AE 321 - Module 06 - Final

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 6: Maneuvering and Flight Envelope
LEARNING MODULE 06:

Maneuvering and Flight
Envelope
AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II
1|Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Maneuvering Flight 1 5
Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram 1 11
Load Factor due to Gust 1 15
Sample Problems 16
Plate No. 1 18
2|Page
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.

Figures 6.1-6.6 are taken from the reference above. 1
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Maneuvering Flight 40
Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram 50
Load Factor due to Gust 60
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
120
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 30
Plate No. 1 60
Quiz No. 1 120
TOTAL 480 min. (8 hours)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
3|Page
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
knowledge of CLO 1: Valuing Topic Learning
mathematics, physical the study of subsonic Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Explain
sciences, engineering aerodynamics and its different maneuvers TLO 1: Discuss
sciences to the practice application on the involved in aircraft different flight
of aeronautical aviation industry dynamic performance maneuvers using
engineering. through aerodynamic force diagrams.
through discussions
PLO 4: Function in computations on TLO 2: Derive
and force diagrams.
multi-disciplinary and aircraft performance. working equations
MLO 2: Formulate
multi-cultural teams CLO 3: Quantify for flight
equations involving
PLO 5: Identify, aerodynamic forces maneuvers using
maneuvers using the
formulate, and solve along flight using equations of
equations of motion motion, load factor
aeronautical aerodynamic equations and the concept of load and Newton’s
engineering problems. derived from Newton’s factors. second law.
PLO 8: Understand the Second Law of Motion. MLO 3: Solve TLO 3: Evaluate
impact of aeronautical CLO 4: Utilize problems involving problems involving
engineering solutions in knowledge in airplane maneuvering flight flight maneuvers
global, economic, performance by through
using derived working
environmental, and applying theories and application of
equations.
societal context principles of flight in working equations
MLO 4: Explain
PLO 9: Recognize the solving problems. to problems sets
the flight envelop using
need for, and engage CLO 5: Display and/or module
the concept of load
in life-long learning analytical skills by activities.
factors and TLO 4: Explain the
PLO 11: Use performing aerodynamic data. flight envelope
techniques, skills, and computations in flight MLO 5: Discuss through the
modern engineering performance problems. gust load factors application of
tools necessary for CLO 6: Interpret through discussions knowledge of load
aeronautical a flight envelope using and formulas. factors and
engineering practice the concept behind discussion of
PLO 12: Knowledge aircraft load factor. aerodynamic data
and understanding of CLO 9: Display presented in the
engineering and professional module.
management principles commitment to ethical TLO 5: Identify
as a member and practice by showing phases of flight in
leader in a team, to sense of responsibility the flight envelope
manage projects and in in complying and by discussion of
multidisciplinary different points
compiling academic
environments. along the flight
requirement. envelope.
PLO 13: Apply
TLO 6: Discuss
acquired aeronautical the load factors
engineering knowledge due to gust
and skills for national through brief
4|Page
CONTENT
I. Maneuvering Flight
After dealing with static performance and the dynamic performance
involving takeoff and landing, we have to look at flight maneuvers
performed by an airplane.
We often hear the term, standard turns, pull up maneuver, and pull down
in different references be it books, education videos, or movies. In this
section we are going to take a look at these maneuvers performed by an
airplane.
Take note that takeoff and landing performance involves rectilinear motion
while maneuvering flight performance involve radial acceleration in bodies
in a curvilinear motion.
A. Level Turn
The illustration below shows the free body diagram of an aircraft in a
level turning flight. By definition, in level turning flight, the aircraft is
banked through the angle ϴ, hence the lift vector is tilted by the said
angle with respect to the vertical axis.
From the free body diagram, the banking angle ϴ and the lift are such
that the component of the lift in the vertical direction exactly equals the
weight. Therefore, the airplane maintains a constant altitude, moving in
the same horizontal plane. However, a resultant force created by these
banked angle which is acting on the horizontal plane and since it is
perpendicular to the flight path, it causes the airplane to turn in a
circular path with a curvature R as shown below.
Figure 6.1 Free Body Diagram for Level Turn
5|Page
Figure 6.2 Top View of Level Turn
From the force diagram, we have the resultant force as:

�� = �2 − �2
Note that the resultant force is known as the centripetal force, which
exerts an inward force. On the contrary, centrifugal force is an apparent
force which exerts an outward force.
From the summation of forces horizontal, we have the following results:

�� = ��
From the summation of forces vertical, we have the following results:

� = ��
From this point, we will introduce a new term, the load factor n, defined
as:
�
�=
�
Where:
n = Load Factor
6|Page
L = Lift
W = Weight
The load factor is usually quoted in terms of g’s; as an example, an

airplane with lift equal to 10 times the weight is said to be experiencing
a load factor of 10 g’s. Thus we can rewrite the resultant force as:
�� = �2 − �2
� = ��
�� = (��)2 − �2
�� = � �2 − 1 = �� = ��
Since the airplane is moving in a circular path at the velocity �∞ , then

the radial acceleration is given by (�2∞ )/�. From Newton’s Second Law
of motion:
� = ��
� �2∞
�� =
� �
Solving for the turn radius, R:

� �2∞
�=
� ��
� �2∞
�=
� � �2 − 1
�2∞
�=
� �2 − 1
The angular velocity, called the turn rate is given by:

�∞ = �� ℎ�� = ��
�∞ �2∞
=
� � �2 − 1
� �2 − 1
�= �� /��
�∞
For the maneuvering performance of an airplane, both military and civil,
it is frequently advantageous to have the smallest possible turn radius,
R and the largest possible turn rate, �. For these conditions to be met,
we should:
1. Have the highest possible load factor (highest possible L/W)
2. Lowest possible velocity
7|Page
Minimum Velocity for Level Turning Flight:

From Steady, Level Flight:
1
� = ��2 �� = �
2
2�
�2 =
��
2�
�� =
��
Similarly for Level Turning Flight:

1
� = ��2 ��
2
� = ��
� 1
= ��2 ��
�� 2
2�
�2 = �� , �� ℎ��
��
2�
�� ' =
��
Remember that �� ' represents the stalling speed in turns. Therefore, it

is called minimum velocity for level turning flight.
Relationship between stalling speed and minimum turning velocity:

2�
�� ' =
��
2�
�� =
��
Dividing both equations, we have:
2�
�� ' ��
=
��
2�
��
�� ' 1
=
��
��
�� ' =
��
8|Page
�� = �� ' ��
B. Pull-up Maneuver
Consider a case of turning flight where an airplane is initially in straight
and level flight (L=W) where it suddenly experiences an increase in lift.
Since L > W, the airplane will begin to turn upward. From this pull up
maneuver, the flight path becomes curved in the vertical plane, with a
turn rate �.
Figure 6.3 Free Body Diagram for Pull–up Maneuver
From the free body diagram, we have:

�� = � − �
�
�=
�
�� = �� − �
�� = �(� − 1)
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

acceleration and F is the resultant force:
� = ��
� �2∞
�� =
� �
� �2∞
� �−1 =
� �
�2∞
�−1 =
��
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�2∞
�=
� �−1

�∞ = �� ℎ�� = ��
�∞ �2∞
=
� � �−1
� �−1
�= �� /��
�∞
C. Pull-down Maneuver
Imagine an airplane in steady level flight (L=W) and it suddenly rolled
into an inverted position, such that both L and W are pointing
downward. The airplane will begin to turn downward in a circular flight
path with a turn radius R and a turn rate �
Figure 6.4 Free Body Diagram for Pull–down Maneuver
From the free body diagram, we have:

�� = � + �
�
�=
�
�� = �� + �
�� = �(� + 1)
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

acceleration and F is the resultant force:
10 | P a g e
� = ��
� �2∞
�� =
� �
� �2∞
� �+1 =
� �
�2∞
�+1 =
��
2
�∞
�=
� �+1

�∞ = �� ℎ�� = ��
�∞ �2∞
=
� � �+1
� �+1
�= �� /��
�∞
II. Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram

Considerations of turn radius and turn rate are particularly important to
military fighter aircraft; everything else being equal, those airplanes with
the smallest R and largest � will have definite advantages in air combat.
High performance fighter aircraft are designed to operate at high load
factors, typically from 3 to 10. When the load factor is large, then we can
say that:
�+1 ≈�
�−1 ≈�
For the cases presented above, we have the following equations:
�2∞
�=
� �
� �
�=
�∞
Recall that:
1
� = �∞ �2∞ ��
2
2�
�2∞ =
�∞ ��
Substituting �2∞ , for both equations respectively:

�2∞
�=
� �
11 | P a g e
2�
� �� 2� �
�= ∞ � = �� =
� � ��∞ ��
2�
�=
�
��∞ ��
�
2� 2 �
�= =
��∞ �� ∞ ��
� �
�=
�∞
� �
�= �� = ��
2�
�∞ ��
� �
�=
2��
�∞ ��
�∞��
�= �
2(�/�)
Note that from the equations above, the factor W/S appears. This factor
occurs frequently in airplane performance analyses and is labeled as the
wing loading. The equations illustrate that airplanes with low wing loadings
have smaller turn radii and larger turn rates, everything else being equal.
However, in airplane design wing loading is affected by many factors such
as payload, range and maximum velocity. As a result, wing loadings for
light, general aviation aircraft are relatively low, but those for high
performance military aircraft are large. An example is presented below.
Figure 6.5 Typical Values for Wing Loading
12 | P a g e
From the values presented above, we conclude that a small light aircraft
such as a Beechcraft Bonanza can outmaneuver a larger, heavier aircraft
such as the F-16 because of smaller turn radius and larger turn rate.
However, this is comparing apples and oranges.
Consider the equations above for a given airplane with a given wing
loading and ask the question, under what conditions will the R be minimum
and � be maximum? From both of the equations, it is clear that these
scenarios will happen if both CL and n are maximum.
2 �
�� =
��∞ ��
�∞��
�� = �
2(�/�)
The equations above also show that the best performance will occur at
sea level where the value of ambient density is the largest. There are
some practical constraints on the above considerations. First, at low
speeds, nmax is a function of CLmax, because:
1
� �∞�2∞ ��
�= = 2
� �
1 ��
�� = �∞�2∞ ��
2 �/�
At higher speeds, maximum load factor is limited by the structural design
of the airplane. These can be better understood by examining the flight
envelope of a given airplane shown below.
13 | P a g e
Figure 6.6 Flight Envelope

1 ��
In this graph, the curve AB is given by the equation �� = 2 �∞ �2∞ �/�
.
Consider an aircraft flying at a velocity V1 with an angle of attack giving a
CL < CLmax, this is represented by point 1 in the figure. Now if the angle of
attack is increased further giving CLmax, keeping the velocity constant at V1,
this will give us a maximum value of the load factor as given by the
equation for nmax for that given V1 and the corresponding condition is given
by point 2. Beyond this angle of attack, the wing stalls and the load factor
drops as represented by point 3 in the figure. This point in the stall region
is unobtainable in flight. Consequently, point 2 represents the highest load
factor attainable for a given velocity, V1.
If the velocity is increased to a value V4, then the maximum possible load
factor also increases since it is proportional to the square of the velocity as
shown in point 4. As we can see, the trend is that, maximum load factor
continues to increase with velocity but, in reality, we cannot allow the
maximum load factor to increase indefinitely. By design, an aircraft has a
positive limit load factor which primarily depend on its category. Beyond
this load factor, structural damage may occur to the aircraft as shown by
the diagonal lines.
14 | P a g e
The velocity corresponding to point B is designated as V*. At velocities

higher than V*, say V5, the effective CL should be less than the CLmax, in
order to be within the positive limit load factor. Should the CLmax be
reached at this velocity, structural damage will occur as illustrated by point
5.
The line CD shown on the graph is the high speed limit, where velocities
beyond this generates high dynamic pressures that may induce structural
damage to the aircraft. Note that this high speed limit by design is larger
than the Vmax obtained that for level flight. In fact, the structural design of
most airplanes is such that the maximum velocity allowed by the flight
envelope is sufficiently greater than the maximum diving velocity for the
airplane.
Finally, the bottom part of the flight envelopes, curves AE and ED

corresponds to negative angle of attack. In other words, negative load
factors. Curve AE defines the stall limit. When the absolute angle of attack
is less than zero, the lift is negative and acts in the downward direction
and if the aircraft is pitched downward to a large negative angle of attack,
the flow separates from the bottom surface of the wing and lift decreases
in magnitude, i.e. the wing stalls. Line ED, gives the negative limit load
factor which dictates the maximum load factor that can be reached at
negative angles of attack. Beyond this line, structural damage will occur.
On a final note, consider again point B. This is called the maneuver point
where bot CL and n are simultaneously at their maximum values that can
be obtained compared to the other points in the flight envelope.
Consequently, this conditions conform the conditions mentioned previously
in this section regarding the minimum turn radii and the maximum turn rate.
This is shown by the following formulas:
2 �
�� =
��∞ ��
�∞��
�� = �
2(�/�)
The velocity corresponding to point B is called the corner velocity, V* which

can be obtained by:
2��
�∗ =
�∞ ��
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Remember that the value of nmax correspond to that of point B. The corner
velocity is a dividing line where at flight velocities less than V* (V < V*), it is
not possible to structurally damage an aircraft due to the generation of too
much lift. Contrary to this at flight velocities greater than V* (V > V*), too
much lift generation will structurally damage an aircraft.
III. Load Factor due to Gust

When an aircraft is flying in variable winds, the aircraft may encounter
vertical gusts that produce severe loads on the aircraft. While flying at a
straight and level flight, the inertia of the airplane tends to keep the
airplane moving forward when it encounters a vertical up-current of air.
The combination of the upward motion of the air and the aircrafts motion
creates a backward an upward relative wind which results in an increase
of angle of attack for the airplane. Unless this increase in angle of attack
happen very slowly, the increase in lift will be much more rapid than the
decrease in velocity due to drag.
From FAR Part 23, the load factor due to gust is given by:
��
�=1+
�
575 ( � )
Where:
n = load factor due to gust
k = gust correction factor
U = gust velocity in ft/s
V = airspeed in mph
a = lift curve slope in per radian
W/S = wing loading
Remember that for k:

1 � 1/4 �
�= �� ≤ 16 ��
2 � �
2.67 �
� = 1.3 − 3 �� > 16 ��
�/� 4
Also, the limit load maneuvering load factor is given by:

24000
� = 2.1 +
� + 10000
Where:
W = weight of the aircraft (lbs)
n = limit load maneuvering load factor
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for normal category, the load factor can reach n = 3.8

for utility category, the load factor can reach n = 4.4
for acrobatic category, the load factor can reach n = 6.0
IV. Sample Problems

1. A plane of 3800 lbs of gross weight is turning at 175 mph with angle of
bank of 50⁰. Determine:
a. Centrifugal Force
b. Lift
c. Radius of Turn
d. Load Factor
e. Turn Rate
Solution:
a. Centrifugal Force
�� = ��
� = ��
��
= = tan �
� ��
�� = � tan � = 3800 ��50 = 4528.66 ��
b. Lift
� = ��
� = �� = 3800 sec 50 = 5911.75 ��
c. Radius of Turn
2
88
� �2∞ 3800 ∗ 175 ∗
�= = 60
� �� 32.2 ∗ 4528.66
� = 1716.71 ��
d. Load Factor
� 5911.75
�= = = 1.56
� 3800
e. Turn Rate
� �2 − 1
�=
�∞
32.2 (1.56)2 − 1
�= = 0.15 ��/�
88
(175 ∗ 60 )
2. An airplane weighing 2000 lbs has a wing area of 216 ft.2. The wing at
zero lift coefficient is -5⁰. If the AR of the wing used has a CL =1.19 at
17 | P a g e
angle of attack of 12⁰, what is the load factor caused by a sharp edge
30 ft/s gust when the airplane is flying at 60 mph and 10000 ft. altitude?
Solution:
��
�=1+
�
575 ( � )
� 2000
= = 9.26
� 216
1 � 1/4 �
�= �� ≤ 16 ��
2 � �
1 1
� = 9.26 4 = 0.87
2
�� 0 − 1.19 0.07 180 4.01
�= = = ∗ =
�� −5 − 12 ��
��
�=1+
�
575
�
0.87 ∗ 30 ∗ 60 ∗ 4.01
�=1+ = 2.179
575 (9.26)
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V. Plate No. 1 – Finals

1. An airplane is flying straight at 150 mph. Its weight is 6000 lb. Its wing
area is 200 sq. ft. with aspect ratio 6 and used a Clark-Y airfoil. If the
airplane is flying at 150 mph at 30 degrees of bank. Calculate the
following:
(a) Centrifugal Force
(b) Lift
(c) Radius of turn
2. A plane of 3800 lb gross weight is turning at 175 mph with an angle of
bank of 50 degrees. What is the centrifugal force? What is the lift?
What is the radius of turn required?
3. An airplane is making a 40 degrees banked turn over a 565 ft. radius.
What should be the airspeed in mph?
4. An airplane weighing 2740 lb has a Clark-Y wing with 243 sq. ft. in area
with aspect ratio 6. If the airplane is flying at 170 mph at a 1/8 of a mile
radius of turn. Calculate the bank angle in degrees.
19 | P a g e

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 06:

Figures and Tables No.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

Figure 6.1 Free Body Diagram for Level Turn

Figure 6.2 Top View of Level Turn

From the force diagram, we have the resultant force as:

From the summation of forces horizontal, we have the following results:

From the summation of forces vertical, we have the following results:

The load factor is usually quoted in terms of g’s; as an example, an

Since the airplane is moving in a circular path at the velocity �∞ , then

Solving for the turn radius, R:

The angular velocity, called the turn rate is given by:

Minimum Velocity for Level Turning Flight:

Similarly for Level Turning Flight:

Remember that �� ' represents the stalling speed in turns. Therefore, it

Relationship between stalling speed and minimum turning velocity:

������ = �� ' ����

Figure 6.3 Free Body Diagram for Pull–up Maneuver

From the free body diagram, we have:

From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

The angular velocity, called the turn rate is given by:

Figure 6.4 Free Body Diagram for Pull–down Maneuver

From the free body diagram, we have:

From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

The angular velocity, called the turn rate is given by:

II. Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram

Substituting �2∞ , for both equations respectively:

Figure 6.5 Typical Values for Wing Loading

Figure 6.6 Flight Envelope

The velocity corresponding to point B is designated as V*. At velocities

Finally, the bottom part of the flight envelopes, curves AE and ED

The velocity corresponding to point B is called the corner velocity, V* which

III. Load Factor due to Gust

Remember that for k:

Also, the limit load maneuvering load factor is given by:

for normal category, the load factor can reach n = 3.8

IV. Sample Problems

V. Plate No. 1 – Finals

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�� = �� ' ��