeated It now should be possible to start sizing the
or device is available for use during a shift. To connects and disconnects, age of the system, piping network using the following proce-
determine the duty cycle, consult the users, and quality of the pipe assembly. Many smaller dure:
for in most cases they are the only authorities tools and operations generally have a greater 1. To use pressure drop tables, it is neces-
capable of discussing actual operations for leakage of air than a few larger use points. sary to find the equivalent length of run
their facility. In most industrial applications, A well-maintained system will have a leak- from the compressor to the farthest point
tasks of a similar nature are grouped together. age of about 2 to 5 percent. Average conditions in the piping system. The reason is that
This allows sections or branches to be calcu- will result in a 10 percent leakage. Poorly main- the various pipe sizing tables are based
lated independently. tained systems have been known to have a 25 on a pressure drop developed using
Use Factor The use factor is how many of percent leakage factor. The facility’s mainte- friction loss for a given length of pipe.
the tools connected to the system will be in use nance department should be consulted when Measuring the actual length is the first
at once. Experience indicates that it is almost selecting a leakage value. The leakage should step. In addition to the actual measured
impossible to accurately determine a use be considered when the selected compressor pipe length, the effect of fittings must
factor. Therefore, sufficient receiver capacity capacity barely meets system requirements. be considered. This is because fittings
or larger compressor capacity to allow for pos-
sible variances must be provided. In laborato- Table 3  Fitting Equivalent Length of Run (ft)
ries, air is used less often than it is in industrial Pipe Size Gate Valve Globe Valve
applications, mostly for chemical reactions. (in.) 90° Elbow Tee (branch) Tee (run) (full open) (full open)
Refer to Figure 1 for laboratory use factors. The ½ 1¾ 3¼ 1 ¾ 18
exceptions are classrooms and some research ¾ 2¼ 4½ 1½ 1 24
facilities, where the use factor may be quite 1 2¾ 5½ 1¾ 1¼ 30
high. Although extremely general in nature, 1¼ 3¼ 7½ 2¼ 1½ 35
Table 2 gives some guidance in the selection 1½ 4½ 8½ 2¾ 2 46
of use factors for light manufacturing facilities. 2 5¼ 10½ 3½ 2¼ 59
These should be verified with the owners. 2½ 6¼ 12½ 4¼ 2¾ 70
Allowable Leakage There is no method to 3 7¾ 15½ 5¼ 3½ 87
4 10¼ 20¼ 6¾ 4½ 114
accurately determine a reasonable figure for
leakage. Leakage is a function of the number Table 3(M)  Fitting Equivalent Length of Run (m)
Pipe Size Gate Valve Globe Valve
Table 2  General Use Factors (mm) 90° Elbow Tee (branch) Tee (run) (full open) (full open)
Number of 15 0.53 0.99 0.31 0.23 5.5
Outlets Use Factor 20 0.69 1.4 0.46 0.31 7.3
1 1.0 25 0.84 1.7 0.53 0.38 9.1
11 0.80 32 0.90 2.1 0.69 0.46 10.7
31 0.60 40 1.4 2.6 0.84 0.60 14.0
78 0.50 50 1.6 3.2 1.1 0.69 18.0
148 0.40 65 1.9 3.8 1.3 0.84 21.3
320 0.35 80 2.4 4.7 1.6 1.1 26.5
575 0.30 100 3.1 6.2 2.1 1.4 34.7

OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  9

 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Compressed Air Systems
and valves create an obstruction to the of original design. However, this practice intake system, compressor, compressor instal-
flow of air. This degree of obstruction has results in a higher initial cost for the lation requirements, and receiver. To start, the
been converted to an equivalent length piping system. following information must be available:
of pipe to make calculations easy. Table 3. Size the piping using the appropriate 1. Total connected cfm (L/min) of all air-
3 indicates the equivalent pipe length charts, having first calculated the scfm using devices, including flow to the air
for fittings and valves, which should be (nL/min) and the allowable friction loss dryer system if applicable
added to the actual measured run to in each section of the piping being sized. 2. Maximum pressure all air-using devices
establish a total equivalent run. Instead Since all pipe sizing charts are calculated required
of actually counting the number of using loss of pressure per some length of 3. Duty cycle and use factors for these
valves and fittings, it is sometimes con- piping (usually 100 feet [30.5 meters]), devices giving maximum expected use of
sidered accepted practice to add 50 per- it is necessary to arrive at the required air
cent of the actual measured run to give value for the chart you are using. Figure 4. Leakage and future expansion allow-
an approximation of the total equivalent 2 presents friction loss of air in psi (kPa) ance, cfm (L/min)
run, and therefore the means to select a for a 100-foot (30.5-meter) length of pipe 5. Allowable pressure drops for the entire
pipe size. from 15- to 100-psi (103.4- to 689.5-kPa) system, including piping and condition-
This rule-of-thumb method for fittings line pressure. Use the lowest system ing equipment
should not be used in systems where working pressure to determine pipe size. 6. Altitude, temperature, and contaminant
pressure becomes a critical factor. removal corrections
The following general design parameters
2. Determine the actual pressure drop that 7. Location where adequate space is avail-
can be used as a guide when calculating piping
will occur only in the piping system. able for the air compressor and all ancil-
systems’ total pressure drop:
Generally accepted practice is to allow lary equipment
1. Equipment drop leg: 2 psi (13.8 kPa) loss
10 percent of the proposed system pres- (1 psi [6.9 kPa] if possible) Having this information, first design the
sure for pipe friction loss. For a 125-psi 2. Hose allowance: 2 to 5 psi (13.8 to 34.5 inlet piping system. Since air compressor per-
(861.9-kPa) system, allow a 12- to 15-psi kPa) loss formance depends on inlet conditions, this
(103.4- to 129.3-kPa) loss. Since the air 3. Quick-disconnect coupling: 4 psi (27.6 system deserves special care. The air intake
compressor has not been selected yet, kPa) loss should provide a supply of air to the compres-
this figure is variable. A smaller pipe size 4. Lubricator: 1 to 4 psi (6.9 to 27.6 kPa) sor that is as clean, cool, and dry as possible.
may lead to higher compressor horse- loss The proposed location should be studied for
power. It is considered good practice 5. Point-of-use filter: 0.5 to 2 psi (3.4 to 13.8 the presence of any type of airborne contami-
to oversize distribution mains to allow kPa) loss nation; inlets should be positioned to avoid the
for future growth and the addition of probability of contaminated intake. Whenever
conditioning equipment that may add a Selecting the Air Compressor Assembly
possible, use outside air.
pressure drop not anticipated at the time There is now enough information to size the
compressor assembly, which includes the

Figure 2  Flow Charts

10 10
1/2

7 7
Pressure drop per 100 feet of
Pressure drop per 100 feet of

3/4
equivalent pipe length (psi)
equivalent pipe length (psi)

5 5 400
1

4 4 0F
EET
1/2

3 3 PER
/2

MIN
1-1
3/4

2 2
2

400 UT
1

E
/2

0F
EET
2-1

3
PER INC
1 HP
/2

1
MIN 15 IPE
4
80
1-1

.7
2

UT
E psig .7 SIZ
E 5 psig
/2

6
.5 INC .5
2-1

.4 HP
8
.4
IPE
4

.3 SIZ .3
E
5

.2 .2
6

.1 .1

Flow, CFM Flow, CFM

10 10
7 7
1/2

Pressure drop per 100 feet of

Pressure drop per 100 feet of

equivalent pipe length (psi)

equivalent pipe length (psi)

1/2

5 5
3/4

4
3/4

4 400
1

3 0F 3 400
1

EET 0F
2 PER 2 EET
/2

PER
/2

MIN
1-1

1-1

MIN
2

UT
2

50 UT 100
/2

E E
/2

1
2-1

1
3

psig psig
2-1

.7 INC .7 INC
4

HP HP
4

IPE IPE
5

.5 .5
SIZ SIZ
5
6

.4 E .4 E
6
8

.3 .3
8

.2 .2

.1 .1

Flow, CFM Flow, CFM

Notes: 1) With the cfm and psi/100 known, the appropriate psig chart can be used to determine the correct pipe sizes. The velocity must always be maintained below
4000 fpm. 2) For metric conversion, use the following: cfm×28.32 = L/min; Pressure drop (psi)×6.89 = kPa; Velocity (fpm)×5.08 = mm/s.

10  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

 For an external installation, the inlet should
have a rain cap and a screen. An inlet filter
should always be provided inside the building.
If the manufacturer of the selected compres-
sor indicates that noise may be a problem, a
silencer must be installed. If using a duplex or
triplex system, each compressor should have
an independent air intake.
Uncontrolled piping pulsations can harm
inlet piping, damage the building structure,
and affect compressor performance. Airflow
into a reciprocating compressor pulsates
because of the cyclic intake of air into the
compressor cylinder. The variable pressure
causes the air column in the pipe to vibrate,
which creates a traveling wave in the pipe
moving at the speed of sound. The inlet pipe
itself vibrates at some natural frequency,
depending on its length. If the air column
vibrates at or near the same frequency as the
length of pipe does, the system is said to be
resonant. Large pressures could result when
this occurs. Resonant pipe lengths can be cal-
culated by the compressor manufacturers and
the critical length given to the engineer. For
example, with a 600-revolutions-per-minute
compressor, avoid pipe lengths of 3.2 to 12.5
feet (1.0 to 3.8 meters), 16.8 to 26.2 feet (5.1 to
8.0 meters), and 32.3 to 41.5 feet (9.8 to 12.6
meters). Also, a surge chamber can be used to
eliminate this problem.
The pressure loss of air through the intake
piping should be held to a minimum. The
velocity of intake air should be limited to
about 1,000 feet/minute (5,080 mm/second)
to avoid noise problems, and friction loss
should be limited to about 4 inches of water
column (995.2 Pa). Inlet louver velocity should
also be low enough to avoid drawing in rain-
water. Depending on louver construction, this
may be as low as 500 feet/minute (2,540 mm/
second). Standard round duct charts can also
be used for sizing. In general, if air require-
ments are less than 500 scfm (14,160 nL/min),
the intake can be indoors.
It should be noted that the architect needs to
be consulted concerning the aesthetic impact
of exterior intakes. Provide an automatic drain
on the line leading to the compressor, and
pitch the intake piping to the drain point. If
indoor air temperature is usually higher than
100°F (37.8°C), the intake should be outdoors.
Many different factors are involved in the
selection of a compressor type:
1. Space limitations
2. Noise limitations
3. Compressor pressure capability
4. Capacity
5. Availability, cost, and quality of cooling
water
6. Need for oil-free air
7. Electrical power limitations
8. Costs—both initial and long term
The following reasons should be considered restraints will be required on the hangers sup-
when in doubt about selecting a duplex or tri- porting the piping system.
plex, rather than a simplex, unit:
Removal of Condensate
1. The cost of downtime—the owner may
Moisture will be removed from the system
request two or three 100 percent-capac-
at the compressor, dryer, and receiver. Drain
ity machines to eliminate the possibility
valves should also be provided at low points
of a shutdown.
throughout the piping system for blow-down
2. Where a facility has a steady requirement
and condensate removal after start-up. Con-
(called a base load) and, in addition,
densate should be discharged to a local hub or
there are substantial variations due to
floor drain with an air gap provided between
periodic or intermittent use, this may
the discharge and the drain. This condensate
necessitate using two units sized at 75
may contain oil from the compressor, which
percent of load or three units sized at 67
should be discharged to the appropriate waste
percent of load.
disposal system. Alternate lubricants that are
3. When electrical starting requirements
biodegradable can be used in the compres-
would overload the system, two or three
sor. Coordinate with the owner the proper
units starting at different times would
disposal location, and obtain permits where
eliminate the problem.
4. Where floor space for one large com- required.
pressor and ancillary equipment is REFERENCES
unavailable, using two or three units Compressed air data. Compressed Air.
would allow more flexibility in arranging Compressed Air Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
the units. Compressed Air and Gas Handbook. 4th ed.
5. Where widely separated concentrations Compressed Gas Association.
of heavy use exist, using two or three Frankel, M. “Compressed Air Design for
compressors, or possibly two sets of Industrial Plants.” Plumbing Engineer
compressors, is a good idea. September-October, 1986.
Frankel, M. Facility Piping Systems Hand-
Experience has shown that a properly
book. New York: McGraw-Hill.
sized, constantly working compressor usually
Compressed Air Fundamentals. Ingersoll-
requires less maintenance than one that runs
Rand.
intermittently. If multiple compressors are
utilized, an alternator is required to alternate
the load evenly among the units to properly
balance the wear on the equipment.
Most of the heat produced by a compressor
is rejected through the various cooling sys-
tems into the space where the compressor is
located. This information must be relayed to
the HVAC engineer so space conditioning can
be considered. Good ventilation is mandatory
in the area where the compressor is installed.
Selection of the proper type of compres-
sor foundation and mounting is based on the
lowest frequency and magnitude of pump
vibration and load-bearing requirement of
the slab on which the compressor rests. Metal,
rubber, coils, and spring-type materials are
available for use as isolators. The manufac-
turer of the isolators should be consulted to
confirm the proper type for the purpose and
conditions expected.
Vibration isolation is achieved by locating
properly selected resilient devices between
the pump base and the building structure.
This is accomplished by placing isolators
between the pump and the floor, flexible con-
nections on all piping from the compressor,
and spring-type hangers on the piping around
the compressor for a distance of about 20 feet
(6.1 meters).
If the compressor is to be installed in a
highly active seismic zone, restraints will be
required to prevent equipment movement
or damage to the piping system. Also, proper
OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  11
Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design
E. W. Bob Boulware, PE

Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)?

Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help
you accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in
Plumbing Design (CPD) status.
Now Online!
The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located
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following exam and application form also may be downloaded from
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you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. If you earn a grade of 90 percent
or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1
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information will be kept on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material
presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using informa-
About This Issue’s Article
The October 2008 continuing education article is
“Compressed Air Systems,” Chapter 9 of Plumbing Engi-
neering Design Handbook, Volume 3.
This chapter discusses compressed air for industrial laboratory
and commercial applications. Compressed air is a major source
of power possessing many advantages: It is safe, economical,
easily transmitted, and adaptable. It is used to produce linear
motion, and it also is employed to actuate linear movement
through a piston and cylinder or a diaphragm. Atomizing,
spraying, and moving hard-to-pump fluids are other applica-
tions. Compressed air can be bubbled up to measure fluid
levels, agitate liquids, and inhibit ice formation in bodies of
water. Another use of compressed air is for instrumentation. Air
circuits solve the most complex problems in automatic control.
Some applications would be almost impossible with any power
medium other than compressed air.
You may locate this article at www.psdmagazine.org. Read
the article, complete the following exam, and submit your an-
swer sheet to the ASPE office to potentially receive 0.1 CEU.

PSD 151
tion from other materials may result in a wrong answer.

CE Questions—“Compressed Air Systems” (PSD 151)

1. Compressed air is used for all of the
following except ________.
a. rectilinear motion
b. linear motion
c. instrumentation
d. deicing
2. Absolute pressure is ________.
a. gauge + atmospheric/barometric
pressure
b. atmospheric/barometric pressure –
gauge pressure
c. atmospheric pressure + barometric
pressure
d. none of the above
3. Which of the following is not true
about a liquid ring compressor?
a. It is a good application for medical
or laboratory environments.
b. It provides oil-free air.
c. It has lower horsepower
requirements than similar capacity
piston compressors.
d. It can handle corrosive and/or
explosive liquids.
4. Which of the following is not true
about an aftercooler?
a. It is best installed at the compressor
discharge.
b. It is useful for preconditioning air
where additional conditioning is
necessary.
c. It improves compressor motor
efficiency by lowering the gas
horsepower.
d. All of the above are true.
5. Compressors can be regulated to follow
actual demand by ________.
a. adjustable-speed coupling
b. using a mechanical or
electromechanical pressure-
regulating device
c. blow off to atmosphere
d. all the above
6. Which of the following is not true
about a compressed air receiver?
a. It regulates compressor starting and
stopping operation.
b. It equalizes pressure variations or
pulsations.
c. It is required for proper operation
of centrifugal, screw, and vane-style
compressors.
d. It is a collection point for residual
condensate.
7. Providing a loop header in a large
manufacturing facility ________.
a. is a moisture control technique
b. requires higher operating pressure
because smaller pipe is used
c. lowers system pressure drop to
remote locations
d. requires slightly larger piping to
eliminate compressor short-cycling
8. Which of the following is not a correct
statement?
a. A decrease in temperature increases
the ability of air to retain moisture.
b. An increase in pressure decreases
the ability of air to retain moisture.
c. With each 20°F increase in
temperature, the ability of air to
accept water vapor doubles.
d. An increase in temperature increases
the ability of air to retain moisture.
9. An air compressor intake should
________.
a. be located indoors if indoor air
temperatures exceed 100°F
b. not be installed with a silencer
c. provide a clean, cool, and dry supply
of air to the compressor
d. be installed outdoors without a
filter to reduce maintenance costs
10. After-filters generally are used to
________.
a. remove unwanted oil aerosols that
are too small to be removed by
coalescing
b. remove particulates smaller than
those removed by a prefilter
c. remove large amounts of
contaminants at the inlet to the air
compressor
d. remove large quantities of water or
oil, individually or in combination,
from the airstream
11. As a rule of thumb, a well-maintained
system will have a leakage of ________.
a. 1 percent
b. 1 percent per 2 psig
c. 2 to 5 percent
d. 10 to 25 percent
12. Air receivers can be installed ________.
a. near compressor equipment for air
storage
b. at a remote point on the piping
system
c. to store air and prevent the
compressor from cycling too often
d. all of the above

12  Plumbing Systems & Design  OCTOBER 2008 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Application Form
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contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who earn a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or
certification within 30 days of ASPE’s receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish
to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required).
1.  Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org.
2.  Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space.
3. Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on
www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form.
4. Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit
card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 8614 W. Catalpa Ave., Suite 1007, Chicago, IL 60656) or fax (773-695-9007).

Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits.
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PS&D Continuing Education Answer Sheet
Compressed Air Systems (PSD 151)
Questions appear on page 12. Circle the answer to each question. Appraisal Questions
Q 1. A B C D Compressed Air Systems (PSD 151)
Q 2. A B C D 1. Was the material new information for you?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 3. A B C D
Q 4. A B C D 2. Was the material presented clearly?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 5. A B C D 3. Was the material adequately covered?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 6. A B C D
Q 7. A B C D 4. Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 8. A B C D 5. Did the CE questions help you identify specific ways to use ideas presented in
Q 9. A B C D the article?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 10. A B C D
Q 11. A B C D 6. How much time did you need to complete the CE offering (i.e., to read the
Q 12. A B C D article and answer the post-test questions)?

OCTOBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  13