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Brahms in His
Pianoforte Music
E. Howard-Jones
Published online: 28 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: E. Howard-Jones (1910) Brahms in His Pianoforte

Music, Proceedings of the Musical Association, 37:1, 117-128, DOI:
10.1093/jrma/37.1.117

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W. H. CUMMINGS, Ess., Mus. D.,

PRESIDENT,
IN THE CHAIR.

B R A H M S IN H I S P I A N O F O R T E MUSIC.
BY E . HOWARD-JONES.
T H E ideas and opinions expressed in the following little
paper must not be taken to be more than my own personal
opinions and deductions, guided I hope by some sense of the
general canons that are true of all great Art, and helped I
hope by an enthusiasm which does its utmost to see the good
and the beautiful, rather than to spy out the weaknesses and
faults. But before all else, these ideas and opinions are
based on a sympathy that is one of those indescribable opera-
tions of the sentiments and emotions that can only be traced
to affinity or inborn predilection. To allow this affinity to
influence one's artistic judgments is sometimes held to be an
evidence of bias, and consequently to show a state of mind
the reverse of critical and even prejudiced ; but as without
the emotional attitude one can have no enthusiasm, and
without enthusiasm true appreciation is impossible, so it has
always seemed obvious to me that true artistic criticism can
only be of the constructive or synthetic type ; seizing
that which is good in a work and holding it up to the more
general gaze.
Further, there 1s no enthusiasm without some justification,
however slight, and its tendency must be toward construc-
tiveness : and, seeing that human nature is as it is, there is
no condemnation without sotwc tendency to the merely
destructive, the result sometimes of apathy, sometimes of
lack of sympathy, and sometimes of even baser causes, but
always to my mind destructive in. its operation. If we desire
to get true appreciation, our attltude must be constructive
and positive in the main-not in the main destructive and
negative-and if I seem sometimes to lay too great a stress
on Brahms's virtues, and not to endeavour to see any charac-
teristics of an opposing type, it must be for this reason.
The achievement of contemporary success has never in the
history of Art been held to show the value of an artist's life-
work, or to be the true index of his powers. This is obviously
for the reason that all great Art is so original in both matter
 n8 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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and form that it hedges itself around—perforce—with the

barrier of newness and strangeness.
And by its contemporaries, that barrier is in many cases
mistaken for lack of talent, or imagination, or technique ; and
the work is pronounced against as being devoid of just those
very attributes that it eventually proves to have in the highest
degree. Imagination—of the highest type—is constantly giving
these shocks to our accepted artistic canons; and inasmuch
as the revolutionary and the new in Art are destined to have a
greater and more lasting influence than those forces have on
almost anything else, so we accept them more slowly and
even grudgingly, and in some cases with opposition. Now
on the one hand it has been urged of Brahms that he is new
and original both in style and matter, and consequently hard to
grasp until well-known; and on the other, certain of his
detractors have pointed out that in neither style nor matter
is he either new or original, and that his tendency to hardness
and austerity is really only a cloak for dullness and lack of
inspiration. Superficially, his detractors have some justi-
fication for their argument, for, from the beginning, he refused
to join the band of so-called Romanticists headed by Wagner
and Liszt, who claimed for themselves that music, and
especially that of the future, lay with them. And
yet, in his certain way, Brahms surely attempted the
utterance of thoughts and ideas that had never before
been attempted in music, and if he refused to alter the
mere " cut-of-his-coat" from the prevailing pattern of the
period in which he grew up—if to the end of his life mere
variants of the same clothes satisfied him as a costume,—
surely it is for those who feel drawn to him to try and realise
that for him the thought and the idea were the chief interest,
and that he could have dressed them in no other colour or
clothing. His method is terse and epigrammatic, and his
utterance makes a demand on both the reasoning as well as
the mere listening faculty of the hearer, and unless our atten-
tion is emotionally and mentally concentrated we shall not
follow his drift; and as we miss that, we may incline flippantly
to pronounce the thing uttered as dull or tedious. Great minds
have great thoughts to utter, and the more they tend to cast
their ideas in a mould that is their natural concomitant, the
less chance they have of immediate and even sometimes of
ultimate acceptance: but surely that is our loss and not their
fault! And in the case of Brahms, therefore, I would say that
we must look for his originality and definite artistic personality
beneath a surface that is sometimes difficult of comprehension
and even occasionally repellent. Of Brahms as a man it is
not my purpose to speak, for his personality and character
were well-known by many of our own generation, in so far as
they could be known at all, seeing how generally reticent and
 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music, 119
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retiring his life was after he had arrived at manhood. He

had the misfortune for some period of his life to be used as a
foil and counter-argument to Wagner, and the two men and
their work were placed in opposition, and artificially, for
partisan purposes, made to stand, the one as a defender of the
old faiths, the other as a Messiah and a prophet and seer of
that which was to come. And by many that view of them is
still religiously held, although it seems to me that if we
consider the idea expressed and the emotion conveyed as the
chief factor of value in a work of Art, we can sometimes find
as high a plane of thought and emotion, and as new and
original set of ideas in a pianoforte piece as in a four days'
music-drama. To the end of his day Brahms insisted on
being judged purely by his music, and expressing that music
purely in the forms that he found ready to his hand : music
that refused to call to its aid or even to make friends with,
any allied or sister Art. Even in his songs, where he might
most easily have followed the Romanticist direction of the
majority of his contemporaries, he remains reflective, a
describer of moods and ideas— not attempting the following of
the movements and activities—a- depicter of emotions, and
not of the acts in which those emotions take shape and have
their expression—which is to me the mark that distinguishes
him from his two great peers in song-writing, Schubert and
Schumann. And herein lies also his essential point of contact
with Beethoven—not in his harmonic scheme, or melodic
invention, or other device of purely musical utterance—but in
his attitude to music and what it meant and what it stood for.
With Beethoven and with Brahms music was not primarily
a weaving of beautiful sounds; but an expression and
depicting in musical sound of the emotions suggested by an
idea, and the ideas suggested by an emotion, and not as with
the Romanticists a depicting of what I have called the
" movements and activities" that are the result of such
emotions and ideas.
Brahms and Beethoven did not in their music come into the
world of every-day action and practice either emotionally or
imaginatively. That is their essential point of difference
from the Romanticists, and their utterance was in many
instances difficult of comprehension because iz contained the
gist and kernel of so much thought and feeling in so small a
space, so terse a phrase, that in some cases the utterance of
either can only be compared to the aphoristic utterances of the
philosophers—except that they always remained poets—and
if we can see it their sounds are invariably those of beauty, if
not the diffuse and obvious beauty that is purely of the
decorative type.
Therein, and only therein, so far as I can see, is there anything
more than a merely superficial resemblance between the two:
 120 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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their attitude to the things music could express, and their

mode of expression as regards form, were in the main the
same; but the ideas expressed, and consequent emotions
aroused, are as essentially their individual own as their own
natures and lives.
When I say what I do as to the demand made by Brahms
upon the listener, I do not wish to be understood as joining
the ranks of those who say that he is for the few, and the
cultured and gifted few—for the emotionally and aesthetic
elect; rather would I say that if he had put an inscription on
his works it could with justice have been the words with
which Nietzsche inscribed " Also Sprach Zarathustra," " A
book for all and none "—for all of those who care to listen, but
for none who do not.
And now to get to actual grips with Brahms's works
themselves, and to take the line suggested by the synopsis
originally issued of this lecture.
I am to speak only of the pianoforte works, and I would
have you remember that any general remarks I may make
apply generally only to the pianoforte music. I have said that
I consider the three essentials of his work are (i) The idea ;
(2) Its musical expression; and (3) Its instrumental
expression.
First, as to the idea. I have already, when I was speaking
of Brahms's general attitude, said much that will I hope make
clear what I mean as to this term—musically speaking.
By idea I mean that combined emotion and mental act, and
sequences of emotions and mental acts, that find their
expression in the actual musical sounds and sentences: the
analagous act to that whereby in the other arts the
emotional and mental mainsprings start and conceive a plan
which eventually finds voice and utterance in a picture or
poem. I am not thereby saying that a musical idea can be
put into words, or was thought in words by the composer.
Precisely the reverse: the genuine musical idea could only be
expressed in terms of music and, equally, can only be appre-
hended by us in those same terms; and any words we may
use to try to convey the impression made on us by those ideas
can only be an approximation to the actual emotional and
mental impression made on us. Music, therefore, in the hands
of the genuine artist becomes a language which, unaided by
ordinary speech, can convey definite emotional impressions,—
although those impressions of course vary in some degree with
the particular listener, even as do the impressions conveyed
by words or painting. And in proportion as we find this
faculty to be true of a composer's work, in that proportion
is its influence lasting and ever growing.
More than any of his predecessors Brahms's type of utterance
and musical expression was, as I have said, the epigrammatic
 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music. 121
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and the terse, and the impression on first hearing is sometimes

therefore one of brokenness and halting until one sees the
inherent oneness of the various phrases, and their fitness for
the scheme as a whole. The early Sonatas, Op. 1 and 2,
show it already, but in the Op. 5, the F minor Sonata, we
have both in idea and utterance the first of the real Brahms.
Looked at on paper we see little but a series of short,
unconnected sentences. Of the impulse and pulsation that
we generaUy expect from a continuous work, there is little of
an obvious type to be perceived, but the emotional continuity
is plain if we try to see and to hear how plainly one sentence
is the complement and filling out of the other. In the works
that precede this one, the strenuousness and intensity have
been more in the impulse and " go " with which the movement
of the musical ideas are imbued ; but in Op. 5, we seem to have
intensity of musical feeling and thought developed to such a
degree that the sentences seem in point of form to be cut out
of blocks of granite, and if the large rugged temple that they
proceed to build up seems to lack grace and charm, we can
hardly fail to acknowledge its grandeur, and striving and lofty
purpose, even if it strikes one at first sight as being a little
uncouth in design.
The fact that its phrases and sentences do not flow into one
another only makes one the more astonished at the logical
fitness of their sequence, and at the fact that oneness and
homogeneity could be evolved from such apparently relation-
less short-cut phrases. It is by an appreciation of this mode
of presenting musical ideas that we see the genuine trend of
his (Brahms's) style. If the ideas do not flow into one another
with the suaveness and ease that the accepted canons of form
demand, they do (if we will look closer) grow out of one
another with such astonishing truth and fitness that we must
realise that Brahms's sense of shape and form is entirely just
and true, and almost his chief beauty—certainly almost his
chief aim. If the ideas that he attempted to utter are of an
intensity and loftiness that force us to accept him as a
master-mind—and very few even of his detractors or non-
appreciators deny or have denied that—so we find the more
we know his work that the purely musical side, as apart
from the instrumental side, takes to itself the only form that
it could have taken: that Brahms was a pioneer of style only
in so far as his ideas demanded newness of expression—that
he did not set out to alter anything he found in existing style,
but chose the methods his ideas demanded without regard to
their pleasingness or newness, or any other characteristic that
attracts attention in and for itself.
From the Sonata in F minor onwards we see few or none
of the characteristics that we associate with his immediate
predecessors or contemporaries.

10 voi.37
 122 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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Although Brahms commenced his artistic life at a period

when Liszt and Chopin seemed to have altered and improved
pianoforte-playing and pianoforte-music out of all recogni-
tion—when the most natural of all things would have been for
a young composer of that day to try to cast his utterances in
their mould, and to achieve thereby something of their
meteoric fame and universal acceptance,—he chose instead the
harder path of the purely personal type of utterance, and
forms suggested purely by his ideas; abandoning the form
at the same time as he abandoned the pianistic idiom of his
predecessors and contemporaries.
The work next in order of Opus number (with the exception
of the Schumann Variations) after the F minor Sonata is the
set of Ballades Op. 10, which, according to some authorities, are
based on the material he intended for a 4th Sonata; but in
the form we know them they show us already his desire for a
freer and at the same time more concentrated form than is
possible in the formal bounds of a Sonata, and from here
onwards his pianoforte ideas find expression in forms of a
shorter type, more suited to the ideas that he desired to
express for the pianoforte. His Concertos stand apart from
the main body of his pianoforte-music, and of them I should
like later to speak with regard to their position amongst the
other Concertos for the instrument.
But the Op. 10, the Ballades already referred to, are notice-
able not only for their form and because that in that form
they show a point of departure ; but because there is already
a definite adopting of the instrumental style that he con-
tinually used from here onwards, and therefore from this Opus
number—reviewing the actual works themselves—it will make
for greater clearness if we consider the musical expression
and its instrumental clothing, at one and the same time. But
before we combine our considerations, I would like to discuss
the purely instrumental side, to some extent, for by comparison
and contrast with the instrumental idiom adopted by the
other great writers for the keyboard, we shall I think find
certain strongly marked points of difference, an understanding
of which is necessary to genuine appreciation.
Let us go back a little in the history of keyboard music.
Bach, and (for the most part) Haydn and Mozart had written
for instruments incapable of a sostenuto—instruments, there-
fore, in which the cantabile was a negligible quantity, and in
FO far as it was in obvious instances intended in their work, it
was an effort of the imagination and one of the demands they
made on their listener. With the advent- of the modern
pianoforte, with its hammer and its damper, the possibility of
genuine piano and forte on the one hand, and of sostenuto
and silence on the other hand, became an accomplished fact,
and the whole trend of keyboard writing was altered and
 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music. 123
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developed. Beethoven lived to see the modern pianoforte and

to utilize its possibilities—even Mozart had seen the beginning
of it—and Beethoven's writings, from the "Waldstein"
(Op. 53) onward, are incapable of interpretation except on the
modern pianoforte, virtually as we now know it. But with
Liszt and Chopin comes pianistically a full understanding
and utilizing of the instrument's capacities, and as far as its
instrumental capacity (pure and simple) is concerned they
exploited that to its mil—or rather they seemed to do so, until
we consider the writings of Brahms. They had grasped the
immense possibilities of an instrument that -could give them
every dynamic gradation by the mere agency of touch—they
had utilized to the full the cantabile power of a string
struck with a felted hammer, and the agent that gave them
sostenuto (i.e., continuity of sound), or the reverse—that
perfect staccato which is the result of the perfectly regulated
damper; and the instrument seemed to have found its
final exponents in these two giants, and to have achieved
all of which it was capable.
But with Brahms there is, pianistically speaking, a
breaking-out of a musical type that seems to disregard the
genius of the instrument while it really utilizes it to the utmost.
His musical expression being as it was always of the intrinsic
and structurally necessary type, had perforce to leave on one
side the use of passages (so called) which, while showing the
instrument both as a thing of beauty and excitement and also
as a vehicle of virtuosity of a certain kind, did not, as it
proved, finally establish a style that should be the only
possible one.
Brahms (unconsciously or not) realised that the instrument's
faculties, both harmonically and contrapuntally.were enormous
—practically as unlimited as those of the full orchestra—and
in the various sets of Variations that he wrote from now
onwards those two possibilities were exploited to their utmost.
The simultaneous sounding of notes and parts—producing the
utmost varieties of harmony or counterpoint—were with him
the expression of his musical ideas in the terms of the
instrument, but each note bears its share in the structure and
thematic development of his idea, and the utilizing of the
capacities of the instrument for mere effects of instrumental
colour never finds a place. He uses his sense of colour—in
other words, the pianistic tone-factors—purely for structural
purposes, and if his colour seems beautiful or the reverse, it
is always the result of his determination to use his expression
merely as the vehicle of the idea, never as the means of a
mere joy to the ear and still less merely as the opportunity
for virtuosic display. Even in the Paganini Variations this is
apparent—although for once he appears here to have
attempted something purely pianistic—but as the Variations
 124 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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unfold we find that the musical variant becomes the chief

interest and not the pianistic one. With regard to the
Variations generally I feel they take, both musically and
pianistically, such an influential position that I can do little
more here than mention them, and shall refrain from even
giving examples of them, feeling as I do that to show one of
them and its large influence on that form would necessitate
showing them all. They alone would give sufficient material
for an essay, for in the variation form Brahms showed his
extraordinary mastery and initiative in a way that had before
hardly been conceived possible.
After his period of pianistic variations,—which includes the
Schumann ones, the Variations on an original theme, those on
a Hungarian theme, and the famous Handel Variations, and
finally those on the Paganini theme already mentioned, which
brings us down to Op. 35, and concludes his first period of
pianistic activity,—his activity as a pianoforte writer had a
long period of repose, and it is not until after the first two
Symphonies and a great many various other works had appeared
that he again took up his writings for the instrument.
Op. 76 and Op. 79 are his next essays, and in the first, a
set of two books, designated merely as " Pianoforte pieces,"
and in the second, two Rhapsodies, we see him, and especially
in the Rhapsodies, still further on the road he had outlined
for himself in the works that stand between Op. 5, the
F minor Sonata, and Op. 35, the Paganini Variations. These
two Opus numbers, 76 and 79, are the solitary works that can
be put into his second period as I have called it, with the
exception of the 2nd Concerto. But few in number as the
pieces are we find an intensity, a power for condensation, and
an originality and personality of style that place these pieces
in quite a different category from the earlier ones. The form is
more concise and the musical matter more pregnant if less
exuberant, while the outer charm, notably of the Capriccio in
B minor and the following Intermezzo in A flat, is of the most
polished grace. But the two Rhapsodies abate nothing of
the earlier ruggedness, although their giant strides of forceful
rhythmic dignity seem to leap over the mere instrument and
overshadow and overstrain it, till one marvels at the depth
and intensity of the idea the instrument can express as much
as in Liszt one marvels at the extraordinary sonority and
brilliancy it can attain. The curious resemblance in the
intense individuality of the B minor Ballade of Op. 10 and the
B minor Rhapsody of Op. 79 seems to me to serve to show in
the most forcible manner how the child was father to the
man—for the one is such a reaching out towards the other
both in form and the idea expressed.
Once again there is a long period of cessation in the piano-
forte works, and after these Rhapsodies of Op. 79, we hear no
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Brahms in his Pianoforte Music. 125

more until almost the end of Brahms's creative activity,
when we have Op. 116, 117, n 8, 119, the last of his writings
for the instrument. It seems inconceivable that these works
should have been written in the group in which they
appeared, for they contain so much and so many sides of
sentiment and idea that, taken by themselves and alone, they
show a nature capable of infinite variety and shades of
thought and feeling. Condensation and concentration of
thought and utterance are here carried to Brahms's extreme
point, but the geniality and flow of some, such as the £ flat
Intermezzo of Op. 117, make them utterly intelligible,
while the rhythmic force of figure and phrase of others, such
as the Ballade in G minor, Op. 118, and the £ flat Rhapsody
of Op. 119, shew that Brahms was still in his maturest
condition physically and mentally, and they hammer them-
selves into the mind and ear with such joy in the act that
their exuberance is infectious, and their sentimentally
contrasted sections have less the impression of repose than
of moments where the mind and heart are girding them-
selves to further efforts.
The Concertos stand in a category alone—their Opus Nos.
being 15 and 83 respectively. They come, the one, in the
middle of what I have called the first period, and the other
forms the chief work of his second period. In the point of form
they have few differences from the accepted concerto form,
but in the part that they make the solo part play, they
establish a precedent that has many times since, even almost
generally, become the established style. The solo instrument
is treated as a part of the general instrumental combination,
and their value is not primarily for purposes of display of
the virtuosic or astonishing; but the weaving of the solo
instrument into the general texture is so entirely logical, so
full of fellowship for the surrounding material, so sympathetic
in its association with the main body of both matter and
manner, that it seems to establish an ideal with which it is
hard to differ. The solo part is a genuine solo and genuinely
grateful, but never at the expense of the plan of the work
and its musical expression, and the solo instrument takes
more the position that it would in a chamber work. If one
can use such a metaphor, one would say that the pianoforte
is used as a weapon rather than an armour—more for striking
than for defence—subordinating and co-ordinating its
possibilities, rather than giving it its usual dominating and
shielding position to a structure that is too weak to stand
alone, and taking its share in a general musical texture
woven purely for the expression of musical ideas.
So to sum up and in some way to appraise the value
of Brahms's works for the pianoforte, one must say that the
influence he exerted is primarily a musical and not purely a
 126 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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pianistic one, and a consequent salvation of the idea itself as

opposed to its terms of expression; and his chief aim was a
utilizing of that instrument to the uttermost and final point
for the expression of musical thought and idea, rather than a
pushing of its obvious capacities to the fore and forcing his
music into that mould. A utilising of, rather than being
utilized by, its genius and characteristics, and a setting of a
standard that allows of instrumental growth with the growth
of the idea, and will not be arrested by the arresting of the
growth of the instrument.
If in choosing the Illustrations I seem to some of you to
have neglected to show some of the lesser-known of the pieces,
the performance of which would alone form an instructive
object-lesson, it is because I desire to place before you as
clearly as possible Brahms in his most characteristic style,
both musically and pianistically, and also to show as clearly
by actual demonstration the distinctive marks of three
periods of his pianistic activity. So these illustrations,
although probably quite well-known to most of you, will be
an endeavour to illustrate, first, his general style, and,
secondly, the three periods into which his pianoforte works
naturally fall.
The Illustrations.
(i.) Op. 4.—The first shall be the Scherzo, Op. 4, which
almost stands outside the rest of his work, and was his one
attempt to go with the spirit and style of Chopin and Liszt,
but I must leave you to judge how far the attempt succeeds.
It is said to have been the one and only piece of Brahms's
that Rubinstein would play in public.
2.) Op. 5.—First movement.
! 3.I Op. 10.—Third Ballade.
(4.) Op. 76.—B minor Capriccio.
• (5.) Op. 79.—B minor Rhapsody.
• (6.) Op. 118.—E flat minor Intermezzo.
(7.) Op. 119.—C major Intermezzo.
• (8.) Op. 119.—E flat Rhapsody.
* Not performed, for lack of time.
 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music. 127
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DISCUSSION.

THE CHAIRMAN.—The first and most pleasing duty I have

to perform is on your behalf to accord our hearty thanks to
Mr. Howard-Jones for his most admirable paper, so beautifully
written, and for his remarks given therein, which have been
entirely justified by his magnificent performance on the
pianoforte. I am not going to detain you with any remarks
of my own. I do not know how it is possible to have a
discussion ; the subject has been so plainly and clearly put
before us that I imagine we are all of one mind. However,
it is my duty to give to anyone present who has any remark
to make or suggestion to offer, an opportunity for saying a
few words.
Dr. SOUTHGATE.—May I venture to ask the lecturer a
question ; I do so, as the answer may instruct several of us.
I would ask if he has any reason to account for the very
distinct change in the tone of the music between the earlier
pieces of Brahms and the later works ? Generally speaking,
as a composer advances he produces more and more elaborate
music. But from the illustrations we have had of Brahms,
it does not appear to have been so. I would like, then, to ask
the lecturer whether he has any explanation to offer of that
fact; and whether he finds in the instrumental works of
Brahms anything of a similar character to that of the
pianoforte compositions, some of which he has so delightfully
expounded.
Mr. E. HOWARD-JONES.—May I say in reply to the last
speaker that, as my illustrations made obvious, Brahms's style
did lighten. I took for granted that I made myself clear that
the other and more serious works of his later period were
known, even well-known to you. That is why, perhaps, my
illustrations did not make that point clear. Although I would
say that Brahms's style got clearer or lighter towards the end of
his life, I think his characteristics remained very much the
same. I gave the examples from the later works (many of
which you knew) because, as I said, the characteristics would
seem so different from the Sonata in F minor I played to you;
I gave you those two short and light pieces merely as
illustrations of the other side of Brahms's character, and by
way of contrast rather than as illustrations of the way his
mind and music developed. If I were to play you pieces
which show you the corresponding position in his later works
to the position of the F minor Sonata in the earlier period,
I should play the Rhapsody in B minor, for instance, of
 128 Brahms in his Pianoforte Music.
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the middle period, and I should have to play the Intermezzo

in E flat minor in the last period; perhaps also the Rhapsody
in E flat; all of them large and important works. But I was
afraid they would be too lengthy in point of time for this
meeting. For these I would refer you to copies of the
printed works themselves, or to the actual performance in the
concert hall.
Dr. SOUTHGATE.—Could you tell us the date of the
composition of the •• German Requiem " ?
Mr. E. HOWARD-JONES.—That would really come under
the heading of the first period; sometime, I should say,
between Opus numbers 30 and 50, although I am speaking quite
from memory.*
T H E CHAIRMAN.— I may remind you that there is a splendid
article in Grove's Dictionary by Fuller Maitland, which goes
largely into the subject of his music, orchestral, choral,
pianistic ; and I do not know that you could read anything
better in connection with his work.
The vote of thanks to the lecturer was carried by
acclamation.
* The " German Requiem " is Opus 45, and was published in 1868.