THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, AUSTRALIA (a omtsi PROCEEDINGS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON VIBRATIONS IN STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONSSTRUCTURAL PANEL AND GEOMECHANICS GROUP SEMINAR "VIBRATIONS IN STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS" PROGRAMME - SESSION! 2.00pm Chairman - DW Waldby, Crooks Michell Peacock Stewart Pty Ltd. "Design Ottice Approach to Minimizing Vibration in Structures" = A Clinen, Crooks Michell Peacock Stewart Pty Ltd, AFTERNOON TEA3.00pm SESSION 3.15pm CChaleman -M Mariey, Hollingsworth | Consultants, "Techniqueé for the Maielling and Soiution of Dynamle | Preblems De P Swannell, University of Queensland. "Dynamics of Foundations De J Howell, Vipac and Partners Pty Lid.VIBRATION IN STRUCTURES DESIGN OFFICE APPROACH JA CLINCH B.€., F.1.E. Aust. Manager of Engineering, Crooks Michell Peacock Stewart Pty Linited The Author, John - clinch, graduated in. ofvil engineering fron the University of Sydnay in, 1951. Mr Clinch Jained OMS in 1969 as principal civil gineer in ‘their welboutne Office. ° Since 1978 he has occupied the position of chief civil engineer and he was recently apgointed manager of engineering. His duties principally encompass quality assurance in piecing) and Vinchide proviso of stanards, Exlteria ard “guidance for’ designers, establishing Effective “edntnistretive procedvtes, "reviewing. and acquiring Appropriate techvolagy and “provision of {infernal or extemal specialist aavion, sunany Tk is essential that designers of structures associated with machtnery consider the vibratory effects of that machinery. even if isolated Percentage of the input energy will be transnitted to the structure, and to its menbers and accessories, An entire structure my be excited by a 2 Hz ‘rusher or agitator, while 10-20 Hz screens and Tesders can excite a range of meabers and accessories. Normal structure sizes. are such that. resonance With 50 Hz and higher frequencies ts unusual, out It can occur. ‘The paper suggests ewpirical means of assessing resonant frequencies so that these can be avoided, and neans of rearranging structural menbers to avoid resonance. Likely danage “levels of vibration for sane stuctuses. are described, INTRODUCTION In these notes I am Limiting the subject matter to structures and generally excluding foundations,” effects of fluids in motion and isolation of ‘machinery. The notes are derived fan @ Design Guide incorporated in cur Engineering Manuals. There is extensive Literature on the theory of vibration mechenics, such of Which doss not address ftsel? to the day to day problens faced in’a design Dffice. "A comprehensive refezenne to the theory’ is containes in the notes Bf a post graduate course on Vibrations. In Civil Engineering conducted by {he Sehoot ‘of Chvis and wining Engineering at the University of Syahey in y) 1381.A knowledge of and a seference to the theory is essential to all. structural engineers, but they also require means to quickly assess the potential for vibration’ of their structures. Basically they must cesign a structure whase fatural frequency of vibration, and those of its parts, are auPficiantly far Fron applied vibration frequereies ta miniaise resonance, Roar, "Formulas for. Stress and strain", presents in Table 36, fermilas to cetersine the frequency of vibration of a nutber of sisple aecbers.” Care is needed in the Use of these formulae to ensure conforming units ~ for” safety” use Kllonewtons and estres exclusively (Formula 1c 1s incorrectly printed and ‘expressed and should be: fy = 6.95 2 A/ Wi> + 0.495 wi approxinately, in order to satisty boundary conditions... In complex structures it is unlikely that sisple or empirical solutions wll result in structures which avoid resonant vibrations campletely, and dynanic analysis by computer nay be necessary. Such analyses nesessacily Snvalve fsany. simplifications, and itens such as stairs and handrails are not modelled. It may be that bracing, for example, is modelled by a shear stiffness rather than by discrete members. The results printed out tell the designer a lot about the stability of the structure as a whole, of support ‘systems, and perhaps of braces but may tell us nothing of tha behaviour of iinor metalwork. GFFECTS OF VIBRATION ‘Strong vibFations have well~decunented structural effects ranging fron reeptible movenent to fatigue or instability failures. Tt is generally {The intention oF cosigners to achieve a maxinun level of vibration which is ‘not disturbing to those who use the structure, and far Below the level. which WL cause structural damage. Acceptable Levels differ depending on the use Of the structure; what is sccepteble in a quarry 1s not acceptable ina ospital. Conputer analyses will produce results which can be compared with contort criteria, Acceptability criteria are often expressed in terms of the peak particle velocity, given by the equation 2rran peak amplitude fron neutral position (wn) Frequency (Hz) ‘The acceptable peak velocity may be as low as O.2en/seo for hospitals or over Inn/sec for offices. People are not seriously inconventenced by ‘occasional vibrations with peak velocities in excess of losn/sec. Very fragile structures, such ag old brick or stone buildings, may be ‘anaged by continuous vibration with a peak velocity as lov as 1 to 3am/sec or Individual shocks producing & peak velocity of 3 to lomm/sec.” On. tne ‘other hand, properly designed reinforced concrete or steel structures will. withstand much heavier vibrations up to the fatigue or stagllity linits, Nevertheless, although a peak velocity of 30m/soo may be quite safe structurally, it will not be tolerated by qperators. Operators are more Likely to be apprehensive aout. vibration of a complete support systen or structure than’ about apparently minor iteas such as handrails, although the loss of a handsail is alsa potentially fatal. asa/0e038 -2- ios/oaeq Although all sorts of structures and materials are susject to vibratory response this paper is principally devated to the response of steel structures end especially to the response of individual nenoers. DESIGN OFFICE aPPROACES Principles. The designer must _avold “synchronous or near _ synchronous senbers end structures. Generally this will require these, t ‘be designed to have a natural fequency of vibcation in the first made snd in any direction, greater than twice or less than half “of “the exciting frequency. This will not necessarily svoid all problens as other moves of vibration may velop and interaction effects within Uw stzucture may oocure Natural. Formulae for various sinple structural members are given by Frequencies. Roark, The ‘natural frequency of vibration of @ structure depends on its deflection in the plane of vibration under its fixed load. For a concentrated lead supported by a structure Of negiigible weight, the natural frequency of vibration is aqproxinately 0.5 where D is the deflection in metres at and oud Yo the Load. For distrituted loads the relation is not unique. For a bean n = 0. For s square or round plate nm « 9.65: here D As the maximun deflestio’ in eetzes. For a uniformly loaded cantilever n = 1,01 where 0 Is the free end deflection in aatre. Note that the deflection of a multi-storey building is siatlar to ‘that of half of a fixed ended boas rather’ than a cantilever, Hence a first’ approximation of the natural Frequency is given by n= 0.56 For uniform beans, including bracing, of all shapas under Ghei ow weight’ alone, the natural frequencies can” be empirically expressed (xithin 26) "In tems of, the radius of gygation in that cleection (netres) and’, tha overall length fn) 5 Follow Cantilever 2008 z Simply supported been boo z Fixed ended bea ‘oor Zz Propped cantilever Yes00r 4srvoco3n aor “ Hiosz002structures. Yachinery ‘Supports. Isolation of wachinery. Isolation seints Sa/08038 Hio3/an2 The designer aust be reslistic in assessuent of the real fixity of the ends. For exemple, many colusns are torstonally flexible and exert Little restraint on members tending t vibrete transverse to the plane of a vall. A preliminary approach to determining the natural frequency of a simple structure or of a flocr systen es a whole wuld be to endeavour to approxieate to a concentrated or to a distributed toad and its equivalent deflection. Mast offices have comauters which detemine deflections. Queensland Division is presently (1982) reviewing a_ simple vibration analysis programe for maxbers oz franes on HP 9043~ Where designers do not calculate vibration frequencies they Usually acopt sone criterion for the mesiers supporting nemally well balanced machinery which, in effect, stiffens these enbers. Such criteria include liniting deflections to qk. oT L_ of using a working stress in bending of, say, 60a, 05 3000" Checking against these approaches in two sample cases gave natural frequencies under losd of approximately. 6.3 Hz for Iminimss size menbers up to ll Hz in a dean and 13 H2 in a cantilever. These results indicate that such an apozaach might fat lead to the expected stable structure, Correctly dasigned mounting, with’ or without inertia blocks, to isolate aachinery fran Its supporting structure 1s a separate study on its own. in the basic case oP machinery, mounting and structure it “ts well to ronenber that these are. three frequencies, that of the machinery, the leaded mounting, and the supporting ’ structure." Frequeneés of machinery, mount and structure may, as an example, be in the ratio 3.5:1:10, Nore oF equally effective isolation may be achleved with s "softer" structure with, say a ratio 10: 7 Data on the interaction of machinery, mounting and structure are contained “in "ibration Isolating Hountings for Machinery or Suspended Floors" (1.£, Aust.) publishes by E A Books. It is comon to provide a separation joint in structures surrounding nachinery supports carrying, for example, erushers, generating sets, chigpers, compressors eto. To acta isolation Joints these should be open. A cover plate attached to one edge WiLL prevent bridging with debris. In too many cases such Joints are made with Joint filler left in place, having a substantial area of contact, and forming almost fs effective a bridge as a crauted Joint.PROPORTIONING STRUCTURES TO AVOID VIBRATION Propor- In proportioning nerbers to avold vibration {t is essential ffoning. _tosbear in mind that the natural frequency of a aamber is proportional ‘toy Ty to tor, and to\ 1! fw az Changes to L_ will hove far greater significance’ than changes ten’ it ‘sipports are adkquote end Fixing cen also “bs significant. Framing To inorease the frequencies of the seibers of a structure Layout. effective measures insluse redueing the spacing of supports and, in steel structures, use of dianond bracing. instead of feross bracing, Out of plane stiffness of vertical and Forizontal menbers must be adequate. This is important for beans ‘rot braced by floor’ structures and for” rorncomer Nenbers, _Menbers forming the selected framing must then be sized to avoid resonance, and ‘the. floor ystems and "structure “a3 ‘a vole checked." 1h" the ‘ease of steel “ateuctures. members: may Heed checking’ on ‘the minor principal and/or both ‘orthogonal axes. Bracing aay be single angle, “back to back angie, savin agie "suber te cleaves) of es, tye sinely comected or, if the sugpazting ‘enters. are "adequate, fixed" ended. Tubs, while Smvaniably "Lighter, “qukss additional fabrication’ of connections. Structures: These may nave natural frequencies below er above that of the wosting force. Braced stnctures are generally stitfer shan portal-type structures, but often the total fixed weight is Such that the natural frequency 1s low regardless of ‘steucture type. Structures with natural frequencies of the order of 1 He may be endangered by earthquake viorations in sefsnie areas. Connections. In structures subject to vibration comections should De by welding ‘or by "high strength bolts fully” tensioned. Connections meant to be fixed ended shaulé have the necessary stiffness to ensure this. As sentioned earlier "a. fixed Connection is aot fixed if the anchoring menter is flexible in that direction of freedon. Sononete Detezaination of the natural frequencies af concrete structures Structures. canbe ‘complicated by ‘the presince of absence of cranked sections. However frequency is proportional only to WI, so that errors are diminished. "1 would be reasonable to base estimates on gross section for all mesbers, bearing in nind that natural, Frequencies are being detemined for fixed live loads, ‘which are aften less than design live loads. Tt nay be desirable to Use cracked sections for sesoers where most of the design Load As fixed. “This provision would generally not apply to eclums ‘and walls, and often not to slabs. sWiseoncep= tons. Elastic moduli used aust be.short-tem moduli at working age. Connections will usually be rigid. Structures and senbers within’a structure do nat only vibrate in the direction of the driving force, but may vibrate in any dlvection. Structures and menbers will vibrate at frequencies close to fone of thelr natural sodes Of visration, usually, but not Recessarily, the first mode, and not necessarily near the Frequency of the driving force ~ it may be near one of the hamtontes. Wille aocepting these difficulties it is essential to. envsavaur to provuce ‘structures and members whose First stades of vibration avoid the frequency of the driving force. ‘Sane tuning, propping or deepening say be necessary at ‘omnissioning. Computer analyis won't help: you with the alnor metalwork ~ it won't be modelled. Beating between different sachinery, and between: different units of the sane type of machinery “can be a” source of vioration, The former ean be calculated. Separation may not be achieved, despite a gap. Vibratory feeders imase forces on the contents of s Biny which than react partly on the bin structure, regardless of the gap often provided. Adding metal to increase member stiffness, without major change in depth, does not change meter frequency. However, ‘adding metal to Prane bracing may change structure frequency. DEPLICATION TO SCREEN ANO HOPPER SUPPORT Background, Alternatives. Features. asivowza, 03/002 The structure studied Is synthetic and consists of an an square tover 25m high fousing a vibrating screen over a hopper. ‘The -lower framing Is braced in one direction and- portalied in the other for passage of vehicles. There are two Gischarge and one supply Conveyors. Foran assumed screen frequency of 10 Hz, structure and mesbers should be sized for natural frequencies! less than 5 Hz or more than 20 Nz. Design was carried out for a four column structure with crossed tension bracing, with qo protection against vioration, ‘and redesigned with other meaber types, additional colunns and ‘ieoand bracing. Ascuned structure layoute are attached, {It vas found that the hopper weight was such thet the natural Frequency ‘of the structure up to the top of the hopper was well Below 5 Hz. bn the other hand brsaing af the Lighter Swerstructure required beefing-up fron the minimus configuration to inerease its Frequerey above 20 Hz.Structure Exclusive of the bin and of connection allowances, Weights. structure weights were as follows: Type of Bracks 4 Columns 5 Colutne Seca ‘Spaced. nx an Crossed Tension Bracing, Single Angle: (Susceptible to vibration) 24.77 20.3T Single Tubular strut n> 20 He so.6t Disnond Bracing, Twin vet * 26.81 Angle, n>20 He. Otanond Bracing, Tube, 26.20 2.60 n> aa Relative weights will vary with the structure considered, but At As clear that resonant .nenbers can bs avoided witswut s major structure weignt penalty, but there will. te higher fabrication and erection costs. ‘Moreover, clanond bracing to ground requizes additional major footings: INR METALWORK General. wingr metalwork is a major: vibration irritant. Handrails, lodders, stsirs, pipes, ‘cable trays and purling vibrate, “ese huts and bolts dnd crack from fatigues Bolting. A feature of bolted-on minor fetalwark is that snug tight Comercial bolts are nomal practice, and under vibration the ruts work loose. “Spring washers may'help.” "Nyloc* type ruta are better but installation tine ds increased. Handrails. Fully welded tybular handeails to the minimus dimensions given in AS1657 and fixed at the base have @. naturel Frequeney of spproxinetely 20 fiz. Aigidity of the fixing 1s, ‘often overlooked, and natural frequencies will usually, be lower, Slipstype handrail systems with tubular posts invastably TatHe in vibrating structures and should be avoided in these applications. Stairs. The usual dimensions of stairs and walkways and thelr stringers are such that natura! vertical’ frequencies cat oe from 20 He dom to 7 Hz with tnoreasing span. Tranaverse ‘frequencies are lower, because of the stringer shape. Stairs, landings, their supporting brackets and handrails total Geflections, rather than ‘sizes “and spans, is better for fore Complex ‘stiuctures where assessment based on Getemmining’ structure “frequencies. “Handrails may. yibrate in accordance with structure resonance, or because oF thelr own ‘resonance. 4snyou054 Sue ioson2Purtins end cladeing. REFERENCES ASI/04058 103/002 Here vibration is only possible perpendicular to the plane ‘of the roof or wall and is heavily damed by the sir ‘around the cladding. However natural freqiencias of 8 Hz fer 150 purlins on és span and 12 Hz for 100 purlins on 4m ‘pan may lead to vibration. Often the result {= the loss of nuts oo bridging and sag rods, which reduces Theoretical lead carrying capacity." Putching or tearing of the sheeting at fixings is less likely. ‘vibrations in civil Engineering" (Post Graduate Course, May, 1981), “University of Sydney, School of Civil and Mining Engineering. "formulas for Stress end Strain’, Roark and Young. syibration ‘Isolating Mountings for Machinery on Suspended Floors", T.c. Aust.‘THE MODELLING AND SOLUTION OF DYNAMICS PROBLENS P Syannell, B.Sc. Ph.D, ME.C.E., MEE Aust. Reader in Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Peter Svamell is # graduate of tho Universities of Bristol and Birmingham. After experience with Dorman, Long and Company he spene eight years 5 @ Lecturer in tho University of Birmingham before Joining the W.S. Ackins Grebp, U.K. in 1970. He cane to the University of Queensland in 1971 and is the author of a variety of papers on welding, stability ani structural dynamics. ‘hen elenentary, euptricaity based, formulae are tnavatlable or unrolisble, the designer of @ dynamically loaded structure must appesl to empirical investigation or the best avatlable comprehensive analyses. Expirical investigation is generally an unaffordable Iuxury and the istter option is ‘the only viable one. This Paper outlines some of the important festures of ass, damping and stiffness mathenatical modelling. It discusses. solution procédures for deterinistic response in the tine domain and mikes passing Feference to frequoncy donain solutions in the context of rendon excitations 2. anTRopucTIoN ‘to prediction of dynanic responso is not an intuitive matter. The behaviour of a structure which is loaded by time-dependent forces is influenced by the periodicity of the forcing fmction and by the mass, stiffness and daxping, characteristics of the structure itself. "In all bue the very simplest systens it is virtually impossible to "guess" what might happen and any {11- informed attempt to do” so can easily zesult in fundamentally inaccurate fassessients of the xetusl response. With widely avaitable computing facilities many previously intractible problans in Linear and non-linear structural dynamics are now readily Soluble. Sophisticated muiti-degres-of-freedon models, perhaps. sncozporating time-dependent watarial properties, can now be attacked either with standard “Jango Syston" packages or with analler, localdy written, routines, In the context of civil and structural engineering needs fev, if any, problens are too large to be solved” in terns of camputing power available through any fof tho modern hacdvare systens. Computing costs ere only significant when Compared with static analyses and vould vazely be a hindrence when seen ao & suall part of overall design costs "Solution Powex"" does not guarantee useful results. Output may or may not possess nathonatical validity. There is no guarantee that numerically valid Solutions will assist in physical underscanding. Because dynamic response is hon-intuitive it is very tempting to believe aluost anything that comes out of the Intest package. There are few “classical” solutions of muttof-freedom systens with which to compare and cross-check solutions. Program de-bugeing is a continuing challenge and the greatest possible skill mist be Drought to bear on the mathematical modelling of any physical system. Inevitably it is fashionable to attempt to show that analytical solutions are, at bast, mediocre representations of as-neasured response. Ellis (1) and Jeary (2}, for exanple, based on excellent experinental evidence have fuch £0 say rogarding the relative nerits of simple formulae vis-a-vis Sophisticated nodetling. Jeary, in particular, points gut the difficuities of odelling damping and stiffness of real structures. Generally the Structures reported in the iiterature are of @ kind which no self-respecting anslyst would clain to be able to model with any accuracy, but the warnings of the experinentalists are tinely and worthy of the closest attention. Whidse acknowledging that the real world 1s dissicuit, it'4s psosible to formilate goed nodels which are better For having attention paid to the best available evidence regarding mass, stiffness and danping representations. With the best available nodels 1t is also possible to adopt, solution Strategies which avoid sone of the nore glaring inadequacies and which result In the efficient production of dependable solutions reletively fre fron nuperiesl distortions, A good model and 2 vell-conceived strategy a70 iikely to produce the best available indications of dynamic response when all else fails! 3. FINDERS dn essential characteristic of a successful analytical model is that it has ‘to be formlated with love and understanding by an engineer who appreciates some of the fundamental features of dynanic response. The starting point of Understanding resides in the classical description of the behaviour of Single-dogree-of-frecdon, danped and undanped, froo. and forced vibration ‘The equation of dynanic equilibrium of e Lincer-viscous-danped mass. subjected toe forcing function £(2) is the basis of most dynamic analyses. The DiAlenbert force (aj) is merely the zate of chango of nonentun and is equated to the spring, damping and external forces which cause it to give: voy hy = £0) w ‘The multi-degree-of-Ereedom systen of equations analogous to equation (1) inmediately follows by writing dovn equations of dynanic equilibrium in the Airection of each degree of freedom: pad + tei + G90) = Get @ [i.e] Si} are the mass, camping and stitiness matrices resyectively. LY}, {4} and (W) axe vectors of output displacenents, velocities and acceler ations respectively. (F(t)} is the vector of externally applied forces. All Seven entities may, at Teast conceptually, be time-dependent. Tt siaplities natters considerably if, for example, the mass and danping characteristics do fot change with time although there are many real syseane in which any of the Eysten characteristics are in fact tine-dependent, Dynanie analysis is all about the formulation and solution of equation (2), ‘nich thet the response has physical as well as muserical validisy. Wen aon~ Linear solutions are sought it 4 customary 9 seplace equation (2) by its ‘Nineremental” form:t Uncaiy + repaid « peters - (arce)? 3 here [K] now bocones the tangont stiffness matrix, ‘There are some outstanding texts. Clough (3) provides an excellent overview of modern dynanic analysis. Hurty and Rubinstein (4) provide arguably the ost comprehensive classical text, with many modem insights. Warburcon (3) contains many clearly daveloped argiments Togarding ainple systems whist Bathe and Wilson (6) give an exceptionally useful description of many of the roblens associated with solutions using munerical direct integration schenes. A relatively recent text by Craig (7) provides one of the best and most readable descriptions of dynasie analysis, technsqu reading for any' engineers who aight enjoy & gonin 4. MODELLING MASS AND STIFFNESS Te is convenient to discuss these wo system characteristics together since they sre inextricably linked in any real system, A Teal structure can always be viewed as a sot of nodes" Goints, Tine connections as in folded plate systens or conceptual "points" within a continu) inter-connected by Nelenents" (structural nenbers, beans of columns, or convenlent finite-sized portions of ‘the continuum). It is the elements which are the source of the fass and which provide the "springs". Tt is the nodes which are essentially "eassless" and hich impose compatibitity conditions upon neighbouring clenents. ‘Iwo fundamentally different techniques may be adopted for modelling mass. ‘The simplest, and often the best, 15 "lumping". The masses, vhich in reality reside in the structural springs are “lumped” at the nodes of the model, caving the springs thenselves as massless connectors between the resulting point "lumps". It should be noted that, unless the structure posserses Feet finite "lumps" with finite mass monent of inertia at the structure nodes, then the inertia effects corresponding to rotational degrees of freedom aro zero, i.e. the nodal lumped masses are conceptually point masses with zero snonent of inertia. ‘The consequential mass uatrix is referred to as a "lumped mass" matrix. Te will be diagonal in fozm with some zero diagonal elonents corresponding to rotational degrees of freedon. This diagonal form is convenient from conputationat viewpoint and is a major reason why many dynanicists advocate use of this very simple concept of lumping. Current opinion aiso suggests That lumping should be schioved very simply, placing lunps at the nodes, in proportion to the "contributing areas", although in a general finite element Solution the details of an appropriate nass distribution mey be far fron Unique. Indeed sone very experienced analysts, e-g. (8) give the user great freedom to interact with the computer when sezting up the mass model. in order to "bulld in experince” into the detailed mass distribution rather than to rely solely upon an algorithnically genereved distribution. Noverthetess this calls for significant user-oxportise and in simple stzuctures such a5 industrial franes, trusses, ete, lumping should be achieved by sinple ‘apportioning defined by contributing areas, Essentially, lumping must account for ali the moving mass of the structure ‘and must faithfully model the distribution of the mass throughout the systen,hen @ lumped mass model is used, the stiffness of the structure [XK] 4s the usual structure stiffness matrix, or ite tangent stiffuess mien the increnental form of equation (2) is used. In a franed structure this matrix way include effects of shearing deformation and my s1s0 incluce the “softening”, destabilising, effects of axial load, The yeli-knovm geometric stiffness naerix due to Jemnings, Archer ot al. can usefully be used in Hinearised representation of these additional axfal losd effects. Swanell and Tranberg (9) havo show that, under nounal working load conditions the presence of superimposed static axial loads has Tittle influence on the structure's dynanic response, but there are circumstances viere the influence Of shearing deformations may”significantly change this response. They also, give (10) full results for suitable elastic stiftness matrices, including shearing deformation, and including the influence of axial loads modelled by use of stability functions A second moans of modelling structure masses is by use of a Consistent Nass Matrix. The structure Consistent Miss Matrix is an asseubly of element sonsistent mass matrices, precisoly as in the arseably of structure stiffness, This element matrix secks fo reprosent tho clonent mize retained in it3 distributed form. Tt doss so by assuming that tho spatial distribution of accelerations within the elenent is identical to the spatial distribution of Sisplacenents within that elenent. For example, in deriving the geonstric, stifiness of a bean elonoxt it 1s customazy to assune a cubic distribecion of displacements throughout the beam longeth. If it is assumed that the consequential interpolation polynomials hay also be applied to the eecelor~ ations then the result is the custonaxy Consistent Mass Matrix. Clough (3) gives an excellent derivation. There is Littie evidence to suggest that the use of consistent mass, with its non-diagonat miss matrix, leads t0 significantly better results’ than mass Aumping. Sone standard dynanies packages nevertheless use this option. ‘hen considering the free vibrational behaviour of @ structure it may be Roted that the motion 1s hamonie, i.e. that the nodal displacaents vaey. sinusoidally, with frequency equai to one of the necural frequencies of the system, uj. Under such cireustances it follows that the accelerations se eines the dfsplacerents. The amplitudes of the dispiaceents are then related, in an undanped system, by the equation ik - of ma = 0 © ‘The matrix [K - uf M) can be referred to as the dynanic stiffness matrix. It is pertinent, only, to free vibration. Ina generel forced vibration analysis Bo Such real "Synanie Stiffness Matrix" exists since displacements, and the forces which produced than have different temporal aistsibetions Equation (5) suggests an alternative and, in Limited but very useful circun- stances, highly desirable nethod of describing structure eitinass, In the case of bean-colusn elenents and in a largo clase of folded plate eleaents, it is possible to derive an “exact” dynamic stiffness matrix, appropriate to free vibration, without recourse to assumptions resending eleaent displacenents. The consequential "genaralised dynamic seifénecs aatrix" is & sophisticated representation of elenent characteristics, setaine ing distributed ass and stiffness. analogous in every way to thfirst order non-lineer elastic stiffness matrices common to “exact” buckling stalyses. Wittrick and Williens (11, 12 et al.) give full descriptions of the matrices used in foldod plato analyses, together with essential solution algoritias and Swannel? end Tranberg (10) give results for bean-colum ‘he use of "exact" descriptions of stifiness and nass lass to free vibration- al response predictions which are the solutions by whieh the quality of all other free vibration models nay be assessed. Unfortunately such "exact! solutions can only be obtained for limited classes of structure, Where they exist they form the basis of forced vibrational analyses by model superposition 45, for exauple, in the Author's progran PACTS (13) 5. MODELLING STRUCTURAL, DAMPING Appropriate contents of the deuping matrix (c], in equation (2), are hard +0 establish! ork, for exeuple, at the building Research Eseablichnent. by Jeary (2) snd Jedry & F115 (i4} shows clearly that 1ittle is know about the Phenomenon of amping in reliable quantitative terms. Danping, as Jessy. points out, 15 amplitude-dependent and its neasurenent in the field can be Subject to errors which may be as large as 10008! With ehis in mind ie is still important chat the analyst should do as well as possible. Bathe and Wilson (6, Section 8) and Clough (3, Section 25) give ‘excellent descriptions of the custosary approach to computing [C] {c] is not constructed from elenont danping matzices, as when desling with stiffness or consistent mass. Its purpose is to model. the overall energy dissipation during system response." This dissipation 1s measured bys damping ratio, Ej, associated with the 1 th natural node, and is different for each node.” itis the ratio of the amount of dauping prosent during vibration in that mode compared with the "critical damping’. "Typical values of fin the fundamental node lic in the range 0.01 0.08 (seer for example, Steffens (5)). "Tt resins to synthesise the nstsix (¢) given the best, albeit dubious, available information regarding £j If it is assuned that damping is "proportional, i.e. that equations (2) ean bbe "decoupled" under s tranformation to norual co-ordinates (the method of nodal super-position) it can be shown (3,6, et al-) that s convenient form of the damping matrix (Cl is tc 0)» BET o ‘This is referred to as Rayleigh damping. a and g are constants that may be detorminod from any two given danping fatios corresponding to two unequal Froquencies of vibration. Te follovs (6) that a+ Bf = 24, o where uj = £ th naturel Frequency and Ej = damping ratio in the i th mode. Bathe and Wilson (6) point out that, in the analysis of structures with wide- ly varying material properties 4¢ may be inappropriate to use proportional, damping. For example, in the analysis of foundation-structure interaction “5problons significantly nore damping is associsted vith the foundation then With the super-structure. Different values of @ and B could be uso Sn describing different parts of the structure, Equation (2) cannot then be Ymcoupled™ but this only becoass relevant $f "aadal super-position’ ia the chosen solution procedure All-in-all, much work rensins to be done regarding realistic damping descrip tions. Note also, that in submerged or part-submerged structures, damping must include hydro-dynanic effects, in addition to “added mass" effects, allan, Heap and Wootton (16, Section 5) suggest methods of obtaining Aogarithaic decrenents, and hence the damping ratios, as the sun of the contributions from "unsubnerged” damping and hydro-dynantc effects. 6. SOMUTTON PRoceDURES, Solution of equation (2), in which the forcing function is specified deterministically, i.e. as a uniquely defined tine-dopendent function, is yoferred to as a solution in the "time-domain", ‘Tha foreing function nay be & simple, analytically described, function such as a ramp, a step function, an harmonic excitation etc. or a inique set of "force-time data pairs defined at suitably close datervais. There axe two comonly used solution procedures, viz. solution by Modal Superposition or solution by Direct Integration. Each has its merits and its aifficuteies. Solution by direct integration tends to be favoured in most Large system prograns but, where appropriate, use of nods? superposition is both extremely efficient and infornnts¥ 6.1 Solution by Nodal Superposition ‘The essential feature of solution by modal superposition is the transformation of equations (2) into a sot of uncoupled equations in which the unknown response is described by "weighted contributions", qj say, of each Of the Felevant natural mode shapes. This is achieved by using the Linear erans- Formation, i) = (Hla? S} were (D] is called the moda matrix and 4s an array of all relevant node shapes. Substitution of (6), and its tine derivatives, into equations. (2) results in set of uncoupled equations due to the orthogonality property of natural nodes, The solution of the set of similtaneous second order differ ‘ential equations, represented by (2) 13 consequently reduced to the solution of the simple "equivalent-one-degros-of-freedon"” equation (assuming that damping is proportional) of the form, pty Geet aes oa where rj = (D3}*. F(A) and it is assumed that tho 4 eh mode shape (Di) has been "normalised with respect to. (Wl, i.e. sized such thee os) MICO) Note that equation (7) is only valid if uj is independent of tine. Te therefore be used in "moving mass" problens, for ekanple. 4 Solutions of equation (J) are "standard" for each contributing mode for many common foreing funetions or my be obtained from the coupletely generalsolution using the Duhael Integral: a1 ah fryeoe 9 sang, ne + THY (A, sin unct +B, cos ayy th @ hore Gy, = imped 4 eh nacural frequmey sae eb! snd Ay and nar constants cbtatauble from th boundary conditions, Bache and Wilson (6) sumarise the conditions and solution procedure, ‘The quelity of any modal superposition solution is clearly influenced by two important Features: (9) The accuracy of the determination of the free vibrational frequencies and associated node shapes. (©) How many mode shapes are included. Wich regard to (a), it is crucial that due enphasis 1s placed on the issues raised in Sections'4 and 5 above. then using humped macs sedels the sathor uses Hlouscholder's Method to obtain estimates of the natural requencies given by the consequential linear eigenvalue problea, When the exact element descriptions are used, es in PACTS, it Ls essential that duc attention is paid to the work of mittrick and Willians (12) and thelr aigorithas for ‘the solution of the non-linear elgenvalve problem enbodied in the transeen- dental form of the generalised dynanie stiffness matrix. Care mist be eaten to establish accurate corresponding mode shapes, “Tranborg (17) gives mich information in this regards With regard to (b), there are no simple zules. Lunped mass models give a finite mmber of available mode shapes less than or equsl to the maber of dogroes of freedom of the model. "Exact" models, st least philosophically, Will provide the infinity of sode shapes! “It is necessary to decide how naty ‘tre adequate, Conventional wisdon is that relatively fev motes are needed ‘te give good displacenent predictions; the first five modes st aost are generally thought to be sufficient. Undoubtedly very many wore nodes are requited if accuracy in the prediction of detailod bending somont distributions As sought. Tt is not possible to be Gertain that sufficiene nodes have been ineLuies. Significant Fonterbutione an arise from nodes Involving extenasonal displocenents anf these aay seen 4n'the high frequency modes. Swanneii and Tranbeng (it), for example; sepert a8 analysis of a very inportant’ local structure, the Gataay Bridge, dn which At vas necessary to use tha first fifty node shapes in order 0 aeeain pose escinater of transient response Other matters concerned with good solution techniques are reported elsevhero (0). Te is noted therein that the modal woights qj can be subdivided Ineo, ‘hat portion related to "massless" response and that portion related toihertia response. The former say bo dispensed with completely, with great Rimefit in terms of solution accuracy, by a "one off” static aaslysis oitae Eis.latter 1s obtained for cach participating mode, hierty and Rivinatens G) sive an outstandingly clear description of this mites 6.2 Solution by Direct Integration Splution by Direct Integration merely implies che solution of equations (2) ‘without transformation Tt implies repiacenent, sous differential equations by a set of linear sims, SfLsgUE cstions which must be setisfiad st diserote tines, these time teing spaced at sn interval At, say, called the integration tine stem” The basis of integration schemes is the specification of an assuaed variation gf Sisplacenonts and/or velocities and accelerstions within see sine interval de. The form of this assumption, together with the Sint Sige selative to the shortest natural period of the anslytical model seccrcines ‘the accuracy, nunerieal stability and cost of the sclution geaceseen caprostg assumed ehaviour throughout the time-step, 1 1s possibte to develop gupressions for (Ye} and {ie} at time f (= ty + Ae) im tora et toe Ripplaconents (Yo), velocities {¥g} and accolerations (ie) at time vy and unknown displasenents {Ye} only. “This will result in a Set of staivonncus equations, equal in nunber to the nanber of degrees of tresdes, oy Mie styuctural model, so giving predictions of those displacensnte qd"? Back- substitution into the agsuned relationships gives a Fyli new soc SF snseey gonditions in {Ye, Yu, Ye), which becono (Yo, ¥p and Yo) for the sexe utah, forward” in time,’ The simittanoous equations might, aitereaticain ve feumplated in terme of accelerations {Ty} with back-substicution vo sive (Ye) and {Ye} ‘The most influential contribution to the development of direct integration ‘chenes was nade by Newark in his famous paper (15) published is isepe te recent years literally hundreds of papers have appeared in the sechoecaa Literature sdvocating alternative sthenes, refining Nemark's osteees Schemes and presenting analyses of the numerical stability, convesoeace and accuracy of such schenes. Wilson (6) has successfully advocates rhe oot gallod, "Wilson @ Method" as an inproveaant upon the original ances acce]~ grgtion method” attributable to Newmark, Argyris et al* (20) have aueseeiod and inplenented outstandingly successful schenes for noiLineay waren ted fouother with Batho and Wilson, for exanple, makes reference te Many sine contributions. an interesting scheno based on tho unfortunately named "Finite Integral” nothod, originally formulated by Trehair and Brown (21) in the caren oe Static analysis, has been developed by the author and used Successfuity tn a number of application (22 et al.). This schene appears to sien sscttene Fesults and displays very desirable stability and accuracy chusatcertients, Ie Rey to a successful direct integration schone is that it shall, idealty, be meconditionally stabte and any munerical inaccuracies, antrotdced $y age finite step and assuned behaviour, shall be Kept to a mininia Weed ei e stability implies thet, irrespective of step-sise, the procedure nin tie Produce solutions which "grow without bounds. The accepted mesic oe on Accuracy are the "period elongation", vaupl tase’ decay" and enerpy-conserving features of any chosen integration scheme when applied to'a Starts sone Problem, a single-degree-of-freedon oscillator. “8.‘Once again Bathe and Wilson (6) and Craig (7) give exceptionally clear introductions to the problous of accuracy end Stability. Hore sophisticated and particularly well-developed investigations are presented by Gladwell and ‘Thonas (25) and Wilber et al. (24, 25). The serious studont of dynamic analysis or any engineer uho wishes to™place faith" in any analytics! results vould derive exesptional beneéit from tho study of these matters, Sf only to achieve a heaithy wariness of too-easily-achieved results! ‘There {s enormous scope for continuing development of efficient integration schenes particularly in the context of non-linear analysis, Users of standard packages, no matter how well tried my be the packages or how famous the originators of how wise the users, should view all Fesults vith professional caution. "Elegentary” qestions regarding the precise solution procedure, the detaiied de-bugying of the package, the accuracy of the Solutions and the quelity of the stuctural uodel nay cause the analyst some fnbarrassnent. They can 2150 avold an excess of confidence in the analyser's ability and a nore costly asherrassuent et sone later stage in the design and construction process: 7. FREQUENCY pOWAIN| SOLUTIONS Much modern onalysis calls for tho essessuent of structural response to tine: dependent loads which axe "'andoa!" and not deterministic. The excitations will be deseribable in terns of statistical paraneters such as the probability Of occurrence. Tho output espouse will be Similarly probabilistic in nature. ‘The basis of rodern stochastic dynanic analysis Mes in an understanding of the statistical charactoristice of so-called ststionary sindon ergodic processes (see Craig (7) et al. for a definition) and the determinetion of Neransfer functions” which relate, for exanplo, the spectral density of 2 randos input function to the spectral donsity of the Pesulting output Fesponse.. Such densities my then be processed to yield other relevant statistical dace, ‘The starting point for anelysis is the determination of the Steady state Complex Frequency Response Pinceion for single-degres-of-freedon systen subjected to harmonic excitation. Warburton (15) gives an excellent derivat~ fon. gnalysis in the "frequency domain" ean then proceed by representation of the excitation by moans of a Fourier series. Elementary theosy associated with his procedure is given by Clough (3) snd Craig (1) who also introduce relevant theory regarding the use of Fourier transform pairs A comprehensive statement of sone fundamental statistical relationships end the application of frequency donain analysis to offshore structures is given in (46). Several major dynanics packages, e.g. (8), now offer the user options for statistical investigation af stochastic response based on these procedures. 8. covewsion An outline of sone of the relevant features of modoxn computer-based analysis Procedures has Seen presented, A wealth of excellent, almost standazd,Literature exists but is probably relatively unread by most structural engineers. The importance of dynanic response, especially in Light-weight economically designed structures, off-shore installations, industrial prowt and wind-excited structures is self-evident. Traditional undergraduate education in civil engincering barely scratches the surface of the dynanics discipline, Tt is likely that this eaeld, should oo ust change, but the major thrust will inevitably rest with postegreduete ood continuing éducation programs, supplencnted by self-teaching, an avtenpe has been made to suggest whore help ean be found, with the vesy practical sbjective of securing high-quality snalytical solutions in an increseingly important area of structural ‘engineering, There isa great tonptation for engineers to be “put off" gymanic analysis by he fear of too much mathematics, and consequently to resost to codi feed Mmpact factors" and a plethora of apparently sinple foraulae,” If the sormulae are woll-proven and their relevance 4s well-established then all may be eet, ALL too often, however, there is a simple reason why sinple formise simply, sre not good enough; dynanics is not simple! ‘Tho nathematics are roelly pot ory complicated and the revards am Terms Of physicel insight cen sonecines be quite helpful. 9. REFERENCES (1) ELLIS, 0.8. (4980). An assessuent of the accuracy of predicting the fundanentai natural frequencies of buildings and the lmplicatient concerning the dynanic analysis of structuves, Pros.Iet-E, Vol, 69, Part 2, pp 763-776. (2) SRARY, 4.. (4983). on predicting the response of tall buildings to wind ‘excitation, Proc. sixth Int.conf.on Wind Engg, old Const, Volt, 9p GS) CLOUG, R.W, and PEXZIEN, J, (1975). Dynanics of Structures. MeGrav-Hit (4) MURTY, Hc. and RUBINSTEIN, H.F. (1964). Dynamics of Structures, Prentice-tiail. (3) WARBURTON, .B. (1976). the Dynamical Behaviour of Structures. 2nd ed. Perganon ress. ae! (©) GAME, K. and WILSON, E.L. (1976). Nuserical Methods in Finite Elenent dnaly3is! Prentice tall, anna (7) CRAIG, RR, (1979). seructural Dynamics: Aa Introduction to Computer Methods.” Jotn Wiley & Sons (8) ATKINS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. (1981). ASASRESPONSE User Manual, Version il, Tssue 1. Atkins Developments Led, Epson, Surrey, U% (9) SRANWELL, P. and TRANBERG, C.H. (1975). Computational procedures for trestnoni of the stability snd free vibration of structure? frames sing generalised stiffness functions. Proc, Fifth ACISM, Helbourne, Pp 495. 499,