Behaviorism

Behaviorism (also spelled behaviourism)[1] is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of

humans and other animals.[2] It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain
antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially
reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's current motivational state and
controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining
behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events.

Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of
psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally, but derived
from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as when Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of
effect, a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behavior.

With a 1924 publication, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspective
methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not
until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner suggested that covert behavior—including cognition and emotions—is
subject to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy
called radical behaviorism.[3][4] While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated how (conditioned) neutral
stimuli elicit reflexes in respondent conditioning, Skinner assessed the reinforcement histories of the
discriminative (antecedent) stimuli that emits behavior; the technique became known as operant
conditioning.

The application of radical behaviorism—known as applied behavior analysis—is used in a variety of

contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior and organizational behavior management to
treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse.[5][6] In addition, while behaviorism and
cognitive schools of psychological thought do not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other
in the cognitive-behavior therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies,
including simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders.

Branches of behaviorism
The titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:

Behavioral genetics: Proposed in 1869 by Francis Galton, a relative of Charles Darwin.

Interbehaviorism: Proposed by Jacob Robert Kantor before B. F. Skinner's writings.
Methodological behaviorism: John B. Watson's behaviorism states that only public events
(motor behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed. Although it was still
acknowledged that thoughts and feelings exist, they were not considered part of the science
of behavior.[3][7][8] It also laid the theoretical foundation for the early approach behavior
modification in the 1970s and 1980s.
Psychological behaviorism: As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous
behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research
involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new
principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by animal learning principles but also
by special human learning principles. Those principles involve humans' uniquely huge
learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human
 learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human
species unique.[9]
Radical behaviorism: Skinner's philosophy is an extension of Watson's form of behaviorism
by theorizing that processes within the organism—particularly, private events, such as
thoughts and feelings—are also part of the science of behavior, and suggests that
environmental variables control these internal events just as they control observable
behaviors. Although private events cannot be directly seen by others, they are later
determined through the species' overt behavior. Radical behaviorism forms the core
philosophy behind behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical
behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowledge and language.[7]
Teleological behaviorism: Proposed by Howard Rachlin, post-Skinnerian, purposive, close
to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
Theoretical behaviorism: Proposed by J. E. R. Staddon,[10][11][12] adds a concept of internal
state to allow for the effects of context. According to theoretical behaviorism, a state is a set
of equivalent histories, i.e., past histories in which members of the same stimulus class
produce members of the same response class (i.e., B. F. Skinner's concept of the operant).
Conditioned stimuli are thus seen to control neither stimulus nor response but state.
Theoretical behaviorism is a logical extension of Skinner's class-based (generic) definition
of the operant.

Two subtypes of theoretical behaviorism are:

Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological

Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology

Modern-day theory: radical behaviorism

B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the experimental analysis of
behavior. This viewpoint differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways, but, most
notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and
introspection as behaviors also subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it
rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but
independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical
positions, such as American pragmatism.[13]

Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his
career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the infamous Little Albert experiment (1920), a study in
which Ivan Pavlov's theory to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of
crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private
events) in radical behaviorism.[14] However, Skinner felt that aversive stimuli should only be experimented
on with animals and spoke out against Watson for testing something so controversial on a human.

In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their
feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a
consequence of previous reinforcement in the environment. Through stimulus control and subsequent
discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the
food reinforcer is discontinued following each peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded
that humans also learn aggression and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently
than do nonhuman animals.

Experimental and conceptual innovations

As experimental behavioural psychology is related to behavioral neuroscience, we can date the first
researches in the area were done in the beginning of 19th century. [15]

Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early
experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms[16] and
Schedules of Reinforcement.[17] Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which
the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex
response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example,
while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on
the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of
responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with
operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S–
R theory.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as
Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response
"association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-
called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials
determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental
work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made
by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses,
to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral
level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his
work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are
Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then
common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is
the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[18][19]

Relation to language
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science
of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book Verbal Behavior[20] and other
language-related publications;[21] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis
of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[22][23]

Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[24] and the
disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[25][26][27][28][29][30]
Innateness theory, which has been heavily critiqued,[31][32] is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims
that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning.[33][34][35] According to
some, the behaviorist account is a process which would be too slow to explain a phenomenon as
complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was
not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay
republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[21] Skinner took the view that humans could
construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external
stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of
reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other
animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to
understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the
behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over
behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational
frame theory.[36][37][38][39]

Education
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through
using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that
behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Desired behavior is rewarded,
while the undesired behavior is not rewarded.[40] Incorporating behaviorism into the classroom allowed
educators to assist their students in excelling both academically and personally. In the field of language
learning, this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class using
choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.

Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher" is the dominant person in the classroom and takes
complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The
learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are
simply told what is right or wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be
considered "superficial," as the focus is on external changes in behaviour, i.e., not interested in the internal
processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved in the
process.

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with the management of
environmental contingencies to change behavior.[16][41][42] In other words, behavior is controlled by
historical consequential contingencies, particularly reinforcement—a stimulus that increases the probability
of performing behaviors, and punishment—a stimulus that decreases such probability. The core tools of
consequences are either positive (presenting stimuli following a response), or negative (withdrawn stimuli
following a response).[43]

The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences in operant
conditioning:[44]

Positive reinforcement: Providing a stimulus that an individual enjoys, seeks, or craves, in

order to reinforce desired behaviors.[45] For example, when a person is teaching a dog to sit,
they pair the command "sit" with a treat. The treat is the positive reinforcement to the
behavior of sitting. The key to making positive reinforcement effect is to reward the behavior
immediately.
Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to
reinforce desired behaviors. For example, a child hates being nagged to clean his room. His
mother reinforces his room cleaning by removing the undesired stimulus of nagging after he
has cleaned. Another example would be putting on sunscreen before going outside. The
negative effect is getting a sunburn, so by putting on sunscreen, the behavior in this case,
you avoid the stimulus of getting a sunburn.[46]
Positive punishment: Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to decrease
undesired behaviors. An example of this would be spanking. If a child is doing something
 they have been warned not to do, the parent might spank them. The undesired stimulus
would be the spanking, and by adding this stimulus, the goal is to have that behavior
avoided. The key to this technique is that even though the title says positive, the meaning of
positive here is "to add to." So, in order to stop the behavior, the parent adds the adverse
stimulus (spanking). The biggest problem with this type of training though is that the trainee
does not usually learn the desired behavior, rather it teaches the trainee to avoid the
punisher.[47]
Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus that an individual desires in order to decrease
undesired behaviors. An example of this would be grounding a child for failing a test.
Grounding in this example is taking away the child's ability to play video games. As long as
it is clear that the ability to play video games was taken away because they failed a test, this
is negative punishment. The key here is the connection to the behavior and the result of the
behavior.[48]

Classical experiment in operant conditioning, for example, the Skinner Box, "puzzle box" or operant
conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats, cats and other species.
From the study of Skinner box, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded
frequently with food. Skinner also found that he could shape the rats' behavior through the use of rewards,
which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well.

Skinner's model was based on the premise that reinforcement is used for the desired actions or responses
while punishment was used to stop the responses of the undesired actions that are not. This theory proved
that humans or animals will repeat any action that leads to a positive outcome, and avoiding any action that
leads to a negative outcome. The experiment with the pigeons showed that a positive outcome leads to
learned behavior since the pigeon learned to peck the disc in return for the reward of food.

These historical consequential contingencies subsequently lead to (antecedent) stimulus control, but in
contrast to respondent conditioning where antecedent stimuli elicit reflexive behavior, operant behavior is
only emitted and therefore does not force its occurrence. It includes the following controlling stimuli:[44]

Discriminative stimulus (Sd): An antecedent stimulus that increases the chance of the
organism engaging in a behavior. One example of this occurred in Skinner's laboratory.
Whenever the green light (Sd) appeared, it signaled the pigeon to perform the behavior of
pecking because it learned in the past that each time it pecked, food was presented (the
positive reinforcing stimulus).
Stimulus delta (S-delta): An antecedent stimulus that signals the organism not to perform a
behavior since it was extinguished or punished in the past. One notable instance of this
occurs when a person stops their car immediately after the traffic light turns red (S-delta).
However, the person could decide to drive through the red light, but subsequently receive a
speeding ticket (the positive punishing stimulus), so this behavior will potentially not reoccur
following the presence of the S-delta.

Respondent conditioning
Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, respondent
conditioning (also called Pavlovian or classical conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process
that needs not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most
familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In the beginning, the dog was provided meat
(unconditioned stimulus, UCS, naturally elicit a response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased
salivation (unconditioned response, UCR, which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS).
Afterward, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a neutral
stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not have any effect), dog would start to salivate when only
hearing a bell ring after a number of pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell ring) became
conditioned. Therefore, salivation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the
unconditioned response), pairing up with meat—the conditioned stimulus) [49] Although Pavlov proposed
some tentative physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been
confirmed.[50] The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key
mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that
produces the response being considered.

Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that
psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed,
thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology
should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states); the
third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following
Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version
in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.[51]

In philosophy
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind.[52][53][54] The
basic premise of behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or
physics.[55][56] Initially behaviorism rejected any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as
causes for their behavior, but B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism reintroduced reference to inner states and
also advocated for the study of thoughts and feelings as behaviors subject to the same mechanisms as
external behavior.[55][56] Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino
and colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by
cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and
methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate
greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."[57]

Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is
sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a logical behaviorist position[8] (e.g., the beetle in a
box argument). In logical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap[8] and Carl Hempel),[8] the meaning
of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W.
V. O. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism,[8] influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work
on language. Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap
which he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical
objects rather than sensations. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched
in his book The Concept of Mind.[8] Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently
represented "category mistakes", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary
language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,[58] though he offers
extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms
and the possibility of free will.[59]

This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial
difference between explaining and explaining away… If our explanation of apparently rational
behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really
rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not
that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what
rationality consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in
linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it.
 On the other hand, in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the
computer carries on a conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the
machine isn't really carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)

— Curtis Brown, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett", Philosophy of Mind[60]

Law of effect and trace conditioning

Law of effect: Although Edward Thorndike's methodology mainly dealt with reinforcing
observable behavior, it viewed cognitive antecedents as the causes of behavior,[61] and was
theoretically much more similar to the cognitive-behavior therapies than classical
(methodological) or modern-day (radical) behaviorism. Nevertheless, Skinner's operant
conditioning was heavily influenced by the Law of Effect's principle of reinforcement.[61]
Trace conditioning: Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is a respondent
conditioning technique based on Ivan Pavlov's concept of a "memory trace" in which the
observer recalls the conditioned stimulus (CS), with the memory or recall being the
unconditioned response (UR). There is also a time delay between the CS and
unconditioned stimulus (US), causing the conditioned response (CR)—particularly the reflex
—to be faded over time.[61]

Molecular versus molar behaviorism

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior
can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete
description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by
Consequences".[62] Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of
selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the
reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture
(the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts
with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from melioration theory, negative power function
discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[63]

Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior
cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best
understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing
a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard
molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as rate of
reinforcement.[64] Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving
behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of
which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".

Theoretical behaviorism

Skinner's radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with
new methods, but Skinner's dismissal of theory limited its development. Theoretical behaviorism[10]
recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to
emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called "latent" responses
in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons.[65] Latent responses constitute
a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select. Theoretical behaviorism links between the brain
and the behavior that provides a real understanding of the behavior, rather than a mental presumption of
how brain-behavior relates.[66]

Behavior analysis and culture

Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as
seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About
Behaviorism).

During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural
anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "cultural materialism") regarding
interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory
experiments in an effort toward this end.[67] Behaviorism is also frequently used in game development,
although this application is controversial.[68]

Behavior informatics and behavior computing

With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding
behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth
understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business
and decision. Behavior informatics[69][70] and behavior computing[71][72] deeply explore behavior
intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.

Criticisms and limitations

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive
revolution.[73][74] This shift was due to radical behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining
mental processes, and this led to the development of the cognitive therapy movement. In the mid-20th
century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school
of thought:

Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated
what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".[75]
Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human
thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of
psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept
of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the
implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental
functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.)
Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as
George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the
origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the
Behavioral Sciences[76]
In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was
incompatible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to
gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states,
endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.

Behavior therapy
Behavior therapy is a term referring to different types of therapies that treat mental health disorders. It
identifies and helps change people's unhealthy behaviors or destructive behaviors through learning theory
and conditioning. Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning, as well as counterconditioning are the basis for
much of clinical behavior therapy, but also includes other techniques, including operant conditioning—or
contingency management, and modeling (sometimes called observational learning). A frequently noted
behavior therapy is systematic desensitization (graduated exposure therapy), which was first demonstrated
by Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus.[77]

21st-century behaviorism (behavior analysis)

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that
applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in
the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his
colleagues at Harvard University. Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral
engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective the token economy was
in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients with schizophrenia and intellectual disability,
it led to researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in 1968.

Although ABA and behavior modification are similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning
environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not
initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past),
or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of
ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify
the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement
contingencies will be most effective and less likely for aversive punishments to be administered.[14][78][79]
In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior modification since private
events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s, which contrasted from the radical
behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a
thriving field.[14][80]

The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to
develop.[81][82][83][84][85][86] In the US, the American Psychological Association (APA) features a
subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which has been in existence
since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as indicated in a review of
the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI).
Such interests include everything from animal behavior and environmental conservation, to classroom
instruction (such as direct instruction and precision teaching), verbal behavior, developmental disabilities
and autism, clinical psychology (i.e., forensic behavior analysis), behavioral medicine (i.e., behavioral
gerontology, AIDS prevention, and fitness training), and consumer behavior analysis.

The field of applied animal behavior—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated
by the Animal Behavior Society, and those who practice this technique are called applied animal
behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently conducted in the Applied Animal
Behaviour Science journal since its founding in 1974.
ABA has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s,
but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders were beginning
to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published that parent advocacy groups started
demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, a credentialing program that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the
national level to deliver such services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services
related to the rather broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI
currently has 14 accredited MA and Ph.D. programs for comprehensive study in that field.

Early behavioral interventions (EBIs) based on ABA are empirically validated for teaching children with
autism and has been proven as such for over the past five decades. Since the late 1990s and throughout the
twenty-first century, early ABA interventions have also been identified as the treatment of choice by the US
Surgeon General, American Academy of Pediatrics, and US National Research Council.

Discrete trial training—also called early intensive behavioral intervention—is the traditional EBI technique
implemented for thirty to forty hours per week that instructs a child to sit in a chair, imitate fine and gross
motor behaviors, as well as learn eye contact and speech, which are taught through shaping, modeling, and
prompting, with such prompting being phased out as the child begins mastering each skill. When the child
becomes more verbal from discrete trials, the table-based instructions are later discontinued, and another
EBI procedure known as incidental teaching is introduced in the natural environment by having the child
ask for desired items kept out of their direct access, as well as allowing the child to choose the play
activities that will motivate them to engage with their facilitators before teaching the child how to interact
with other children their own age.

A related term for incidental teaching, called pivotal response treatment (PRT), refers to EBI procedures
that exclusively entail twenty-five hours per week of naturalistic teaching (without initially using discrete
trials). Current research is showing that there is a wide array of learning styles and that is the children with
receptive language delays who initially require discrete trials to acquire speech.

Organizational behavior management, which applies contingency management procedures to model and
reinforce appropriate work behavior for employees in organizations, has developed a particularly strong
following within ABA, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and Journal of Organizational
Behavior Management, which was rated the third-highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI
JOBM rating.

Modern-day clinical behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research, with the
development of relational frame theory (RFT), which is described as an extension of verbal behavior and a
"post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition."[87][36][37][38] RFT also forms the empirical basis for
acceptance and commitment therapy, a therapeutic approach to counseling often used to manage such
conditions as anxiety and obesity that consists of acceptance and commitment, value-based living, cognitive
defusion, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive
reinforcement).[88][89][90][91][92][93] Another evidence-based counseling technique derived from RFT is the
functional analytic psychotherapy known as behavioral activation that relies on the ACL model—
awareness, courage, and love—to reinforce more positive moods for those struggling with depression.

Incentive-based contingency management (CM) is the standard of care for adults with substance-use
disorders; it has also been shown to be highly effective for other addictions (i.e., obesity and gambling).
Although it does not directly address the underlying causes of behavior, incentive-based CM is highly
behavior analytic as it targets the function of the client's motivational behavior by relying on a preference
assessment, which is an assessment procedure that allows the individual to select the preferred reinforcer (in
this case, the monetary value of the voucher, or the use of other incentives, such as prizes). Another
evidence-based CM intervention for substance abuse is community reinforcement approach and family
training that uses FBAs and counterconditioning techniques—such as behavioral skills training and relapse
prevention—to model and reinforce healthier lifestyle choices which promote self-management of
abstinence from drugs, alcohol, or cigarette smoking during high-risk exposure when engaging with family
members, friends, and co-workers.

While schoolwide positive behavior support consists of conducting assessments and a task analysis plan to
differentially reinforce curricular supports that replace students' disruptive behavior in the classroom,
pediatric feeding therapy incorporates a liquid chaser and chin feeder to shape proper eating behavior for
children with feeding disorders. Habit reversal training, an approach firmly grounded in
counterconditioning which uses contingency management procedures to reinforce alternative behavior, is
currently the only empirically validated approach for managing tic disorders.

Some studies on exposure (desensitization) therapies—which refer to an array of interventions based on the
respondent conditioning procedure known as habituation and typically infuses counterconditioning
procedures, such as meditation and breathing exercises—have recently been published in behavior analytic
journals since the 1990s, as most other research are conducted from a cognitive-behavior therapy
framework. When based on a behavior analytic research standpoint, FBAs are implemented to precisely
outline how to employ the flooding form of desensitization (also called direct exposure therapy) for those
who are unsuccessful in overcoming their specific phobia through systematic desensitization (also known
as graduated exposure therapy). These studies also reveal that systematic desensitization is more effective
for children if used in conjunction with shaping, which is further termed contact desensitization, but this
comparison has yet to be substantiated with adults.

Other widely published behavior analytic journals include Behavior Modification, The Behavior Analyst,
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, The Analysis of
Verbal Behavior, Behavior and Philosophy, Behavior and Social Issues, and The Psychological Record.

Cognitive-behavior therapy

Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the
clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring
and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions.

A popularly noted counseling intervention known as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) includes the use of
a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance,
counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite
similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework.
Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in
psychiatric patients with borderline personality disorder, it can often be applied effectively to other mental
health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders.

Most research on exposure therapies (also called desensitization)—ranging from eye movement
desensitization and reprocessing therapy to exposure and response prevention—are conducted through a
CBT framework in non-behavior analytic journals, and these enhanced exposure therapies are well-
established in the research literature for treating phobic, post-traumatic stress, and other anxiety disorders
(such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD).

Cognitive-based behavioral activation (BA)—the psychotherapeutic approach used for depression—is

shown to be highly effective and is widely used in clinical practice. Some large randomized control trials
have indicated that cognitive-based BA is as beneficial as antidepressant medications but more efficacious
than traditional cognitive therapy. Other commonly used clinical treatments derived from behavioral
learning principles that are often implemented through a CBT model include community reinforcement
approach and family training, and habit reversal training for substance abuse and tics, respectively.

Related therapies
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Applied animal behavior
Behavioral activation
Behavior modification
Behavior therapy
Biofeedback
Clinical behavior analysis
Contingency management
Desensitization
Dialectical behavior therapy
Direct instruction
Discrete trial training
Exposure and response prevention
Exposure therapy
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
Flooding (psychology)
Functional analytic psychotherapy
Habit reversal training
Organizational behavior management
Pivotal response treatment
Positive behavior support
Prolonged exposure therapy
Social skills training
Systematic desensitization

List of notable behaviorists

Nathan Azrin
Don Baer
Albert Bandura
Dermot Barnes-Holmes
Vladimir Bekhterev
Sidney W. Bijou
Hans Eysenck
Charles Ferster
Jacque Fresco
Edwin Ray Guthrie
Betty Hart
Steven C. Hayes
Richard J. Herrnstein
 Clark L. Hull
Brian Iwata
Alan E. Kazdin
Fred S. Keller
Robert Koegel
Jon Levy
Marsha M. Linehan
Ole Ivar Lovaas
F. Charles Mace
Jack Michael
Neal E. Miller
O. Hobart Mowrer
Charles E. Osgood
Ivan Pavlov
Murray Sidman
B. F. Skinner
Kenneth W. Spence
J. E. R. Staddon
Edward Thorndike
Edward C. Tolman
John B. Watson
Montrose Wolf
Joseph Wolpe

See also
Behavior analysis of child development
Behavioral change theories
Behavioral economics
Behavioral neuroscience
Cognitive inhibition
Dog behaviorist
Ethology
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
List of publications in psychology § Behaviorism
Models of abnormality § Behavioural model
Operationalization
Pharmacology § Behavioral pharmacology
Perceptual control theory
Professional practice of behavior analysis

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Further reading
Baum, W.M. (1994) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
Cao, L.B. (2013) IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20170705130700/http://www-staff.it.uts.edu.au/%7Elbcao/publication/behavior-i
nformatics-tutorial-slidesx.pdf).
 Cao, L.B. (2014) Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20161220110547/http://www-staff.it.uts.edu.au/~lbcao/publication/compj13.pdf), The
Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts.
Malott, Richard W. (2008) Principles of Behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall. Print.
Mills, John A. (2000) Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New
York University Press.
Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
Plotnik, Rod (2005). Introduction to psychology. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Thomson
Learning. ISBN 0-534-63407-9. OCLC 56200267 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56200267).
Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
Skinner, B.F. (1945). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Psychological
Review. 52 (270–7): 290–4. doi:10.1037/h0062535 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0062535).
S2CID 109928219 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109928219).
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior (https://web.archive.org/web/201201060
12457/http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/PDFBooksSHB_files/Science_and_Human_Beh
avior_2.pdf) (PDF). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-929040-6. OCLC 191686 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/191686). Archived from the original (http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/P
DFBooksSHB_files/Science_and_Human_Behavior_2.pdf) (PDF) on 6 January 2012.
Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles". [10] (http://www.kleincb
t.com/#!What-is-CBT/cgzo).
Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–
177. (on-line (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm)).
Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism.
Zuriff, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction (https://www.questia.com/PM.
qst?a=o&d=86092256), Columbia University Press.
LeClaire, J.; Rushin, J.P (2010). Behavioral Analytics For Dummies. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-
58727-0.

External links
Graham, George. "Behaviorism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/). In Zalta,
Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Behaviorism" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/behavior). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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