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2011 L Rodríguez-Trajectories of The Home Learning Environment Across 5 Years - Child Dev
2011 L Rodríguez-Trajectories of The Home Learning Environment Across 5 Years - Child Dev
Children’s home learning environments were examined in a low-income sample of 1,852 children and fami-
lies when children were 15, 25, 37, and 63 months. During home visits, children’s participation in literacy
activities, the quality of mothers’ engagements with their children, and the availability of learning materials
were assessed, yielding a total learning environment score at each age. At 63 months, children’s vocabulary
and literacy skills were assessed. Six learning environment trajectories were identified, including environ-
ments that were consistently low, environments that were consistently high, and environments characterized
by varying patterns of change. The skills of children at the extremes of learning environment trajectories dif-
fered by more than 1 SD and the timing of learning experiences related to specific emerging skills.
Poverty places children at risk for delays in lan- have smaller vocabularies and delayed language
guage development, learning, school readiness, skills when compared to their more advantaged
and academic achievement. Already by 3 years of peers (Hart & Risley, 1995). Moreover, 3- to
age, children living in low-income households 5-year-old children living in poverty are less likely
This work was conducted at New York University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development and reflects
the doctoral dissertation of Eileen T. Rodriguez. The findings reported here are based on research conducted as part of the national Early
Head Start Research and Evaluation Project funded by the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services under Contract 105-95-1936 to Mathematica Policy Research Inc., Princeton, NJ, and Columbia University’s Center
for Children and Families, Teachers College, in conjunction with the Early Head Start Research Consortium. The Consortium consists of
representatives from 17 programs participating in the evaluation, 15 local research teams, the evaluation contractors, and ACF. Research
institutions in the Consortium (and principal researchers) include ACF (Rachel Chazan Cohen, Judith Jerald, Esther Kresh, Helen Raikes,
and Louisa Tarullo); Catholic University of America (Michaela Farber, Harriet Liebow, Nancy Taylor, Elizabeth Timberlake, and Shav-
aun Wall); Columbia University (Lisa Berlin, Christy Brady-Smith, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Allison Sidle Fuligni); Harvard University
(Catherine Ayoub, Barbara Alexander Pan, and Catherine Snow); Iowa State University (Dee Draper, Gayle Luze, Susan McBride, and
Carla Peterson); Mathematica Policy Research (Kimberly Boller, Jill Constantine, Ellen Eliason Kisker, John M. Love, Diane Paulsell,
Christine Ross, Peter Schochet, Cheri Vogel, and Welmoet van Kammen); Medical University of South Carolina (Richard Faldowski,
Gui-Young Hong, and Susan Pickrel); Michigan State University (Hiram Fitzgerald, Tom Reischl, and Rachel Schiffman); New York
University (Mark Spellmann and Catherine Tamis-LeMonda); University of Arkansas (Robert Bradley, Richard Clubb, Andrea Hart,
Mark Swanson, and Leanne Whiteside-Mansell); University of California, Los Angeles (Carollee Howes and Claire Hamilton); Univer-
sity of Colorado Health Sciences Center (Robert Emde, Jon Korfmacher, JoAnn Robinson, Paul Spicer, and Norman Watt); University
of Kansas (Jane Atwater, Judith Carta; and Jean Ann Summers); University of Missouri-Columbia (Mark Fine, Jean Ispa, and Kathy
Thornburg); University of Pittsburgh (Beth Green, Carol McAllister, and Robert McCall); University of Washington School of Education
(Eduardo Armijo and Joseph Stowitschek); University of Washington School of Nursing (Kathryn Barnard and Susan Spieker), and Utah
State University (Lisa Boyce, Gina Cook, Catherine Callow-Heusser, and Lori Roggman). The content of this publication does not
necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial
products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. We extend our gratitude to Erin E. O’Connor and Mark E.
Spellmann for their feedback and support during the preparation of this manuscript. Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda also acknowledges
funding from the National Science Foundation (Grants 0218159 and 0721383), which supports NYU’s Center for Research on Culture,
Development, and Education.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eileen T. Rodriguez or Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, Center for
Research on Culture, Development, and Education, New York University, 246 Greene Street, 410W, New York, NY 10003. Electronic
mail may be sent to erodriguez@mathematica-mpr.com or catherine.tamis-lemonda@nyu.edu.
to recognize the letters of the alphabet, count to and letters (Parker, Boak, Griffin, Ripple, & Peay,
20, write their names, or read or pretend to read a 1999), and outings to learning venues such as
storybook compared to peers in more resourced libraries or museums (Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell,
families (Nord, Lennon, Liu, & Chandler, 2000). 1994; Sénéchal et al., 1996).
These early differences portend disparities in chil- The quality of parents’ engagements with children
dren’s subsequent language growth, cognitive promotes children’s language and cognitive devel-
development, school readiness, and academic opment in a number of ways. Children benefit from
achievement (Denton & West, 2002; Gershoff, 2003; exposure to adult speech that is frequent, varied
Rodriguez et al., 2009; Snow, Porche, Tabors, & and complex (Dickinson & Tabors, 1991; Hart &
Harris, 2007). One meta-analytic review indicated Risley, 1995; Weizman & Snow, 2001) and respon-
effect sizes of .49 and .51 for prediction from chil- sive to children’s initiatives (Tamis-LeMonda,
dren’s cognitive and academic skills in preschool Bornstein, & Baumwell, 2001; Tamis-LeMonda,
and kindergarten to later school outcomes (La Shannon, Cabrera, & Lamb, 2004). Mothers’ sensi-
Paro & Pianta, 2000). Moreover, children’s math, tivity and stimulation in the first years of life pre-
reading, language, and attention skills at kinder- dict children’s receptive language (Hann, Osofsky,
garten entry predict measures of academic perfor- & Culp, 1996), phonological awareness (Silven,
mance through middle childhood and adolescence Niemi, & Voeten, 2002), productive language (Beals
(Claessens, Duncan, & Engel, 2009; Duncan et al., & DeTemple, 1993; Hart & Risley, 1995), and story
2007; Snow et al., 2007). However, despite lower comprehension (Beals & DeTemple, 1993).
average performance, children from low-income Finally, the availability of learning materials in the
families display substantial variation in their lan- home supports children’s language and literacy
guage and cognitive competencies (Pan, Rowe, skills (Purcell-Gates, 1996; Sénéchal, LeFevre,
Singer, & Snow, 2005; Roberts, Burchinal, & Dur- Thomas, & Daley, 1998; Tabors, Roach, & Snow,
ham, 1999; Snow, Barnes, Chandler, Goodman, & 2001). The number of picture books in the home
Hemphill, 1991; Snow et al., 2007), warranting predicts children’s receptive language skills and
research into the role of early home experiences in expressive vocabulary (Payne et al., 1994), and
children’s developing skills. familiarity with books relates to preschoolers’ sub-
sequent vocabulary and early reading abilities
(Sénéchal et al., 1996). Furthermore, early exposure
Children’s Early Learning Environment
to toys that promote symbolic play (e.g., cooking
Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) bioecological systems sets) and fine motor skills (e.g., blocks) relates to
theory emphasizes the interplay of multiple con- children’s early receptive language skills (Tomo-
texts in shaping children’s development. At a prox- poulos et al., 2006), intrinsic motivation, and
imal level, parents are children’s first and most approaches to learning (Gottfried, Fleming, &
important teachers. They promote children’s learn- Gottfried, 1998).
ing and development by structuring multiple In a prior report, we examined the unique and
aspects of the environment, including: (a) participa- combined influences of these three core compo-
tion in routine literacy activities, (b) supportive nents of the learning environment on children’s
parent engagements, and (c) availability of age- language and cognitive skills at and across the ages
appropriate learning materials (Bradley, 2006; of 14, 24, and 36 months (Rodriguez et al., 2009).
Rodriguez et al., 2009). Each component contributed uniquely to children’s
Participation in literacy activities (e.g., bookread- concurrent skills. When considered jointly, experi-
ing and storytelling) is foundational to children’s ences at each age explained unique variance in chil-
language growth and emergent literacy. Shared dren’s language and cognitive skills at age 3 years,
bookreading and exposure to print relate to chil- and predictive associations maintained after con-
dren’s vocabulary size, phonemic awareness, print trolling for child and family characteristics.
concept knowledge, and positive attitudes toward
literacy (Bus, van IJzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995;
Children’s Learning Experiences Across the
Dickinson & Tabors, 1991; Raikes et al., 2006; Séné-
First 5 Years
chal, LeFevre, Hudson, & Lawson, 1996; Snow &
Dickinson, 1990). Other supportive literacy activi- Historically, developmental scholars have
ties include reciting nursery rhymes (Baker, Serpell, debated the malleability of human development:
& Sonnenschein, 1995), participating in activities How susceptible are specific structures and func-
that facilitate learning of the alphabet, numbers, tions to the influence of particular experiences at
1060 Rodriguez and Tamis-LeMonda
specific periods in the life course? Such questions ment (e.g., Ramey & Ramey, 2004). Similarly, the
are core to theories of sensitive periods in develop- Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey
ment (Bornstein, 1989; Sameroff & Fiese, 2005; found that children with delays at age 3 years
Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). showed considerable gains in reading and writing
Specific to the domain of language and cogni- at kindergarten when exposed to enriched environ-
tion, countless studies indicate that children’s ments between 3 and 5 years (Administration for
experiences during the preschool years contribute Children and Families, 2003).
to their emerging language and cognitive compe- Additionally, analyses of the Infant Health and
tencies; however, the role of timing in these asso- Development Program (IHDP), a multisite ran-
ciations is not entirely clear (e.g., Bruer, 1999; domized early intervention for low birth weight
Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). Do the influences of and premature infants (Gross, Spiker, & Haynes,
experiences in infancy and toddlerhood endure 1997; The Infant Health and Development Pro-
above those at preschool? Do learning experi- gram Staff, 1990), revealed that although the
ences during the preschool years relate to mea- effects of the birth to 3-year intervention on chil-
sures of children’s school readiness, after dren’s language and cognitive skills continued to
controlling for early influences? How do experi- be significant at age 8 years, the magnitude of
ences spanning infancy through preschool accu- early effects diminished over time (McCarton
mulate in their influences on children’s readiness et al., 1997). The Early Head Start Research and
skills? By examining children’s learning experi- Evaluation Project (EHSREP) found that children
ences across a span of 5 years, we ask whether who experienced both Early Head Start (EHS) and
trajectories characterized by peaks and ⁄ or center-based programs from ages 3 to 5 years
declines at different ages differentially predict fared better than children who received EHS ser-
specific cognitive and language achievements at vices alone (Administration for Children and
prekindergarten. Families [ACF], 2006).
receiving EHS services (48% vs. 52%, v2 = 4.80, a day. Mothers were also asked whether they
p < .05). Despite differences between the samples, engaged in shared bookreading or storytelling as
there was substantial representation of all major part their children’s regular bedtime routine. At
subgroups in the analysis sample. 37 months, the set of literacy activities was
expanded to include the frequencies that other fam-
ily members read stories to the focus child, that
Procedures
mothers took the child to a children’s museum, that
Program staff obtained baseline data from all other family members took the focus child to a chil-
families at enrollment using the Head Start Family dren’s museum, and whether mothers or other
Information System (HSFIS) program application adults in the household helped the child learn:
and enrollment forms. At each age, data collection letters of the alphabet, numbers, shapes, and sizes,
included a 45-min parent interview, direct assess- and colors. At the prekindergarten assessment,
ments of children’s language and cognitive abilities, mothers were asked about the frequencies with
and a 10-min videotaped session of mother–child which they or other family members engaged in
play. Interviewers completed a checklist on obser- each of three activities with their child: shared
vations of the home environment at the end of each bookreading (ranging from not at all to every day),
visit. storytelling (ranging from zero times to three or more
For the play sessions at the first three waves, times), and teaching letters, words, or numbers
dyads were presented with three bags containing a (ranging from zero times to three or more times).
book and a standard set of age-appropriate toys Mothers were also asked whether they read any-
(i.e., children’s book, a cooking set, and a Noah’s thing other than books with their child, and
Ark set with various animals at 15 and 25 months; whether they or other family members had taken
children’s book, a cash register and grocery items, their child to a children’s museum in the past year.
and interlocking blocks at 37 months). Mothers Quality of maternal engagement. Assessments of
were asked to begin with Bag 1 and to finish with maternal engagement were based on coding of vid-
Bag 3, and to divide the time spent on each bag as eotaped mother–child play sessions, as well as
they chose. At the prekindergarten visit, dyads selected observational items from the HOME (Cald-
were presented with two cans of Play-Doh, a cook- well & Bradley, 1984). HOME items included
ie cutter, a rolling pin, and a protective board; whether or not mothers vocalized to or conversed
after 8 min of play, they were given 2 min to with their child, responded verbally to their child’s
clean up. vocalizations or requests, labeled objects or people
in the environment (15 and 25 months only),
acknowledged their child’s vocalizations (37 months
Measures only), encouraged their child to talk (prekindergarten
only), used speech that was clear and complex
Children’s Learning Experiences at 15, 25, and
(15, 25, and 37 months only), and used complex
37 Months and Prekindergarten
sentence structure and long words in conversing
At each age, assessments of children’s early (prekindergarten only).
learning experiences were based on select items The coding of mother–child play sessions at 15,
from maternal interviews, coding of videotaped 25, and 37 months was based on the Child–Parent
mother–child play sessions, and the Home Obser- Interaction Rating Scales for the Three-Bag Assess-
vation for Measurement of the Environment ment (Brady-Smith, O’Brien, Berlin, Ware, & Fauth,
(HOME; Caldwell & Bradley, 1984). The process of 2000). The prekindergarten play session was coded
item selection involved review of the study proto- using the Parent–Child Interaction Rating Scales for
cols by a team of researchers from four EHSREP the Play-Doh Task (Fauth, Brady-Smith, & Brooks-
sites (see Rodriguez et al., 2009, for further discus- Gunn, 2003). Collectively, the scales assess a num-
sion of variable selection). ber of mother and child behaviors. For purposes of
Literacy activities. During 15-, 25-, and 37-month the current study, two mother behaviors were used
interviews, mothers were asked about the frequen- as indicators of the quality of maternal engagement:
cies with which they engaged in each of three activ- Sensitivity ⁄ Supportiveness and Stimulation of Cog-
ities with their children: shared bookreading, nitive Development.
storytelling, and singing nursery rhymes. The fre- Sensitivity ⁄ Supportiveness assessed the degree to
quency of each activity was assessed on a 6-point which the mother contingently responded to her
Likert scale ranging from not at all to more than once child’s needs and cues (e.g., gestures, vocalizations).
Trajectories of the Home Learning Environment 1063
ranged from .68 to .72 for literacy activities, .60 to variables or unobserved characteristics of children
.67 for maternal engagement, and .70 to .78 for and families. It also addressed the robustness of the
learning materials). This supports the validity of learning environment effects in the face of poten-
the component scores and suggests equivalent con- tially meaningful predictors (Lugo-Gil & Tamis-
structs across the four assessments. Cronbach’s LeMonda, 2008; NICHD Early Child Care Research
alphas for the total learning environment scales at Network & Duncan, 2003).
each of the four ages were .70, .72, .73, and .80. Demographic data. Information on child gender,
birth order and birth weight, mothers’ age at focus
child’s birth (i.e., teen status), maternal race ⁄ ethnic-
Dependent Measures: Children’s Vocabulary and
ity, education and marital status (i.e., whether the
Emergent Literacy Skills at Prekindergarten
mother was married and living with a spouse), and
Children’s performance on two standardized household income were collected at baseline. Data
assessments of school readiness served as the out- on mothers’ employment status (i.e., employed vs.
come measures: the Peabody Picture Vocabulary not employed) was obtained during the 15-month
Test–III (PPVT–III; Dunn & Dunn, 1997) and the visit. Race ⁄ ethnicity categories included a break-
Letter–Word Identification subtest of the Wood- down of Hispanic primary caregivers into English-
cock–Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ–R; Wood- speaking versus Spanish-speaking subgroups. We
cock & Johnson, 1989). distinguished between English-speaking and Span-
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Third Edi- ish-speaking Hispanic mothers so as to better inter-
tion. The PPVT–III (Dunn & Dunn, 1997) is a pret children’s vocabulary and emergent literacy
widely used measure of receptive vocabulary. outcomes.
Children are presented with a series of four illus- Bayley Mental Development Index. The Bayley
trations and asked to point to the picture that best Mental Development Index (MDI) is one of three
corresponds to the examiner’s spoken word. Items component scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant
are ordered by level of difficulty and testing con- Development–Second Edition (BSID–II; Bayley,
tinues until a ceiling is reached, as defined by 8 or 1993). The MDI was administered to children at
more errors within a set of 12. The PPVT–III has 15 months of age for control in regressions. It
good internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s includes items that assess memory, problem solv-
as = .92–.98) and correlates highly (rs = .80–.90) with ing, generalization skills, classification abilities,
measures of cognitive ability (WISC–III, K–BIT). early number concepts, and emerging language.
Woodcock–Johnson Revised Tests of Achievement, The MDI is associated with other observational
Form B. Children were administered the Letter– measures of children’s language (e.g., word types
Word Identification subtest of the Woodcock–Johnson and tokens) in low-income EHS populations (Pan,
Revised Tests of Achievement, Form B (Woodcock & Rowe, Spier, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004) and corre-
Johnson, 1989). This subtest yields a measure of chil- lates with other cognitive tests including the
dren’s emergent literacy skills. With children of this McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (r = .79)
age, initial items tap letter knowledge and word and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
recognition; as testing progresses, items increase in Intelligence–Revised (r = .73).
difficulty to yield a measure of children’s early
reading skills. Testing continues until children
reach a ceiling, as defined by six consecutive errors
Results
or nonresponses. The WJ–R has good internal con-
sistency reliability (Cronbach’s as = .80–.90). Results are organized around the goals of: (a) iden-
tifying qualitatively distinct trajectories of chil-
dren’s learning environments and (b) relating those
Control Variables
trajectories to children’s vocabulary and emergent
A set of 10 child and family controls were literacy skills at age 5.
included in models that examined associations
between learning environment trajectories and chil-
Variation in Children’s Learning Experiences Over Time
dren’s performance at prekindergarten (see below).
The inclusion of controls in models addressed A semiparametric, group-based modeling app-
potential endogeneity, or the possibility that associ- roach (Jones, Nagin, & Roeder, 2001; Nagin, 1999,
ations from learning environment trajectories to 2005; Nagin & Tremblay, 1999) was used to identify
children’s readiness might be explained by third learning environment trajectories. Modeling proce-
Trajectories of the Home Learning Environment 1065
dures involve estimating growth curves for each ries were not tested to this level of specificity
individual, and then identifying prototypic group (McCartney et al., 2006).
curves based on the individual trajectories esti- Using the above criteria, a six-group model was
mated for each population member. The degree to selected (BIC = )9,962.33). There were small differ-
which each individual’s growth curve resembles ences in the BIC estimates of the five-, six-, seven-
each of the prototypic group curves is estimated by and eight-group solutions. However, upon closer
posterior probabilities (ranging from 0 to 1); indi- examination of the trajectories, it was decided to
viduals are classified into the trajectory group for err on the side of parsimony and to select the six-
which they have the highest probability of member- group model in order to retain power for the sub-
ship. Model parameters are estimated using a maxi- sequent analyses. Moreover, the six-group solution
mum likelihood approach that permits for missing was favored over the five-group solution because
values (Jones et al., 2001; Nagin, 2005). Thus, model it yielded an additional trajectory group of theo-
outputs include the shape of each trajectory (pat- retical interest: children whose learning environ-
terns of stability and change), the estimated propor- ments were relatively high at 15 months but
tion of the population belonging to each trajectory, declined thereafter (Group 5). The posterior proba-
and the probability that each individual belongs to bilities of group membership for the six-group
each group. model were also superior to those for competing
The model selection process involved estimating models.
a series of models that specified varying numbers Parameter and group membership estimates for
of trajectory groups (e.g., four-, five-, and six-group trajectories in the selected model were all signifi-
solutions). Decisions about the optimal number of cant at the p < .01 level. Model fit was also indexed
groups, as well as their shape (linear or quadratic), using posterior probability estimates, which as pre-
were guided by the Bayesian information criterion viously noted, provide an indicator of how well
(BIC); solutions across multiple models were exam- individuals’ growth curves resemble each of the
ined and the model with the largest BIC (indicating identified trajectories. The mean posterior probabil-
better model fit) was selected. Specifically, a qua- ity scores for each of the six trajectory groups were:
dratic growth curve model was specified; that is, M = 0.69 for Group 1, M = 0.68 for Group 2, M =
quadratic curves were specified for all the groups 0.80 for Group 3, M = 0.70 for Group 4, M = 0.64
in the initial model being tested. If a group did not for Group 5, and M = 0.78 for Group 6. These prob-
reach significance on a higher order term (qua- abilities are acceptable, although lower than
dratic), specifications were changed to a lower desired, perhaps reflecting the truncated variation
order term (linear). This procedure was repeated in the clustering variables of the total learning envi-
until parameter estimates for all of the trajectories ronment at each age.
in the model were significant. Given that nonlinear Descriptive statistics on children’s learning envi-
functions such as logistic growth curves or higher ronment scores at each age by trajectory group are
order polynomial functions (e.g., cubic growth presented in Table 2. Overall means and standard
curves that describe change that is S-shaped) deviations of children’s learning environment com-
require five or more repeated assessments, trajecto- posite scores across all groups, based on a possible
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations of Learning Environment Composite Scores at Each Age by Trajectory Group
Learning environment
trajectory group
1. Low rise 61 0.72 (0.51) 0.98 (0.63) 1.31 (0.81) 1.63 (0.94)
2. Low decline 143 1.30 (0.80) 1.28 (0.80) 1.11 (0.68) 0.11 (0.09)
3. Moderate decline 845 2.10 (0.93) 2.62 (0.98) 2.72 (1.03) 1.50 (0.88)
4. Moderate rise 578 3.02 (0.90) 3.39 (0.96) 3.57 (1.04) 3.67 (0.89)
5. High decline 48 4.34 (0.76) 4.26 (0.79) 3.86 (0.88) 2.51 (0.81)
6. High stable 177 4.19 (0.91) 4.63 (0.83) 5.01 (0.83) 4.61 (0.97)
1066 Rodriguez and Tamis-LeMonda
Low Rise
Moderate Rise
Low Decline
High Decline
Moderate Decline
High Stable
the most optimal environments—a quadratic pat-
6 tern characterized by average scores in the high
range that increased slightly from 15 months to
Learning Environment Score
Table 3
Sample Characteristics and Child Outcomes by Trajectory Group Membership
Low rise Low decline Moderate decline Moderate rise High decline High stable v2 ⁄ F(df)
Note. Means in the same row that share subscripts do not significantly differ at p < .05 based on Bonferroni difference comparisons.
MDI = Mental Development Index; GED = general education diploma; PPVT = Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.
**p < .01. ***p < .001.
observed by mothers’ race ⁄ ethnicity: Children of tus, with children of married mothers being more
White mothers were more likely to experience likely to experience environments at the two
moderate rise, high decline, and high stable envi- extremes, low rise and high stable. Finally, children
ronments; children of African American mothers living in families with incomes below 33% of the
were more likely to experience low rise and low poverty level were overrepresented in the low
decline environments; and children of Hispanic decline group.
Spanish-speaking mothers were overrepresented
in low rise trajectories.
Learning Environment Trajectories and Language and
Measures of family human capital were also
Literacy Skills
associated with trajectory group membership.
Children of mothers with fewer than 12 years of The second research goal was focused on associ-
education were disproportionately represented in ations between children’s learning environment
the low rise and low decline groups, as well as in trajectories and performance on standardized mea-
moderate decline environments. Conversely, chil- sures of vocabulary and emergent literacy prior to
dren of mothers with more than 12 years of educa- kindergarten entry. At the bivariate level, total
tion were more likely to experience moderate rise, learning environment scores at each of the four
high decline and high stable environments. ages were significantly associated with all
Maternal employment was associated with high prekindergarten measures (rs = .35–.38 for the
decline and high stable environments. Differences PPVT, .24–.29 for Letter–Word Identification,
among groups were also observed for marital sta- ps < .001).
1068 Rodriguez and Tamis-LeMonda
respectively). Thus, if experiences during the first graphic characteristics were entered in the first step
3 years are foundational to children’s school readi- of models. The second step of models included the
ness skills, children in the moderate decline group early learning environment score (based on averag-
should outperform those in the low rise group. ing of the total learning environment scores at 15,
These analyses yielded a moderate effect size 25, and 37 months), the later learning environment
when the receptive language skills of children in score (i.e., the total score at 63 months), and the
these two groups were compared. Specifically, chil- interaction between the two.
dren in the moderate decline group scored signifi- Findings paralleled those of the person-centered
cantly higher on the PPVT at prekindergarten than approach. Specifically, only the early learning envi-
did children in the low rise group, contrast esti- ronment predicted children’s PPVT scores at prekin-
mate = 5.89, SE = 2.10, F(1, 1637) = 7.86, d = 0.41, dergarten (b = .109, p = .004); neither the later
p < .01. No significant group differences were environment (b = .069, p = .184) nor the interaction
found on the Letter–Word Identification subtest of between the two (b = .108, p = .112) was significant
the WJ–R. for this dependent measure, F(33, 1639) = 23.63,
To test the role of experiences at prekindergarten, p < .001. Inclusive of all covariates, the final model
the scores of children in the high decline and high explained 32% of the variance in children’s prekin-
stable groups were contrasted. Children in these dergarten PPVT scores. In contrast, when consider-
two groups experienced similar learning environ- ing children’s letter–word identification skills, the
ments at 15 months (Ms = 4.34 and 4.19, respec- later learning environment (b = .130, p = .012) was
tively); however, unlike children in the high stable now predictive, F(33, 1811) = 16.71, p < .001; the
group, the learning environments of children in the early learning environment also predicted children’s
high decline group were not sustained over time, letter–word identification skills, although not as
with average scores showing considerable decline strongly (b = .109, p = .005); and the interaction term
by prekindergarten (Ms = 2.51 vs. 4.61, respec- was not significant (b = .021, p = .756). The final
tively). If experiences during the preschool years model accounted for 23% of the variance in chil-
provide added benefits beyond those of earlier dren’s letter–word identification scores. These
experiences, children in the high stable group regressions augment trajectory analyses by suggest-
should outperform those in the high decline group ing temporal specificity in the prediction of different
on prekindergarten measures of school readiness. child outcomes for the analysis sample at large.
Findings of this analysis highlight the importance
of contemporaneous learning experiences for chil-
dren’s prekindergarten letter–word identification
Discussion
skills. A moderate effect size emerged when com-
paring the skills of children in the high stable group The current findings highlight variability in the
to those in the high decline group. Specifically, the early learning environments of children from ethni-
average scores of children in the high stable group cally diverse, economically disadvantaged families,
were significantly higher than those of children in and reveal strong associations between learning
the high decline group on the WJ–R Letter–Word environments and children’s prekindergarten
Identification subtest, contrast estimate = 6.95, vocabulary and emergent literacy skills. Both early
SE = 2.18, F(1, 1809) = 10.15, d = 0.52, p < .001. No and later experiences uniquely predict children’s
significant group differences emerged on the PPVT. skills, and together explain over 1 SD in children’s
performance at prekindergarten (after controlling
for characteristics of children and families). None-
Regression Models
theless, the influence of children’s learning experi-
The above planned contrasts were based on the ences are specific to the timing of supports as well
subset of children who experienced select trajecto- as the outcome being examined: learning experi-
ries, with certain subgroups relying on relatively ences in the first years relate to later receptive
small samples. We therefore sought to confirm language skills, whereas experiences at prekinder-
these patterns in the entire sample of children garten support letter–word identification.
(n = 1,852) using regression analyses. Specifically,
we examined the unique and combined contribu-
The Course of Children’s Early Learning Environments
tions of the early and later learning environment on
children’s vocabulary and emergent literacy skills. Enormous variation exists in the learning envi-
In these analyses, child and family sociodemo- ronment trajectories of children across their first
1070 Rodriguez and Tamis-LeMonda
5 years. The six trajectories that were identified dif- kindergarten assessment. Notably, the time frame
fered in their initial intercept levels and patterns of between the 37-month and prekindergarten assess-
change over time. Already by 15 months, children ments was approximately twice as long as the prior
from the six trajectory groups experienced learning intervals. One reason for this decline might be in
environments that spanned the full range of 0–6 the criteria used to credit mothers with providing
scores. Over time, children’s trajectories differed in high learning environments at the different assess-
terms of whether they increased, decreased, or ments. For example, at 15-months, mothers’ use of
remained stable. The largest group of children didactic language was considered supportive of
(45%) experienced environments characterized by children’s language growth; however, by prekin-
moderate overall levels that were stable through dergarten, mothers had to engage in activities that
37 months and declined thereafter (moderate intentionally taught children skills (e.g., learning
decline). Another one third of children experienced letters, numbers) to be credited with providing a
environments in the moderate range that showed a high-quality learning environment. Similarly, as
pattern of consistent growth over time (moderate children developed, the number of books in the
rise). home required for a high score shifted from 5
Although less prevalent, 10% of children experi- books (15 and 25 months), to 10 books (37 months),
enced environments characterized by overall scores to 25 books (prekindergarten). Thus, learning envi-
in the low range. Children in the low rise group ronments characterized by declines at prekinder-
experienced environments that were low in quality garten might be those in which mothers did not yet
at 15 months and increased across the assessments, engage in formal learning activities with their
yet still remained at relatively low levels. The envi- children.
ronments of children in the low decline group were
characterized by similarly low mean scores at
Predictions to Language and Literacy Skills at
15 months; however, these environments remained
Prekindergarten
at low levels through 37 months, and declined even
further by the age of 5 years. This study also documents substantial variation
At the other extreme were children who experi- in the vocabulary and emergent literacy skills of
enced environments in the high range, which con- prekindergarten children from low-income families.
stituted roughly 15% of the overall sample. These skills were strongly predicted by children’s
Children in the high decline group experienced learning environment trajectories. Overall, children
high-quality environments at 15 months that in the low rise and low decline groups fared the
showed a marked decline over time, with scores worst, children who experienced environments
reaching moderate levels by age 5. Children in the characterized as high decline and high stable fared
high stable group experienced the highest scores on the best, and children who experienced moderate
measures of the learning environment—a pattern environments (moderate decline and moderate rise)
characterized by scores in the high range that performed somewhere in between. These differ-
increased from 15 to 37 months and remained rela- ences meant that across the six groups, children
tively high thereafter. showed disproportionate likelihoods of being
These findings indicate that some children are delayed versus on par with national norms. Nota-
already at risk by 15 months, and despite a common bly, 70% of children experiencing high stable envi-
view that many parents will ‘‘catch up’’ in the learn- ronments performed at or above national norms,
ing experiences they provide children as their chil- whereas only 7% of children with low rise environ-
dren approach school age, this does not appear to ments performed in this range. Moreover, after con-
be the case. That is, there was no learning environment trolling for a broad range of child and family
trajectory group that started out low and increased to demographic characteristics, children at the
moderate levels or beyond by the time children entered extremes of learning environments revealed enor-
prekindergarten. Similarly, children who experienced mous disparities in performance on standardized
supportive learning environments at 15 months measures in the magnitude of 20 points. In accord
were likely to continue to experience such environ- with past studies, children who consistently experi-
ments through the age of 5. Thus, the quality of enced stimulating home environments across early
learning environments at the start of infants’ 2nd childhood were at an advantage when compared to
year may foretell their later experiences. children with less supportive environments on
Of note is the fact that three of the six trajectory measures of later language, literacy, and cognitive
groups were characterized by declines by the pre- skills (Hirsh-Pasek & Burchinal, 2006; Landry,
Trajectories of the Home Learning Environment 1071
Smith, Swank, Assel, & Vellet, 2001; Rodriguez on more stringent analyses around impacts, and it
et al., 2009). is reasonable to expect that learning experiences
Beyond highlighting the central role of learning matter for the larger population of young children.
environments in the developmental outcomes of At the level of measurement, we focused on a
children at prekindergarten, select contrasts under- select and somewhat narrow set of indicators of the
score the importance of timing in the development learning environment and children’s preschool out-
of specific literacy skills. Learning experiences at comes. Parenting measures focused on mothers’
different ages exerted greater influence on the skills literacy practices specifically rather than the full
that were emerging during that period in develop- range of social and emotional experiences that may
ment. Children with more supportive learning equip children with the skills necessary for school
environments early on had higher scores on the success. In addition, focus was on the learning
PPVT by prekindergarten. The provision of lan- experiences that mothers provided their children;
guage and literacy experiences as early as the 1st fathers, older siblings, grandparents, and extended
year of life promotes children’s vocabulary growth, family members are core participants in the learn-
which in turn is foundational to subsequent school ing experiences of infants, toddlers, and preschool-
success (Hart & Risley, 1995; Snow et al., 2007). In ers alike (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2004). Experiences
contrast, children who diverged in their later learn- in preschool also independently contribute to chil-
ing environments (yet experienced similar early dren’s receptive vocabulary and emergent literacy
learning environments) differed in their letter–word skills in kindergarten beyond those encountered in
identification skills. Thus, learning experiences the home environment. This limited focus might
during the preschool years appear to build on account for why certain effect sizes were relatively
children’s earlier competencies and support more small in magnitude.
complex aspects of emergent literacy. Measures of children’s language and emergent
This specificity accords with studies on the dif- literacy outcomes were limited to standardized
ferential effects of distinct types of home literacy assessments that may not capture the rich variation
activities on children’s development (Sénéchal & that exists in other aspects of children’s developing
LeFevre, 2002; Sénéchal et al., 1998). Specifically, literacy skills (e.g., narrative competencies, story
parents’ provision of informal literacy experiences comprehension, phonemic awareness). A number
exposes children to written language, as in the case of researchers have pointed to children’s executive
of shared bookreading; these experiences promote functioning, social skills and emotion regulation as
children’s receptive language and early vocabulary major indices of school readiness (Duncan et al.,
acquisition. In contrast, formal literacy experiences 2007; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Moreover, stan-
focus directly on written language, such as teaching dardized assessments of children from language
a child letters of the alphabet or how to write their minority households most likely provide an under-
name; such experiences have been shown to relate estimation of children’s performance.
to emergent literacy skills including alphabet Finally, at the level of analyses, we examined
knowledge, early reading, and invented spelling learning environment trajectories primarily through
(Sénéchal et al., 1998). a person-centered modeling approach. While these
The current study contains limitations at the approaches have notable strengths, several method-
levels of sampling, measurement, and analyses. ological concerns argue for caution in the interpre-
First, sampling bias precludes generalizability to all tation of results (Bauer, 2007). Moreover, to assess
low-income families, as participants self-selected trajectories over time, we created a single compos-
into the study. The starting sample that was ran- ite that was composed of three equally weighted
domized into treatment versus control conditions components (i.e., literacy activities, maternal
included families who sought EHS services prior to engagement, learning materials); thus, we did not
infants’ 1st year. Thus, they may have been espe- examine patterns of stability and change in specific
cially concerned about promoting the healthy components—only change overall. Patterns of chil-
development of their young infants. From this dren’s learning environment trajectories might dif-
larger cohort of 3,001, many families never partici- fer for different components. However, exploratory
pated further in the evaluation study, and others analyses indicated that children of the six groups
did not meet our criteria for study inclusion. Con- differed on virtually all components of the learning
sequently, the families in our study were more environment at all ages, with few exceptions.
advantaged compared to the overall EHS evalua- The current study has important implications for
tion study sample. Nonetheless, we did not focus policy and practice. The findings are central to the
1072 Rodriguez and Tamis-LeMonda
design of effective interventions with young chil- modes of teaching as children enter school. Inter-
dren and parents from economically disadvantaged ventions early on may set families on an altered
backgrounds. First, the learning environment of trajectory of support, if families are assisted in
children contains a number of important features, efforts to engage children in routine practices, inter-
including the literacy activities in which parents act with children in supportive ways, and provide
and children engage, the quality of parents’ interac- children with opportunities to learn about their
tions with children, and the materials that children worlds through educational materials.
have available for learning. Thus, practitioners Finally, patterns of decline were most likely to
should take a multipronged approach to support- be observed starting at the 3-year assessment. This
ing development in these areas. Moreover, as a part suggests a developmental period of potential con-
of these efforts, special attention should be given to cern and aligns with studies that stress the impor-
the factors that might enable (or hinder) parents in tance of continued investments in children beyond
their provision of supportive learning environ- the 0–3 period. As noted earlier, the benefits of
ments. For example, mothers’ education, employ- early interventions maintain when environments
ment, marital status and household income were all continue to support children’s emerging competen-
associated with learning environment trajectories in cies from age 3 to 5 years. Thus, parents should be
the high range, whereas mothers’ age (teen status), supported in their efforts to provide their children
African American status, and Spanish-speaking sta- with learning experiences that build on early abili-
tus were associated with learning environments in ties and further promote the skills foundational to
the low range. Practitioners working with parents children’s school success.
should thus be sensitive to the larger social and
demographic contexts of children’s early learning
environment. The importance of maternal employ-
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