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Accidental Awareness During General Anesthesia
Accidental Awareness During General Anesthesia
Accidental Awareness During General Anesthesia
Contributor Disclosures
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Feb 2023. | This topic last updated: Jul 19, 2021.
INTRODUCTION
The term "accidental awareness during general anesthesia" (AAGA) encompasses both
intraoperative consciousness and later explicit recall of intraoperative events. Although the
incidence of AAGA may be reduced with preventive measures, it may not be eradicated
completely. However, AAGA with recall is specifically associated with use of neuromuscular
blocking agents (NMBAs), and is virtually unknown in patients who are not paralyzed. Thus,
while all patients undergoing general anesthesia should be informed that AAGA is rare but
can occur, specific focus should be on those who will receive NMBAs.
This topic will discuss incidence, risk factors, prevention, recognition, and management of
AAGA.
RISK FACTORS
Neuromuscular blockade — The most important risk factor for AAGA is the use of a
neuromuscular blocking agent (NMBA) [5,6,16]. Findings from the 5th National Audit
Project (NAP5) in the United Kingdom confirmed that the incidence of AAGA was
approximately 1 in 8000 if an NMBA was administered, compared with approximately 1 in
136,000 when no NMBA was used [5].
This association is understandable. Muscle paralysis removes one of the physiologic signs
of patient awareness (ie, purposeful movement). Since complete paralysis worsens the
psychologic trauma of an AAGA experience, even more so than pain, the potential for long-
term psychologic sequelae may be increased [10,16,19,20]. Explanations of this include the
fact that pain is an experience recognized by all; although unpleasant, the patient has a
pre-existing understanding of it. In contrast, whole body paralysis is an extremely rare
human experience that is described as panic due to being "buried alive," or "being dead"
[21]. In fact, the need for general anesthesia is determined, in part, by the need to prevent
awareness of the distress of paralysis.
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neuromuscular blockade".)
Increased risk with use of a TIVA technique is likely due to lack of availability of monitors of
blood concentration of intravenous (IV) anesthetic agents, which may lead to underdosing.
This is in contrast to inhalation anesthetics, for which continuous monitoring of end-tidal
(ie, exhaled) anesthetic concentration (ETAC) allows real-time dose adjustments [10,11] (see
'End-tidal anesthetic concentration' below). During TIVA, detection of AAGA has relied in
part on patient responses to noxious stimuli to indicate insufficient anesthetic depth.
However, if an NMBA has been administered, movement may be prevented.
Use of a smart IV infusion pumps can theoretically prevent pump programming errors,
although it is still possible for a clinician to administer the wrong medication or wrong
concentration (see "Intravenous infusion devices for perioperative use", section on 'Smart
pumps' and "Intravenous infusion devices for perioperative use", section on 'Risks for
medication errors'). Theoretically, use of target-controlled infusion (TCI) devices may
reduce risk of dosage miscalculations that can result in inadequate anesthesia ( figure 1)
[25]. A TCI device was not used to administer TIVA for any of the patients who developed
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For trauma or emergency surgery, the time interval between anesthetic induction and
surgical incision is necessarily brief (eg, due to the need to control hemorrhage). Also,
anesthetic depth may be deliberately reduced to limit adverse consequences of
hemodynamic instability. In some institutions, an additional factor for after-hours
emergency or trauma surgery is the need for rapid sequence induction and intubation
(RSII) that may be performed by a junior anesthesia team member [5,29]. Use of thiopental
during anesthetic induction, and not using an opioid (eg, fentanyl) during induction were
other factors in such cases. Specific considerations for these cases are discussed in
separate topics. (See "Anesthesia for adult trauma patients", section on 'Strategies to
minimize risk of awareness' and "Rapid sequence induction and intubation (RSII) for
anesthesia".)
During cardiac surgery, use of CPB may alter pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of
anesthetic agents, which may lead to lighter depth of anesthesia than anticipated and
increased risk for AAGA. (See "Management of cardiopulmonary bypass", section on
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Cesarean section is another procedure associated with higher risk for AAGA [30-32]. In one
study that employed standardized interviews to detect AAGA, the incidence was 1 in 256
patients [32]. Factors that have been associated with AAGA after cesarean section include
the need for RSII that may be performed by a junior anesthesia team member, difficult
airway due to airway changes associated with pregnancy and/or obesity (see 'Patient-
related risk factors' below), the brief time interval between anesthetic induction and
surgical incision (due to the need to immediately deliver the neonate), and use of
thiopental or ketamine to induce general anesthesia [5,29-33]. (See "Anesthesia for
cesarean delivery", section on 'General anesthesia'.)
● Difficult intubation – Difficulty with intubation in any surgical procedure may lead to
AAGA, presumably due to insufficient anesthesia during prolonged intubation
attempts [16]. Maintenance of adequate anesthesia during attempts is addressed
elsewhere [5,34]. (See "Management of the difficult airway for general anesthesia in
adults", section on 'Planning the anesthetic approach' and "Management of the
difficult airway for general anesthesia in adults", section on 'Induction of anesthesia'.)
● Obesity – The association of obesity with a higher incidence of AAGA may be related
to difficulty with intubation [33,35]. (See "Anesthesia for the patient with obesity",
section on 'Difficulty with airway management'.)
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● Pediatric patients – Although some reports have suggested that the incidence of
AAGA may be slightly higher in children (between 0.2 to 1.2 percent) [42], the NAP5
report noted a negligible incidence in children [5,43]. Assessing the presence of AAGA
in children is particularly challenging due to age-related developmental factors and
questionable accuracy of postoperative interviews [44,45].
During a TIVA technique, malfunction or misuse of the IV infusion pumps can lead to
failure to deliver the intended anesthetic agent or underdosing with possible awareness
[25]. Also, disconnection of the IV tubing from the IV catheter or subcutaneous infiltration
of the IV catheter may occur when the limb containing an IV catheter is tucked at the
patient's side table or not continuously visible due to surgical draping, with resultant
failure to deliver the intended medication. In such cases, brain monitoring (eg, with
processed EEG [BIS]) may aid in recognition of inadequate anesthetic depth. (See 'Brain
monitoring' below and "Intravenous infusion devices for perioperative use", section on
'Risks for medication errors'.)
Human factors are more common than technology failure in errors in anesthetic
administration or dosing (see "Prevention of perioperative medication errors", section on
'Types and incidence of errors') [47]. Examples of human error include:
to turn on a vaporizer. However, the low inspired anesthetic agent alarm should
sound ( table 1). (See "Anesthesia machines: Prevention, diagnosis, and
management of malfunctions", section on 'Vaporizer malfunction'.)
PREVENTION
The majority of AAGA occur during induction and emergence, rather than during the
maintenance phase of general anesthesia [5,32]. The concept of "neural inertia," (ie,
resistance to changes in consciousness induced by general anesthesia) may explain partial
memory during these periods in some patients [49]. During the preanesthetic
consultation, explaining that the patient may recall experiences such as "a mask on face,"
"tube in mouth," or "weakness as you wake up," will help to manage expectations and
mitigate distress if any such memories are retained.
Notably, patients frequently do not understand the difference between conscious sedation
with monitored anesthesia care versus general anesthesia ( table 2 and table 3) [50].
In the fifth National Audit Project (NAP5) conducted in the United Kingdom, a striking
feature was that reported AAGA was more common with intended sedation compared with
intended general anesthesia [5]. This has also been reported after gastrointestinal
procedures [51] and after dental surgery [52]. Thus, when sedation for monitored
anesthesia care or awake intubation is planned, the consent process should emphasize the
fact that the patient will be somewhat "awake," and "not under deep anesthesia," with an
explanation that some recall is to be expected even if deep sedation is planned [53].
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● End-tidal anesthetic concentration (ETAC) of inhalation agents (when these agents are
in use). (See 'End-tidal anesthetic concentration' below.)
Although not widely used or available in the United States, a target-controlled infusion
(TCI) device is likely useful to avoid AAGA during administration of a TIVA technique [17,25].
The TCI device is designed to ensure that appropriate plasma or effect-site concentration(s)
of anesthetic agents are maintained (see "Intravenous infusion devices for perioperative
use", section on 'Target-controlled infusion systems'). Other monitors of awareness that
are not widely used include the isolated forearm technique (IFT) and nociception monitors,
as noted below. (See 'Other monitors and techniques' below.)
Of course, physiologic parameters such as heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), respiratory
pattern, muscle tone, and purposeful movement in response to a noxious stimulus are
always monitored [55,56]. However, HR and BP are unreliable for determining
unconsciousness or the degree of anesthetic depth. Although tachycardia and/or
hypertension may occur as a response to pain (indicating insufficient anesthetic depth),
patients with hypovolemia or significant beta-adrenergic blockade often have minimal
change in HR or BP. Conversely, sympathetic activation due to surgical stimuli may cause
hypertension or tachycardia in some patients, even when anesthetic depth is adequate.
Furthermore, purposeful movement as a sign of AAGA, as well as respiratory pattern and
degree of muscle tone usually cannot be assessed in patients who have received an NMBA.
(See 'Neuromuscular blockade' above.)
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alveolar concentration (MAC) value (ie, the exhaled concentration of the agent at which 50
percent of patients do not respond with movement to a noxious stimulus) [57]). The MAC
requirement for movement suppression (mediated at the level of the spinal cord) is usually
higher than MAC for suppression of consciousness (ie, MAC-awake) or memory (ie, MAC-
amnesia), which provides a margin of safety to avoid AAGA [58]. Use of inhalation agents
with low blood solubility (eg, sevoflurane and desflurane) allows relatively rapid
adjustments in anesthetic concentration to achieve the desired anesthetic depth.
While ETAC <0.7 MAC for the selected anesthetic agent has been proposed as an
appropriate alarm threshold level, it is not known whether hypnosis and amnesia are
consistently achieved at concentrations ≥0.7 MAC [59-61]. Other important limitations of
ETAC as a monitor of appropriate anesthetic depth include:
● MAC varies among and even within individuals, and is dependent on age,
pharmacogenetics, temperature, and other factors [62-65]. (See 'Patient-related risk
factors' above and "Inhalation anesthetic agents: Clinical effects and uses", section on
'Sedation and anesthesia'.)
Brain monitoring — Brain monitoring such as processed EEG monitors (eg, BIS) may
improve clinical ability to ensure that general anesthesia has produced unconsciousness
during use of TIVA (or other anesthetic techniques) [17,18,26,67].
● Processed EEG – Processed EEG monitors translate the raw EEG signal from the time
domain to the frequency domain via fast Fourier transformation [68,69]. The analysis
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most processed EEG monitoring studies has been statistical modelling as if the
monitor is a "therapy," rather than a diagnostic modality. Studies that model
processed EEG as a diagnostic tool that determine sensitivity, specificity, and receiver
operating curves reveal that such brain monitoring cannot distinguish between
awake versus anesthetized states [78]. Thus, processed EEG monitors do not reliably
confirm that a patient is unaware, and are not consistently useful to guide anesthetic
titration or assess adequacy of anesthetic depth and subsequent recovery [79,80].
● Raw (unprocessed) EEG – Raw (unprocessed) EEG monitoring provides more useful
information regarding anesthetic depth compared with processed EEG indices, and
provides some evidence of an anesthetic state even after administration of an NMBA
[80,83,84]. When a patient is awake, the raw EEG typically has lower-power, higher-
frequency beta activity (ie, 20 to 30 Hz), and does not have persistent spindles in
theta (4 to 8 Hz) or alpha (8 to 12 Hz) frequencies [55]. The raw EEG waveform during
general anesthesia varies depending on the classes and combinations of anesthetic
agents administered. With administration of propofol or a volatile inhalation
anesthetic (eg, desflurane, sevoflurane, isoflurane) at general anesthetic
concentrations, the EEG waveform typically has a slow delta pattern (0 to 4 Hz), often
coinciding with persistent spindles in theta or alpha frequencies. These EEG markers
of unconsciousness can help distinguish between patient responses to noxious
stimuli that produce only autonomic activity versus those that produce both an
autonomic response and arousal [55]. (See "Neuromonitoring in surgery and
anesthesia", section on 'Electroencephalography' and "Neuromonitoring in surgery
and anesthesia", section on 'Anesthetic effects on neuromonitoring'.)
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However, use and interpretation of raw rather than processed EEG monitoring is
impractical in many settings since the technology is not available in all operating
rooms, is unfamiliar to many anesthesiologists, and is susceptible to artifact [74,83].
Isolated forearm technique — The IFT, although not widely used, is another monitoring
technique developed to provide supplemental information to monitor for awareness. One
forearm is isolated from the systemic circulation using a cuffed upper arm tourniquet
inflated after anesthesia induction, but before administration of any NMBA [85].
Theoretically, an awake patient can move their hand/fingers to alert the caregivers.
Interestingly, in a 2015 systematic review that included 1131 patients, 31 percent of the
patients moved in response to verbal command, but no patient ever moved spontaneously
during surgery, and no patient had AAGA [86]. In another study of 100 consecutive patients
who did not receive an NMBA, none moved in response to verbal command, although 24
did move during surgery (and required additional dosing of anesthetic agent) [87]. These
results have led to speculation that a state of dysesthesia may occur, in which sensation is
uncoupled from perceptions [88,89]. Patients in such a dissociated state may have no
recognition or pain due to the surgery (of which they remain technically aware) but can still
attend to their name being called as part of a verbal command. Such studies emphasize
the distinction between awareness at the time of surgery versus awareness with
postoperative recall of intraoperative events. Thus, although IFT monitoring is the only way
in which intraoperative awareness can be contemporaneously detected, such monitoring
may not be useful to assess wakefulness in the absence of neuromuscular blockade.
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Complete neuromuscular blockade is not necessary for many surgical procedures [20].
Some degree of muscle relaxation facilitates certain procedures (eg, thoracic and
abdominal surgery). However, in many cases, partial skeletal muscle paralysis (frequently
assessed with a peripheral nerve stimulator) can be used to improve operating conditions
for the surgeon while still allowing some purposeful movement to minimize the risk of
AAGA.
During infusion of IV anesthetic agents, possible awareness can result from failure to
deliver the intended agent or anesthetic underdosing, although overdosing can also occur.
Although use of smart pumps may reduce risk, safety and efficacy depends primarily on
appropriate use of the medication library incorporated within the pump for (rather than
manual programming that is possible to bypass these safeguards). Avoidance of errors in
anesthetic delivery is discussed in other topics. (See "Intravenous infusion devices for
perioperative use", section on 'Risks for medication errors'.)
● Opioids and other analgesics – Analgesic agents may minimize pain in response to
noxious stimuli during and immediately after an AAGA event [94-96]. Thus, it is often
appropriate to administer an opioid dose if AAGA is suspected, although large opioid
doses are avoided [97].
Professionalism — To reduce risk for extreme distress due to later recall of intraoperative
events, the operating room staff should maintain professionalism in all discussions
regarding the patient, regardless of whether or not the patient is assumed to be
unconscious.
Recognizing that AAGA may have occurred is important so that discussion, reassurance,
and further counseling can be offered to mitigate distress. Psychologic symptoms occur in
33 to 69 percent of adult patients who experience AAGA, but severity is variable
[6,7,21,56,98-104]. Patients may experience significant symptoms similar to other causes
of posttraumatic stress such as recurrent dreams or nightmares, sleep disturbance,
intrusive thoughts, flashbacks, exaggerated startle response, hypervigilance, or avoidance
of stimuli associated with the trauma. However, approximately half of patients reporting
AAGA may not experience distress [21].
Early emotional responses after an awareness event are risk factors for later development
of more severe post-event psychologic disturbances such as posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) [21,98,104]. Distress and long-term psychologic harm were most frequently
associated with sensations of paralysis rather than pain (see 'Neuromuscular blockade'
above), and the combination was particularly distressing [21]. A subgroup of patients
resort to formal complaint or register malpractice claims. In a closed claims analysis of
cases of awake paralysis, a judgement of substandard clinical care (eg, administration of a
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Analysis of the psychologic impact of AAGA in the NAP5 study has led to specific
recommendations for a support pathway, consisting of three broad steps ( figure 3) [53]:
● The "meeting," stage, during which the anesthesiologist involved in the patient's care,
along with others, listen carefully to patient’s story to detail and understand their
experience. The default position is to accept the patient's story as their genuine
experience and express regret that the event has happened (this does not constitute
an admission of liability). This meeting is an opportunity to start arrangements for
consult with a local clinical psychologist or psychiatrist.
● The "analysis," stage, where details of the case are examined to seek a cause for the
patient’s report and determine whether possible or probable AAGA occurred. This
may involve review of charts and records, as well as staff interviews. The NAP5 study
advises recording the degree of likelihood that the AAGA is genuine based on the
report and clinical context, as well as seeking an external expert review.
● The "support," stage seeks early detection of clinical impact in the first 24 hours. The
four cardinal signs are flashbacks, nightmares, new anxiety states, and depression.
Then, active follow up occurs at two weeks. If clinical impact is present and persists,
formal referral to psychiatric/psychologic services.
Further details regarding assessment and treatment of PTSD are available in separate
topics:
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● (See "Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical
manifestations, course, assessment, and diagnosis".)
● (See "Management of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults".)
● (See "Psychotherapy and psychosocial interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder
in adults".)
PUBLISHED GUIDELINES
Published guidelines regarding AAGA have been developed, although these are primarily
based on expert opinion.
The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) 2006 guidelines state that the
anesthesiologist should [28]:
● Identify risk factors for AAGA. Patients are informed about this possibility, particularly
those with risk factors. (See 'Risk factors' above.)
● Use a checklist protocol for anesthesia machines and equipment ( table 5). (See
"Anesthesia machines: Prevention, diagnosis, and management of malfunctions",
section on 'Standardized anesthesia machine checkout' and "Anesthesia machines:
Prevention, diagnosis, and management of malfunctions", section on 'American
Society of Anesthesiologists Anesthesia Machine Checkout'.)
Guidelines from the 5th National Audit Project (NAP5) in the United Kingdom differ
somewhat [5]. The NAP5 study included made 64 recommendations, including seven for
national regulations, 12 for hospitals, and 45 for individual clinicians. These include:
● Ensure that the consent process manages patient expectations. (See 'Management of
patient expectations' above.)
● Use support pathways for patients who report AAGA [53]. (See 'Postoperative
recognition and management' above.)
Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists and the Society for Intravenous
Anaesthesia for use of total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) include recommendations to
(see 'Total intravenous anesthesia' above) [25]:
● Use a target-controlled infusion (TCI) device for TIVA techniques (notably, these
devices are not available in the United States). (See "Intravenous infusion devices for
perioperative use", section on 'Target-controlled infusion systems'.)
● Use processed EEG or other brain monitoring whenever an NMBA is used with TIVA.
(See 'Brain monitoring' above.)
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perioperative recall). Most AAGA events during general anesthesia occur during
induction and emergence, rather than during the maintenance phase. Experiences
range from isolated auditory perceptions to being fully awake, immobilized, and in
pain.(See 'Incidence and characteristics of awareness' above.)
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• Mentioning the small risk of AAGA during the consent process, with an
explanation that brief recollections at induction and emergence are not
uncommon. If awake intubation or sedation for monitored anesthesia care is
planned (rather than general anesthesia), the consent process emphasizes that
some recall is to be expected. (See 'Management of patient expectations' above.)
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editorial staff at UpToDate acknowledge Jeffrey H Silverstein, MD, now deceased, who
contributed to an earlier version of this topic review.
The editorial staff at UpToDate also acknowledge George Mashour, MD, PhD, and Michael
Avidan, MD, who contributed to an earlier version of this topic review.
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