INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

CHARACTERIZATION OF LOW DENSITY POLYMER PATTERNS FOR LARGE STEEL

INVESTMENT CASTING

H. Zhao1, M. Xu2, H. Li3, W. Everhart2

S. Lekakh , V. L. Richards2*, K. Chandrashekhara3, and P. Nam1
2
1
Chemistry Department
2
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
3
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409

ABSTRACT

The application parameters of different low density rigid polymer pattern materials for the investment
casting process were experimentally investigated. The materials studied included polymer foam of
different densities and compositions as well as SLA (Stereolithography Apparatus) polymer patterns
with an internal honeycomb structure produced by stereolithography. Densities and elastic moduli of
polymer patterns were measured and used for finite element modeling of possible pattern deflection
during shell building. The process to remove the pattern from the shell was examined by thermal
gravimetrical analysis. Stress in ceramic mold shells during pattern removal by firing was numerically
simulated using experimentally measured thermal expansion and modulus. Comparison was made
among physico-chemical properties of different low density rigid polymer pattern materials, which are
important for the investment casting process.

INTRODUCTION

Investment casting has been widely employed to manufacture of quality metal components due to its
ability to produce accurate and complex castings. In investment casting, a wax pattern is dipped in
ceramic slurry and stuccoes to build up multiple layers of a mold shell and then the wax is removed by
heating in an autoclave to create cavities; followed by firing to burn out residue and sinter. Then molten
metal is introduced in the mold and solidified to form the casting. Finally the ceramic shell is destroyed
to release the metal part. As dictated by technological or production level requirements, the wax pattern
could be replaced by a polymer pattern due to lower creep under self-loading, lower tooling cost for low
production quantities and in some cases ease of handling due to weight1.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

Expandable polystyrene (EPS) foam can be used in investment casting processing2. This material has a
closed-cell foam structure. A rigid pattern is manufactured by steam molding and can be modified by
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining for rapid prototyping or very low quantity production
without hard tooling. The small polystyrene beads are expanded to a desired density with a blowing
agent. These pre-expanded or machined pieces of foam pattern with complex geometry can be
assembled into any desired shapes. FOPAT (a FOam PATtern material) is water blown polyurethane
foam, which has been developed for the investment casting process with producing high quality castings
of good surface finish and offers many other advantages3. Typically a FOPAT pattern is produced by
foaming in metal die but a softer die could be used or CNC machining. Another novel polymer pattern,
SLA, can be built precisely by the Stereolithography process -- one of the modern rapid prototyping (RP)
technologies. This overcomes the difficulty of hard tooling limitations for complicated castings4. The
SLA pattern with a honeycomb structure has the properties of low density and viscosity, which can
produce less decomposition products and lead the SLA pattern to burn away easily during firing 5 .
Examples of investment casting patterns made from different polymeric materials are given in Fig. 1.

The objective of the current study was to explore the specific property issues affecting the application of
different low-density polymer patterns in investment casting processing.

a) b) c)
Fig. 1 Examples of investment casting patterns made from different polymeric materials:
a) EPS foam;, b) FOPAT foam; c) SLA stereolithography with honeycomb internal structure.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

PROPERTIES OF PATTERN MATERIALS

Chemical properties

Three different types of pattern materials including EPS foam, FOPAT foam, and SLA patterns with
honeycomb internal structure were obtained from industrial partners. FOPAT was provided by
Production Inc. (Miamisburg, OH). A commercial grade of WaterShed XC 11122 SLA patterns were
from DSM Somos Company (Elgin, IL). Upon delivery, simple observation of these pattern materials
showed significant difference from regular wax patterns used in investment casting. Table 1 provides
density comparison and showed that large density ratio of wax to polymeric materials.

Table 1 Comparison of density of different pattern materials (25oC).

Material Density, kg/m3 (lb./cf) Density ratio (wax to polymeric)
Wax 954 (60.0)6 -
EPS 25 (1.6) 38
FOPAT 170 (10.6) 6
SLA 200 (12.5)* 5
*
Size: 2”x8”x8” (Varied with size due to the volume ratio of wall to honeycomb core)

The chemical structure of the polymeric materials and wax are described as follows (Fig. 2a-d). EPS is a
long chain hydrocarbon resulting from the polymerization of styrene monomers. The composition of
FOPAT is polyurethane, which is formed by reaction of diisocyanates and polyols. The basic structure
of BPA (Bisphenol A) based SLA epoxy resin is shown in Fig. 2c. Wax pattern is a mixture of alkanes,
known as paraffin.

a) EPS b) FOPAT

c) SLA d) wax
Fig. 2 Examples of molecular structure of polymeric materials and wax
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

Elemental analysis of the polymeric materials was performed using Perkin Elmer 2400 and the results
are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Elemental analysis of polymeric materials.
C,% H,% N,%
EPS 91.6 5.4 1.9
FOPAT 64.4 6.5 6.2
SLA 64.0 9.4 0.1

Based on elemental analysis results, the composition of the remaining content of the polymers could be
estimated as oxygen. The FOPAT pattern contained a higher level of nitrogen than the other materials.
The ash of all these polymer patterns after burning in muffle furnace is negligible (ASTM D5630 – 06)7.

Thermo-mechanical properties

The polymer patterns were compression tested to determine the elastic modulus according to ASTM
D1621 8 and the results are listed in Table 3. The FOPAT and SLA patterns showed higher elastic
modulus compared to an EPS pattern. The SLA pattern had a different modulus in each of three
orientations due to the anisotropic structure of honeycomb core (Fig. 3).
Table 3 Elastic modulus of polymeric materials.
Elastic Modulus, MPa
EPS 1.6
FOPAT 53
SLA 45(X), 67(Y), 136(Z)*
*
Size: 2”x8”x8” (Varied with orientation and size due to the anisotropy of honeycomb structure and volume ratio of wall to
honeycomb core)

Fig. 3 SLA honeycomb structure at X, Y and Z direction.

The compression elastic modulus always changes with the temperature. The elastic modulus of the
FOPAT pattern material decreased significantly above 80 oC. The same situation occurred when the
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

temperature was above 55oC for the SLA pattern. A minimum in the bulk modulus of wax pattern
material has been reported at 60oC6.

The thermal expansion of the polymer pattern was measured using a laser assisted dilatometer. Two 0.64
inch diameter aluminum disks were placed on both top and bottom of the sample and inserted into a 0.75
inch diameter glass tube submerged in an oil bath. A small hole in the end of the tube allowed oil flow
inside to improve heating efficiency. Another tube was placed on the upper aluminum disk to detect the
linear movement which was monitored by a laser proximity probe. The heating rate of the foam was
approximately 1°C/min. The results from thermal expansion tests of polymer patterns are shown in Fig.
4(a-c).

a) b)

c)
Fig. 4 Thermal expansion of a) EPS pattern; b )FOPAT pattern with different densities and c) SLA pattern at X, Y and Z direction.

The EPS pattern had less thermal expansion and started to shrink at 85°C during pattern heating (Fig.
4a). The FOPAT foam expanded until approximately 140°C. The one at density of 150 Kg/m3 exhibited
highest expansion among the FOPATs with three densities, although the thermal expansion coefficient
did not change significantly with changes in density. Over the temperature range tested for FOPAT (Fig.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

4b), two distinct regions of differing thermal expansion coefficients can be observed. This was recorded
as two CTEs in Table 4. The thermal expansion of SLA pattern at X, Y and Z direction was seen in Fig.
4c, indicating the thermal expansion reached a maximum at about 270°C at Y and Z directions and
160°C at X direction. During heating, it can be seen that the SLA pattern with all three directions had a
small amount of shrinkage at 55°C. The CTE was similar for each of these three orientations. The
thermal expansion characteristics of these materials are compared in Table 4.

Table 4 A comparison of thermal expansion of different materials.

Max. thermal Temperature of Max. thermal
Material CTE, 1/K
expansion, % expansion, oC

Wax9 120x10-6 1.6 76

EPS 105x10-6 0.6 85

2.0(120Kg/m3)
80x10-6(20-90°C)
FOPAT 2.5(170Kg/m3) 135
400x10-6(90-160°C)
2.8(150Kg/m3)
1.8(X)
160(X)
SLA 150 x10-6 3.1(Y)
270(Y and Z)
3.6(Z)

To better understand the thermal behavior of the polymeric materials, glass transition temperatures (Tg)
of the polymer patterns were obtained by using DSC (TA- Q2000). Tg is the transition of an amorphous
material from a hard or glass-like state to molten or rubber-like state during heating. The polymer was
first heated from room temperature to 180oC in DSC instrument, then was immediately quenched in
liquid nitrogen and held for 1 min. Around 2mg quenched sample was tested from -38oC to 210oC at a
heating rate of 20oC/min in nitrogen.

Fig. 5 indicates Tg of different polymer patterns. The observed Tg of quenched EPS was about 106oC;
however as blown EPS started to become soft at the temperature of 85oC during thermal expansion. This
requires more study. The FOPAT pattern exhibited two glass transition temperatures at 57 and 140oC,
corresponding to the temperature at which the foam expanded less or stopped expanding as shown in Fig.
4b. For the SLA pattern, a small shrinkage at 55oC interrupted the expansion (Fig. 4c) corresponding to
the occurrence of a glass transition.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

Fig. 5 DSC curves of polymer patterns.

Polymer patterns decomposition

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out using TA-1000 analyzer in air or N2 from room
temperature to 600 or 800oC. The heating rate was 25oC/min. The gas flow rate was 40ml/min. In
investment casting, the firing process of polymer pattern in furnace will experience both combustion and
pyrolysis, it is important to understand the thermal decomposition mechanism in order to reduce casting
defects. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) is a traditional method to study the degradation behavior of
solid samples. In our study, polymer patterns were thermally decomposed both in air and N2
atmosphere.

The TGA results were illustrated in Fig. 6. It was concluded that the EPS and SLA patterns degraded
more readily than the FOPAT pattern in both air and N2. The EPS and SLA patterns were decomposed
completely at 450oC and 600oC, respectively at both atmospheres. In air, the FOPAT patterns
decomposed completely at 680oC and showed two distinct degradation mechanisms. However the
FOPAT foam still had about 20% residue remaining at 800oC in N2. As a consequence, casting defects
could be possible when the FOPAT pattern was applied in investment casting if the atmosphere is not
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

adequately oxidative. In air or N2, the FOPAT showed no significant difference of degradation among
three densities. Table 5 illustrates the characteristic temperatures of thermal degradation for all polymer
patterns. The estimated the degradation products from literature are also listed.

a) b)

c) d)
Fig. 6 Thermal degradation behaviors of a) EPS and b) SLA in air and nitrogen; c) FOPAT with different densities in air; d) FOPAT
with different densities in N2.

Table 5 Characteristic temperatures and estimated products of thermal degradation of patterns.

Tstart, oC Tfinish,oC Estimated decomposition products

Air 300 420 CO, CO2, H2O, styrene monomer, polycyclic aromatic
EPS
N2 310 440 hydrocarbons (PAH)10
Air 250 690 CO, CO2, NOx, HCN, H2O, hydrocarbons, nitrogen-
FOPAT
N2 280 - containing organic compounds11
Air 320 600
SLA CO, CO2, H2O, PAH12
N2 340 500
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

MODELING OF POLYMERIC PATTERN BEHAVIOR IN INVESTMENT PROCESSING

The foam pattern deflection in the slurry dipping process

When a low density pattern is immersed in the slurry, the buoyancy of the pattern causes it to bend and
produce distortion or possibly crack in the thin prime coat. The elastic modulus of the foam is required
to accurately simulate the possible pattern distortion during shell building process as well as any stress
in the shell during pattern removal.

The deflection of the foam is denoted by “∆” (Fig. 7a). The density and modulus of the EPS and FOPAT
foam patterns used in the modeling are in Table 1 and 3. The density of slurry was assumed to be
1500Kg/m3. A simple plain-strain finite element model (Fig. 7b) was developed in ABAQUS to
estimate the distortion of the pattern in the slurry. The dimensions of the foam plate are 127 mm (length)
× 6.35 mm (thickness) × 25.4 mm (width).

a) b)
Fig. 7 a) Schematic of the foam deflection model and b) mesh of the foam plate.

Fig. 8a and 8b showed the simulation modeling of the EPS and FOPAT foam deformation. The
calculated pattern deflection is listed in Table 6. FOPAT foam has an order of magnitude less deflection
during dipping than the less rigid EPS foam. It demonstrated that a higher modulus prevents deflection
during shell construction.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

a) b)
Fig. 8 Deflection modeling for a) EPS foam and b) FOPAT foam.

Table 6 Deflection results of plate for polymer foam.

Deflection, mm
EPS 70.42
FOPAT 2.56

Stress in ceramic shell during pattern removal and crack prevention

A nonlinear temperature-displacement coupled finite element model was developed to study crack
formation in the shell during pattern removal by flash firing. It is capable of performing complete and
detailed pattern and shell behavior during the firing process. A quarter of pattern surrounded by shell
was modeled as shown in Fig. 9. The pattern and the ceramic shell were meshed with 9,261 and 8,315
brick elements, respectively.

Fig. 9 Finite element model of pattern surrounded by ceramic shell.

Table 7 Material properties of ceramic shell.

Young’s Thermal
Density, Failure Poisson’s Specific CTE,
modulus, conductivity,
kg/m3 stress, MPa ratio heat, J/kg K-1
MPa W/m∙K
1800 2000 5.0 0.24 650 1.0 2×10-6
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

A smeared crack model was used to predict the ceramic shell failure13. The mechanical and thermal
properties of ceramic shell are in Table 7. An example of modeling the stress in the ceramic shell around
the EPS and FOPAT foam during pattern removal is given in Fig. 10.

a) b)

c) d)
Fig. 10 a) Maximum principal stress distribution of ceramic shell with EPS foam; b) Temperature distribution of EPS foam; c)
Maximum principal stress distribution of ceramic shell with FOPAT foam and d) Temperature distribution of FOPAT foam.

The maximum stress occurred at the internal edges of the shell. The stress distribution results indicated
the internal edges are the most vulnerable place failure location. The ceramic shell surrounding the
FOPAT pattern had ten times more maximum principal stress than the stress developed in shell with the
EPS foam. In this particular case, it caused failure of the shell with FOPAT pattern at about 110oC or
significantly before polymeric foam softening. It was concluded the FOPAT pattern would cause higher
possibility of shell cracking compared to the EPS pattern. Several parameters may be adjusted to prevent
cracking when using FOPAT patterns shell build thickness and temperature of flash firing, for example.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

Another approach to minimize shell cracking with FOPAT patterns is pattern aging after the shell build
which is the subject of ongoing research. Stress in shell with SLA pattern is now under investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The properties which affect the applicability of low-density polymer materials used in investment
casting were experimentally investigated. The materials studied included EPS foam, FOPAT foam with
different densities and SLA patterns with internal honeycomb structure produced by stereolithography.
Comparing these materials to a wax pattern, density is much lower, which makes the handling much
easier for larger castings. The following situations need to be considered when different polymer
patterns are used in investment casting:
- Because of low elastic modulus of EPS foam, the trees for EPS need pattern to be designed
with stabilizing bars to prevent deformation during the dipping process in slurry
- Based on the thermal decomposition results, high firing temperature (700oC or higher) and
excess oxygen is necessary in furnace to minimize the residue during FOPAT pattern
removal. It is also recommended that FOPAT pattern should be removed using flash firing to
prevent the shell cracking. Heavier shells or more layers may be needed with FOPAT
patterns to prevent cracking due to the higher elastic modulus
- The honeycomb core orientation in SLA pattern should be considered if the shell cracking
occurs. The elastic modulus of SLA pattern at Z direction is much higher than that at X and
Y directions.
INVESTMENT CASTING INSTITUTE 58TH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE & EQUIPMENT EXPO 2011

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the U.S. Army Benet
Laboratories.

REFERENCES

1
C. Bird and J. Mertz, Method of Investment Casting Employing Microwave Susceptible Material,
US4655276, 1987.
2
D. Kline, S. Lekakh, C. Mahimkar and V. Richards, Crack Formation in Ceramic Shell During Foam
Pattern Firing, Technical and Operating Conference, Chicago, Illinois; USA; December 2009.
3
D. Neece, Advanced Pattern Material for Investment Casting Applications, Final Technical Report,
Cleveland Tool and Machine, Brookpark, OH, 9/30/2004 – 12/31/2005.
4
C. Cheah, C. Chua, C. Lee, C. Feng and K. Totong, Rapid Prototyping and Tooling Techniques: A
Review of Applications for Rapid Investment Casting, The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 25 (2004) 308-320.
5
Y. Norouzi, S. Rahmati and Y. Hojjat, A Novel Lattice Structure for SL Investment Casting Patterns,
Rapid Prototyping Journal, 15 (2009) 255-263.
6
A. Sabau and S. Viswanathan, Material Properties for Predicting Wax Pattern Dimensions in
Investment Casting, Materials Science and Engineering A, 362 (2003) 125-134.
7
ASTM D5630 – 06, “Standard Test Method for Ash Content in Plastics”.
8
ASTM D1621, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid Cellular Plastics”, ASTM
International, 2010.
9
V. L. Richards and S. A. Mascreen, Thermal Expansion of Wax Pattern, AFS Transaction, American
Foundry Society, 2003.
10
J. L. Gurman, L. Baier and B. C. Levin, Polystyrenes: A Review of the Literature on the Products of
Thermal Decomposition and Toxicity, Fire and Materials, 11 (1987) 109-130.
11
M. Paabo and B.C. Levin, A review of the Literature on the Gaseous Products and Toxicity
Generated from the Pyrolysis and Combustion of Rigid Polyurethane Foams, Fire And Materials, 11
(1987) 1-29.
12
N. Grittnera, W. Kaminsky and G. Obst, Fluid Bed Pyrolysis of Anhydride-Hardened Epoxy Resins
and Polyether-Polyurethane by the Hamburg Process, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 25
(1993) 293-299.
13
ABAQUS Version 6.9. Manual, Dassault Systèmes, 2009.