PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

LEARNING MODULE 07:

Stability and Control

AE 321 – Aerodynamics 2

Prepared by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Stability and Control 4
Static Stability 6
Dynamic Stability 7
Control 8
Activity 13
Plate No. 7 13

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Material Time
Stability and Control 60
Static Stability 90
Dynamic Stability 90
Control 120
Assessment
Formative Assessment No. 7 180
Plate No. 7 180

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

This module discusses stability and control. It covers the different types of stability
and different control surfaces behind the movement of an aircraft.

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

As students, you are expected to perform tasks with intellectual and academic
integrity. The college assumes basic standard of conduct in academic requirements
that students will comply with honesty and will be credited only for their own efforts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

PRINCIPLES OF STABILITY AND CONTROL

There are three basic controls on an airplane— the ailerons, elevator, and rudder—
which are designed to change and control the moments about the x, y, and z axes.
These control surfaces are shown in Fig. 2.14 and repeated in Fig. 7.3; they are
flaplike surfaces that can be deflected back and forth at the command of the pilot.
The ailerons are mounted at the trailing edge of the wing, near the wing tips. The
elevators are located on the horizontal stabilizer. In some modern aircraft, the
complete horizontal stabilizer is rotated instead of just the elevator (so-called flying
tails). The rudder is located on the vertical stabilizer, at the trailing edge. Just as in
the case of wing flaps discussed in Sec. 5 .17, a downward deflection of the control
surface will increase the lift of the wing or tail. In turn, the moments will be changed,
as sketched in Fig. 7.4. Consider Fig. 7.4a. One aileron is deflected up and the other
down, creating a differential lifting force on the wings, thus contributing to the rolling
moment V. In Fig. 7.46, the elevator is deflected upward, creating a negative lift at
the tail, thus contributing to the pitching moment M. In Fig. 7.4c, the rudder is
deflected to the right, creating a leftward aerodynamic force on the tail, thus
contributing to the yawing moment N.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

Rolling (about the x axis) is also called lateral motion. Referring to Fig. 7.4a,
we see that ailerons control roll; hence, they are known as lateral controls. Pitching
(about the y axis) is also called longitudinal motion. In Fig. 7.4b, we see that
elevators control pitch; hence, they are known as longitudinal controls. Yawing
(about the z axis) is also called directional motion. Figure 7.4c shows that the rudder
controls yaw; hence, it is known as the directional control.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

STATIC STABILITY

Consider a marble on a curved surface, such as a bowl. Imagine that the bowl
is upright and the marble is resting inside, as shown in Fig. 7.6a. The marble is
stationary; it is in a state of equilibrium, which means that the moments acting on the
marble are zero. If the marble is now disturbed (moved to one side, as shown by the
dotted circle in Fig. 7.6a) and then released, it will roll back toward the bottom of the
bowl, that is, toward its original equilibrium position. Such a system is statically
stable. In general, we can state that If the forces and moments on the body caused
by a disturbance tend initially to return the body toward its equilibrium position, the
body is statically stable. The body has positive static stability.

Now, imagine the bowl is upside down, with the marble at the crest, as shown
in Fig. 7.6b. If the marble is placed precisely at the crest, the moments will be zero,
and the marble will be in equilibrium. However, if the marble is now disturbed (as
shown by the dotted circle in Fig. 7.6b), it will tend to roll down the side, away from
its equilibrium position. Such a system is statically unstable. In general, we can state
that If the forces and moments are such that the body continues to move away from
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

its equilibrium position after being disturbed, the body is statically unstable. The
body has negative static stability.

Finally, imagine the marble on a flat horizontal surface, as shown in Fig. 7.6c.
Its moments are zero; it is in equilibrium. If the marble is now disturbed to another
location, the moments will still be zero, and it will still be in equilibrium. Such a
system is neutrally stable. This situation is rare in flight vehicles, and we will not be
concerned with it here.

DYNAMIC STABILITY
Dynamic stability deals with the time history of the vehicle’s motion after it
initially responds to its static stability. While the static stability regards the initial
tendency of an aircraft to revert to its original position or equilibrium, dynamic
stability is characterized by the resulting motion of the displacement with time. If an
aircraft is disrupted from its original position, the time history of the resulting motion
for it to return to equilibrium indicates its dynamic stability.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

Over a lapse of time, the vehicle may monotonically “home in” to its
equilibrium position, as shown in Fig. 7.8a. Such motion is called aperiodic.
Alternately, it may first overshoot the equilibrium position, after a series of
oscillations with decreasing amplitude, as shown in Fig. 7.8b. Such motion is
described as damped oscillations. In both situations, Figs. 7.8a and 7.8b, the
airplane eventually returns to its equilibrium position after some interval of time.
These two situations are examples of dynamic stability in an airplane. Thus, we can
state that a body is dynamically stable if, out of its own accord, it eventually returns
to and remains at its equilibrium position over a period of time.

On the other hand, after initially responding to its static stability, the airplane
may oscillate with increasing amplitude, as shown in Fig. 7.9. Here, the equilibrium
position is never maintained for any period of time, and the airplane eventually
diverges completely; the airplane in this case is dynamically unstable (even though
it is statically stable). Also, it is theoretically possible for the airplane to pitch back
and forth with constant-amplitude oscillations. This is an example of a dynamically
neutral body; such a case is of little practical interest here.

CONTROL

AEROPLANE AXES AND PLANES OF ROTATION

The three axes of an aeroplane intersect at the centre of gravity (CG) and are
those about which an aeroplane moves in flight. They are the longitudinal, the lateral
and the normal axes and are shown in Figure 3.1. If the forces about any axis are
not balanced (i.e. the total moments about the axis is not zero) there will be an
angular acceleration and the aeroplane will rotate about that axis.

THE LONGITUDINAL OR ROLL AXIS

The horizontal straight line joining the most forward point of the fuselage of
the aeroplane, the centre of the nose, to the centre of the most rearward point of the
aeroplane’s fuselage is the longitudinal axis. It is often referred to as the roll axis
because the aeroplane, in response to a control input by the pilot or as the result of

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

an external disturbance, drops one wing and raises the other. Thus, it rotates or rolls
about the longitudinal axis.

THE LATERAL OR PITCH AXIS

The lateral axis is a horizontal straight line passing from one side of the
aeroplane to the other, through the CG, at right angles to the longitudinal axis. It is
the axis about which the aeroplane moves, in response to a control input by the pilot
or as the result of an external disturbance, by raising or lowering the nose of the
aeroplane. Thus, it pitches or rotates about the lateral axis. See Figure 3.1.

THE NORMAL OR YAW AXIS

The normal axis of an aeroplane is the vertical straight line passing through
the CG. It is perpendicular to the other two axes and is the axis about which the
aeroplane in response to a control input by the pilot or as the result of an external
disturbance moves its nose horizontally or yaws.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

THE FLIGHT CONTROLS

The flight controls enable the pilot to rotate the aeroplane about its three axes.
The ailerons cause the aeroplane to roll about its longitudinal axis, the elevators
enable the aeroplane to pitch around its lateral axis and the rudder allows the
aeroplane to yaw around its normal axis. The control surfaces are illustrated in
Figure 3.2 and produce aerodynamic forces that result in the aeroplane rotating
about the appropriate axis.

Each control is normally a small aerofoil section hinged and mounted on the
trailing edge of the main aerofoil. It is positioned as far as possible from its rotational
axis to maximize the length of its force arm so that it produces the largest moment
for the smallest amount of force. Movement of the flight control changes the effective
angle of attack of the main aerofoil on which it is sited and produces an aerodynamic
force to generate the required reaction.

The tailplane, often called the horizontal stabilizer, is a small version of the
wing usually positioned at the rear of the fuselage, which may be fixed or adjustable
on which the elevator is hinged. Its main purpose is to counterbalance the nose-
down pitching moment, caused by the lift generated by the wings acting through the
CP. It does this by producing a tail-down pitching moment of equal magnitude to the
pitching moment to maintain the equilibrium. This enables the aeroplane to fly at a
combination of different speeds and CG positions. Without a tailplane a conventional
aeroplane would be restricted to one combination of speed and CG for it to be
longitudinally stable.

Only a small amount of downward lift or downforce is required to produce the

required counterbalancing moment because of the great length of the arm of the
stabiliser surface CP from the CG. This reduces the pitching moment to zero and
maintains the equilibrium for a range of speeds and CG positions. The magnitude of
the downforce is dependent on the strength of the airflow over the tailplane. If this
airflow suddenly weakens then the tailplane will stall, but in a negative sense,
causing a sudden reduction of the downward aerodynamic force, this is sometimes
called a negative tail stall. The tailplane may be fixed or all-moving. If it is fixed the
downward force is produced by a combination of the lift produced by the stabilizer

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

and the elevators. Some aeroplanes are designed with all-moving tailplanes; these
are stabilators and can have the angle of attack adjusted in flight to produce the
required downforce.

THE ELEVATORS

Control of the aeroplane about its lateral axis, or pitch control, is

accomplished by using the elevators. See Figure 3.2. The elevators are hinged
control surfaces located on the horizontal tailplane usually at the rear of the
aeroplane. The elevators occupy a considerable proportion of the tailplane surface
area and normally comprise a single control surface on each tailplane that will act in
unison. A forward movement of the control column (stick) by the pilot will cause the
elevators to go down and a backward movement will cause them to go up.

The effect produced by the elevators is to increase the camber of the tailplane
when the stick is pushed forward, which causes an increase of tailplane lift and an
upward force on the underside of the control surface that results in the aeroplane

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

rotating about its lateral axis through the CG and the nose being depressed. The
total lift of the aeroplane is decreased by the amount of tailplane lift so caused. The
opposite is true when the stick is pulled back, the camber is negative and the lift
generated is downward which when trimmed becomes the counterbalancing force
required for longitudinal equilibrium.

THE RUDDER

The control of an aeroplane about its normal or yaw axis is accomplished by

using the rudder. The rudder is a hinged control mounted vertically on a post at the
rear of the aeroplane known as the fin or vertical stabiliser. Usually, there is a small
fillet mounted at the forward base of the fin; this is the dorsal fin which is fitted to
prevent the force acting on a fully deflected rudder in a sideslip from suddenly
reversing; this undesirable event is known as ‘rudder lock.’

The rudder occupies a surface area equal to or greater than the surface area
of the fixed vertical fin on which the vertical post is mounted and its deflection is
controlled by the movement of a horizontal bar by the pilot’s feet. To yaw the
aeroplane to the left the left foot is pushed forward and this causes the rudder
surface to move to the left against which the airflow produces a force that yaws the
aeroplane about its normal axis, acting through the CG, to the left. The opposite is
true if the right foot is moved forward.

THE AILERONS

The control of an aeroplane about its longitudinal or roll axis is accomplished

by using the ailerons. The ailerons are hinged control surfaces located at the
rearward side of the wing usually at the wing tips occupying a relatively small area of
the wing surface. A sideways movement of the control stick or a rotation of the
control wheel by the pilot causes one aileron to go down and the aileron on the
opposite wing to go up.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

The downgoing aileron increases the camber of the wing surface causing an
increase of lift and an upward force on the underside of the control surface at that
point, which results in that wing being raised. Simultaneously the aileron on the other
wing goes up resulting in a downward force on the upper surface of the control that
causes that wing to go down. Together, the forces produced by the ailerons rotate
the aeroplane about its longitudinal axis.

ACTIVITY 1

Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity 1” at the top center of the paper before the honesty
clause. Write legibly. Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning
of your work. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.

1. Identify and explain the different types of static stability.

2. Identify and explain the different types of dynamic stability.

PLATE NO. 7
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Plate No. 7” at the top center of the paper before the honesty
clause. Write legibly. Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning
of your work. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.

1. Draw an aircraft showing its three major control surfaces.

2. Describe the movement of the aircraft with respect to the position of each control
surface.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Reference
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th
7.3
ed.)
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th
7.4
ed.)
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th
7.6
ed.)
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th
7.9
ed.)
3.2 Swatton P.J. (2011). Principles of Flight
3.1 Swatton P.J. (2011). Principles of Flight

TABLE OF REFERENCES
No. Reference
Swatton P.J. (2011). Principles of Flight. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium,
1 Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom.
Retrieved from http://riairlines.free.fr/pdf/Principles_of_Flight.pdf
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th ed.). 1221 Avenue
of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Retrieved from
2
https://www.academia.edu/26269624/Fundamentals_of_Aerodynamics_5th_
edition_John_D_Anderson_Jr_Charm_Quark_

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