Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.

C] Fundamentals [4ELE]
P-1
DO IT-VIRTUAL-UNIVERSITY
21.3-A.C Terminology
School of Applied Science
>>[MODULE:-21]<< An alternating voltage or current changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in
direction. At regular intervals of time. It rises from Zero to maximum positive value, falls
to zero, increases to a maximum in the reverse direction and falls back to zero again.
From this point on indefinitely the voltage or current repeats the procedure. Following
are the major a.c terminologies.
[Copper wires
Fig:2
Learning objectives!
[-] [+]
output output
..

21.1-Introduction! Nort [-] cold [+] Hot- South

h [S]
[N]
In D.C network theorems, we have dealt with cases in which the currents are steady
and in one direction. Which is called D.C or direct current. The use of direct current is
limited to a few applications e.g charging of batteries, electroplating, electric traction.
Etc for large scale power distribution there are however many advantages in using 21.4-Wave form
alternating current [a.c] in an a.c system, the voltage acting in the circuit changes
porality at regular intervals of time and the resulting current [called alternating The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or
current] changes direction accordingly. The a.c sytem has offered so many current as ordinate against time as abcissa is called its waveform or wave shape as in
advantages that at present , electrical energy is universally generated , transmitted the figure above
and used in the form of alternating current . Even when d.c energy is necessary, it is a
common practice to convert a.c into d.c by means of rotary converters or rectifiers.
21.5-Instantaneous value

Fig:1 The value of an alternating quality at any instant instantaneous value. The
Instantaneous value of alternating voltage and current are represented by e and i
[+] Height [+] Radius respectively.

[-] Height [-] Radius 21.6-Cycle

One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as
a cycle. The figure above shows one cycle of alternating voltage.
[+] diameter [-] diameter A cycle can also be defined in terms of angular measures. One cycle corresponds to
21.2-A.C Advantages over D.C 360 degrees. Electrical. When the conductor moves past the north and south poles of
the magnet.
[1] A.C voltages can be stepped up or stepped down efficiently by means of a
transformer. This permits the transmission of electric power at high voltages to
achieve economy and distribute the power at utilization voltages. 21.7-Alternation

[2] A.C motors [induction motors] are cheaper and simpler in construction than d.c
motors
[3] The switch gear [e.g switches, circuit breakers etc] for a.c system is simpler than
the d.c system ..explaining why solar power equipment is so expensive.
One half cycle of an alternating quantity is called an alternation. An alternation spans
180 degrees electrical thus in the figure above the positive or negative half of an
alternating voltage is the alternation.
..
 Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.C] Fundamentals
MODULE : 21 P-2
21.12-Time Period and Frequency

Consider an alternating quantity having a frequency of f c/s and time period T

Time taken to complete f cycles =1second
Time taken to complete 1cycle =1/f second
But time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T [by definition]
21.8-Time period
Magnetic North Pole Magnetic South Pole
The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is [+] Copper wire [-]
called its time period . It is generally represented by T

21.9- Frequency

The number of cycles that occur in one second is called the frequency [f] of the Fig:4
alternating quantity. It is measured in cycles per second or hertz [Hz] one hertz
is equal to 1c/s or cycle per second.
The frequency of power system ls low: the most common being 50c/s or 50Hz.
It means that alternating voltage of current completes 50cycles in one second. 21.13-Frequency and speed
The 50hZ Frequency is the most popular because it gives the best result when
used for operating both lights and machinery.
Consider a coil rotating at a speed of N raps per second r.p.s in the field of P poles as the
coil moves past a north and south pole. One complete cycle is generated . Obviously in
one revolution of the coil, P/2 cycles will be generated
21.10 Amplitude Now frequency , f=No of cycles /sec or
F=[No of cycles/ revolution] X [no of revolution/ sec]
The maximum value [postive or negative] attained by an alternating quantity is
called its amplitude or peak value. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or
current is designated by E[m] or V[m] or I[m]
21.14-Frequency meters

A frequency meter, shows the number of of raps per second measured in Hertz
21.11 Important relations
Fig:5
The S wave is the symbol of alternating current [A.C] and still has more to offer
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
North pole South Pole

[+] Amplitude

HERTZ
[-] Amplitude

Fig:3 [+] Total Time


MODULE : 21
21.15-Electromagnetic Induction
In the beginning of the 19th century, Oersted discovered that a magnetic field
exists around a current carrying conductor. In other words magnetism can be
created by means of an electric current. In simple terms a positively charged
wire would cause a negative attraction of cold air around it creating a magnetic
south pole. Question? Can a magnetic field create an electric current?
Fig:6
21.16-Magnetic south
[+] current
21.17-Magnetic North
Fig:7
[-] current
21.18 Michael Faraday
In 1832, michael Faraday the famous English scientist discovered that a
magnetic field can create an electric current in what is known as
electromagnetic induction. The current produced by electromagnetic induction
is much more stable. The use of transformers and other coils in electro
engineering routes from Michael farad’s great discovery.
Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.C] Fundamentals
P-3
21.19 Faraday’s Laws of induction
N N
Fig:8
V50 Hz [
First Law:-
It states, when the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an electro
magnetic flux is induced in it.
Second law:-
The magnitude of induced electro magnetic flux in a coil is equal to the rate of charge of
magnetic flux linkages
21.20 Inductor
An inductor is also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two terminal electric component
which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor
such as a wire , usually wound into a coil. When current flows through it, energy is
stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. And when the current flowing through
changes , the time -varying magnetic field induces a voltage. Which opposes the
change in current that created it.
21.21- Importance of inductor in a circuit
Inductors are passive elements in a circuit which primarily stabilises A,C power and
can be in the form of [1] transformer, [2] filter, [3] sensor, [4] energy storage, [5] motors.
Inductors are used as [1] a choke in a tube light, [1] as filters in electronic circuits, [3] as
step up or down voltage transformers, [4] as instruments for voltage measurement, [5]
as automatic switches in Ups, [6] as filters of Ac. AND Dc power.
When used for energy storage, inductors will store power as a magnetic field thus its
very temporary but useful in automatic switching gears like Ups, when used as
transformers , can step up or down power.
 Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.C] Fundamentals
MODULE : 21 P-4
21.25 Circuit containing both in series

75 Ohms 318 mH

21.22-A.C Network or Circuit

I
In an a.c network, power may flow through any of the fallowing three, [1] VR VL
Resistance [2] Transformer or coil known as inductance or[3] Both Inductance
and resistance which is known as series A.C Circuit.

The closed path followed by alternating current is called an a.c circuit. When a
sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the resulting alternating
current is also sinusoidal and has the same frequency as that of the applied
voltage. However there is generally a phase difference between the applied
voltage and the resulting current . In a.c circuits or networks, there are three
major factors to consider, [1] phase difference between applied voltage and Fig:11
circuit current, [2] circuit impedance, and [3] Power consumed V50 Hz [i]

21.23 Circuit containing Resistance only 21.26-Paralle A.C Circuits

R

As in a parallel d.c circuits, the voltage across all branches is the same in a parallel a.c
circuit but current in any branch depends upon the impendence of that branch. The total
Vr line current supplied to the circuit is the phasor sum of the branch currents. Parallel
I
circuits are used more frequently in electrical systems than are series circuits.

Fig:12 I-1 R1 C1
Fig:9
V=Vm

21.24 Circuit containing Inductance only R2 L2

L
Fig:10 I
I-2

Voltage [V]

V=Vm
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MODULE : 21
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21.31 Resistance of pure metal

Pure metals such as copper, aluminium, increases resistance with increase in

temperature. And thus there temperature/ resistance graph is a straight line.

21.27-Resistance Fig:14

Resistance is the opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric

Resistance
current. Since current is heat or energy from dead plants and animals, metals
such as silver, copper, aluminium etc offer very little opposition to the flow of
current and are known as conductors. on the other hand those substance
which offer high opposition to the flow of electric current are called insulators
e.g glass, rubber, mica and dry wood etc.
Actual

21.28-Resistance and heat

Resistance causes a collision between the hot and cold energy which results in
to heat. The practical unit ofmeasure for resistance is ohm and is represented
by the Ohm symbol Temperature

21.29-Factors determining Resistance 21.32 Resistance of Electrolytes

Fig:13

Hot [+] The resistance of electrolytes, insulators e.g glass, mica, rubber etc..and semi
conductors e.g germanium, silicon etc, decreases with the increase in temperature.
Hence these materials have negative temperature co-efficent of resistance.
Dry [+] cold [-]

21.33-Resistance of alloys
The resistance of a conductor :
[1] is directly proportional to its length [l] In aloys, resistance increases with temperature but the increase is very small. And
[2] is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section [a] irregular as compared to pure metals. An alloy is a misture of a metal and a non metal
[3]depends upon the nature of material element
[4]changes with temperature

21.34- Resistance in parallel

21.30 Effect of temperature on resistance
In general resistance of a material changes with temperature. The effect of
temperature upon resistance varies according to the type of material. Ranging
from pure metal, electrolytes and alloys
When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end of each
resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many paths of current
flow as the number of resistance, it is called a parallel circuit
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each resistance is the same
 Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.C] Fundamentals
MODULE : 21 P-6

21.35-D.C Circuit

The closed path followed by direct current [d.c] is called d.c circuit. A d.c circuit
consists of a source of d.c power e.g battery, d.c generator etc.., The
conductors used to carry current and the load. The source supplies electrical
energy to the load which converts it into heat or other forms of energy. The load
ffor a d.c circuit is usually a RESISTANCE . In d.c circuit, loads [i.e resistance]
may be connected in series, parallel or series-parallel.

21.36-Resistance in serries

The circuit in which resistance are connected end to end so that the same
current flows through all the resistance is called series circuit as shown below.

Fig:15

R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3
I

21.37-Voltage divider circuit

A series resistor circuit can be considered to be a voltage divider circuit

because the potential difference across any one resistor is a fraction of the total
voltage applied across the series of combination. The fraction being
determined by the values of the resistances i.e R1+R2+R3 as in the figure
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MODULE : 21 P-7

Fig:17
I-1 R2

21.38-Parallel D.C Circuit R1

I-2
Fig:16
I-1 R1

I-2 R3
I
R2
I-2

A B
I-3 R3
I
V

21.41- Open circuit

V
As the name implies, an open is a gap or break or interruption in a circuit path. When
there is a break in any part of a circuit, that part is said to be open circuited. No current
can flow through an open . And since no current flow through an open, according to
21.39-Note! ohm’s law an open circuit has infinite resistence. An open circuit may be as a result of a
component failure or disintegration of a conducting path such as the breaking of a wire.
[1] The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the smallest of
the resistance
[2] a parallel resistor circuit can be considered to be a current divider circuit Fig:18 Open circuit
because the current through any one resistor is a fraction of the total circuit
current, the fraction depending on the values of the resistors.
I

21.40-Series-Parallel circuit!

As the name suggests, this circuit is a combination of series and parallel V

circuits. A s illustrated in the next figure. Please note, R2 and R3 are connected
in parallel with each other and that both together are connected in series with
21.42- Short circuits
R1 one simple rule to solve such a circuit is to first reduce the parallel branches
go an equivalent series of branches to an equivalent series branch and then A short circuit or short is a path of low resistance. A short is an unwanted path of low
solve the circuit as a simple series circuit. resistance. When a short circuit occurs, the resistance of the circuit becomes low. As a
result, current greater than the normal flows which can cause damage to circuit
components. The short circuit may be due to insulating failure, components get shorted
etc.
 Module: 21 Alternating Current [A.C] Fundamentals
MODULE : 21 P-8
21.47- Three phase

Coil-A Fig:21

N S
21.43-Three phase A.C generators

All along, the a.c circuits which have been looked at are referred to as single
phase circuits because they contain a single alternating current and voltage
wave. A generator producing a single voltage wave is called a single phase
generator. And it has only one armature winding or wire or coil. But if the
generator has two or more separate windings displaced from each other by
equal electrical angles, it is called a polyphase generator and will produce as
many independent voltages as the number of windings or phases. The
electrical displacement between the windings depends upon the number of
windings or phases. I.e a 2phase generator has two separate but identical
windings that are 90 degrees electrical apart and rotate in a common magnetic
field.obviously such a generator will produce two alternating voltages of the
same magnitude and frequency having a phase difference of 90degrees.
Similarly a 3phase generator has three separate but identical winding that are
120degrees electrical apart and rotate in a common magnetic field. A 3phase
generator will therefore produce three voltages of the same magnitude and
frequency but displaced 120degrees electrical from one another. Although
several polyphase systems are possible, the 3phase system is by far the most
popular.
Fig:19
21.44-Polyphsae systems!
Coil-B
21.48 Reasons for use of 3phase systems
Electric power is generated , transmitted and distributed in the form of 3phase power.
Homes and small establishments are wired for single power but this merely represents
a tap off from the basic 3phase system. Three phase power is preferred over single
phase power for the following reasons.
[1] 3 phase power has a constant magnitude whereas single phase power pulsates
from zero to peak value at twice the supply frequency.
[2] A 3 phase system can set up a rotating magnetic field in stationery windings. This can
not be done with a single phase circuit.
[3] for the same rating 3phase machines e.g generators, motors, transformers are
smaller simpler in construction and have better operating characteristics than single
phase machines.

[4] to transmit the same amount of power over a fixed distance, at a given voltage, the
3phase system requires only three fourth of the weight of copper that is required by
single phase system
N S [5] the voltage regulation of a 3phase transmission line is better than that of a single
21.45-single ! phase line
A2 A1
Fig:22
Coil-A

Fig:20 Neutral
Coil-A

21.46-Double ! N S

Coil-B