Watershed Hydrology

FRST 385 - FOPR 388

Lecture 3. Energy and mass balance

 Course contents
Module Lecture
1. Introduction to hydrology
Fundamentals of Hydrology 2. Watershed concept & hydrologic cycle
3. Energy and mass balances
4. Precipitation
5. Soil water
6. Infiltration
7. Groundwater
Hydrologic processes
8. Evapotranspiration
9. Runoff generation
10. Streamflow
11. Snow hydrology
12. Experimental design and data collection
Quantitative methods
13. Frequency analysis
14. Forest operations and water resources
15. Forests and peak flows: a paradigm shift
Forest Hydrology
16. Forests and water yield
17. Forests and water quality

Lecture 3 2
 Learning objectives
1. Explain how electromagnetic radiation works and explain the different types of radiant energy.
2. Describe the major components of the energy balance equation.
3. Explain the four forms of energy transfer and how they correspond to each component of the energy
balance equation.
4. Illustrate the direction (positive/negative) and relative magnitude of local energy exchanges during
various seasons and at night/day.
5. Explain how the presence or absence of vegetation affects the local energy balance and each of its
energy components.
6. Define with your own words, and put into context, all the terms in the glossary.

Lecture 3 3
Lecture outline
1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.1. Types of energy
1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum and radiant energy
1.3 Solar radiation
1.4 Effects of the atmosphere on solar radiation
2. Energy balance
2.1. Equation and components
2.2 Forms of energy transfer
2.3 Component particularities
2.4 Local energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance
3. Practical applications
3.1. Energy balance in hydrology
3.2 Energy balance in forestry
4. Key generalizations
Glossary of terms

4
1. Electromagnet radiation
 1. Electromagnet radiation
1.1 Types of energy

• Kinetic energy, due to motion of an object

• Chemical energy, as in gasoline, oil, coal,
natural gas
• Nuclear energy, as in a nuclear reactor fuel
• Radiant energy, as in sunlight
• Heat energy, as in hot water, molten metal
Stored chemical energy
• Electrical energy, as in a light bulb, electric
motor

“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed

but it can be transformed from one for to
another.”

Lecture 3 6
 1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum and radiant energy

Lecture 3 7
 1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum and radiant energy

• Shortwave radiation: includes wavelengths in the near infrared, visible and near
ultraviolet sections.

• Longwave radiation: mostly in the infrared, longwave radiation is related to the

emission of heat.

Lecture 3 8
 1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.3 Solar radiation

 64,164,532 W m-2 1,367 W m-2  340 W m-2

Sun’s surface Top of atmosphere Top of atmosphere
average

Strahler & Archibold (2011)

• Total solar irradiance, previously and erroneously
called solar constant, is the average energy from Why is the top of the atmosphere average
the sun at the Earth’s top of atmosphere, radiation (340 W m-2) so much lower than
measured perpendicularly to the radiation. the total solar irradiance (1,367 W m-2)?

Lecture 3 9
 1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.3 Solar radiation

Extraterrestrial incoming radiation for different

latitudes (Pidwirny, 2006)

Lecture 3 10
 1. Electromagnetic radiation
1.4 Effects of the atmosphere on solar radiation

Measurement
points

Top of the atmosphere

Extraterrestrial, above and sub-canopy shortwave radiation regimes in central BC

(courtesy D. Bewley and Y. Alila)

Lecture 3 11
2. Energy balance
 2. Energy balance
2.1 Equation and components

Day: QE = S + D - αK + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch
Night: QE = L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch

Lecture 3 13
 2. Energy balance
2.1 Equation and components
Day: QE = S + D – K↑ + L↓ - L↑
± Lh ± Sh ± Ch
Night: QE = L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch
Lecture 3
• Direct solar radiation (S): shortwave radiation not affected by the atmosphere.
• Diffuse radiation (D): shortwave radiation that has been scattered by gases or particles in the
atmosphere.
• Incoming shortwave radiation or insolation (K↓): total incoming solar radiation; K↓ = S + D
• Albedo (α): proportion of light reflected from a surface (0 to 1); α = K↑ / K↓
• Outgoing shortwave radiation (αK↓ or K↑): shortwave radiation reflected from the surface
• Net shortwave radiation (K*): difference between incoming and outgoing shortwave radiation
(K* = 0 at night); K* = K↓ - αK↓
• Outgoing longwave radiation (L↑): energy emitted by the earth surface.
• Incoming longwave radiation (L↓): radiation emitted from the atmosphere downward.
• Net longwave radiation (L*): difference between incoming and outgoing longwave radiation;
L* = L↓ - L↑
• Net radiant energy (Rn): sum of net shortwave and net longwave radiation; Rn = K* + L*
• Latent heat flux (Lh): energy absorbed or released during water phase changes (without
changing temperature).
• Conductive heat flux (Ch): fraction of net radiation dissipated into the soil.
• Sensible heat flux (Sh): the flow of heat between surface
and air by convection.
• Net energy (QE): difference between incoming and outgoing
radiation and dissipation fluxes.
14
 2. Energy balance
2.2 Forms of energy transfer

Radiative: emitted by objects with  Radiation

temperature > 0 K (K, L↓, L↑)  Dissipation

Convection: vertical mixing of

fluids (Sh); advection: horizontal
movement of warm fluid S
molecules. αK↓ L↓
D L↑
Conduction: molecule to
molecule contact (Ch, Sh) Sh

Lh
K↓
Latent heat: energy absorbed or
released during a phase change (Lh)
when water evaporates or condenses
Ch

Lecture 3 15
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

Direct and diffuse radiation

Outgoing longwave radiation

QE = S + D - αK↓ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch QE = K↓ + K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch

Lecture 3 16
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

Fresh snow
α ≈ 0.85
Global
Albedo
α = 0.31

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Cotopaxi

Conifer forest
α ≈ 0.12
Cloud
α ≈ 0 – 0.8
Water
α≈? Green grass
α ≈ 0.30
Quilotoa Broadleaf trees
Bare soil α ≈ 0.16
α ≈ 0.40 New concrete
α ≈ 0.55

Latacunga

Asphalt
α ≈ 0.08

Albedo (α) for different land uses QE = S + D - αK↓ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch

Global albedo image courtesy of NASA (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=60636)

Lecture 3 17
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

Seasonal changes of albedo (α)

Photos courtesy of Dan Bewley

Lecture 3 18
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

Latent heat:

• 586 calories to vaporize 1 g of liquid

water at 20°C.
• 80 calories to melt 1 g of ice at 0°C.

Latent heat of
vaporization

QE = K↓ + K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch

Latent heat of fusion

Lecture 3 19
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

Sensible heat:

• Molecules from hotter object in direct contact with colder object will transfer heat via conduction.

Lecture 3 20
 2. Energy balance
2.3 Component particularities

• Lh and Sh are referred to as turbulent

heat fluxes because they need wind
to operate!

QE = K↓ + K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch
What implication does this have on
forest management?

Lecture 3 21
 2. Energy Balance
2.4 Local energy balance

No water
Water absorbing available
Water releasing
Rn energy for evaporation
energy at ground surface in Rn Most energy
condensation
Ground hotter Sh back from hot,
dry soil
Lh than air Air hotter than

+ Rn ground
+
Sh Lh Sh –
– –
– Ch + + Ch Ch
– + –
Wet soil surface - day Wet soil surface - night Dry soil surface - day

Lecture 3 22
 2. Energy balance
2.4 Local energy balance

A lot of incoming A lot of outgoing

shortwave radiation longwave radiation
Water absorbing Snow sublimating
energy for evaporation / Water releasing Small temperature
Rn sublimation energy at snow surface in A little incoming difference between
condensation shortwave radiation snow and air
Air hotter
Lh than snow Snow hotter
+ Rn than air
Rn
– Sh Lh Sh Lh
– + Sh
+ Ch + – Ch – –
Ch
+ +
– +
+
+

Spring - day Spring – cold night Winter – freezing dry day

A positive + sign during a spring day means heat gains for the snowpack, which is either
increasing its temperature or melting.

A negative – sign during a spring day means heat losses for the snowpack, which is either
decreasing its temperature or refreezing.

Lecture 3 23
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from surface Towards surface

Lecture 3 24
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from surface Towards surface

Lecture 3 25
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from surface Towards surface

http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/

Lecture 3 26
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from atmosphere Towards atmosphere

http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/

Lecture 3 27
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from atmosphere Towards atmosphere

http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/

Lecture 3 28
 2. Energy balance
2.5 Global energy balance

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Away from storage Into storage

http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/

Lecture 3 29
3. Practical applications
 3. Practical applications
3.1 Energy balance in hydrology

Snowmelt calculation

Evaporation calculation

Lecture 3 31
 3. Practical applications
3.1 Energy balance in hydrology

K↓
K↑ L↑
L↓ Sh
QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh P
Lh
QE W m-2
M= = m s-1
ρw Lf kg m-3 ×Ws kg-1

M = melt rate [m s-1] SNOWPACK

ρw = water density [1,000 kg m-3]
Lf = latent heat of fusion [3.35×105 J kg-1] B = blowing snow M
P = snowfall
M = melt

Lecture 3 32
 3. Practical applications
3.1 Energy balance in hydrology

K↓
K↑ L↑
P
L↓ Sh
QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh
Lh
E
QE W m-2
E= = m s-1 O
ρw Lv kg m-3 ×Ws kg-1 O

E = evaporation rate [m s-1] WET SOIL

ρw = water density [1,000 kg m-3]
Lv = latent heat of vaporization [2.47×106 J kg-1] O = overland flow Pe
P = rainfall
Pe = percolation

Lecture 3 33
 3. Practical applications
3.2 Energy balance in forestry

Daily sub-canopy shortwave and longwave radiation in two forested stands and one clearcut
(Bewley et al., 2010).

Lecture 3 34
 3. Practical applications
3.2 Energy balance in forestry

N S

Watershed A. Homogeneous aspect distribution. Watershed B. Entirely in northern aspect.

What is the likely effect of major forest harvesting on radiation and hydrologic response in Watershed
B, given that it is snow-dominated?

Lecture 3 35
 3. Practical applications
3.2 Energy balance in forestry

Watershed A. Large elevation differences. Watershed B. Completely flat.

Which watershed is more susceptible to internal flooding after harvesting a significant portion?

Lecture 3 36
 3. Practical applications
3.3 Additional discussion points

• The car with condensation in one side only.

• Condensation in the mirror that disappears shortly after the car moves.
• The curious case of Chinook winds.

Strahler & Archibold (2011)

Lecture 3 37
4. Key generalizations
 4. Key generalizations

QE = K↓ - K↑ + L↓ - L↑ ± Lh ± Sh ± Ch
• In general, there is more net radiation (Rn) in open areas than forests, and this enhances evapotranspiration
and snowmelt in open areas.
• Exception to statement above: in some low-density forests, tree removal may reduce L↓ and therefore slow
evapotranspiration and melt.
• Lh and Sh are typically small compared to Rn components, but can be important under specific conditions. Ch
is mostly negligible.
• There is less Lh and Sh under forests due to lack of wind, further reducing QE.

Lecture 3 39
 Glossary of terms
Advection
Conduction
Conductive heat flux
Convection
Diffuse radiation
Direct solar radiation
Incoming longwave radiation
Incoming shortwave radiation or insolation
Latent heat
Latent heat flux
Net longwave radiation
Net radiant energy
Net shortwave radiation
Outgoing longwave radiation
Outgoing shortwave radiation
Radiative
Sensible heat flux
Turbulent heat fluxes

Lecture 3 40
 Acknowledgements
Image sources
• All images used in this document are either originals by the author or comply with fair dealing under Canadian Copyright Act.
• Unless explicit, click on each image to identify its source and acknowledge copyright holder or author.
• This document cannot be distributed or copied partially or as a whole for purposes other than personal study of students registered in the course.

Contributors
• Dr. Younes Alila
• Dr. Andres Varhola
.

Bibliography
.Bewley D., Alila Y., Varhola A. 2010. Variability of snow water equivalent and snow energetics across a large catchment subject to
Mountain Pine Beetle infestation and rapid salvage logging. Journal of Hydrology 388, 464–479.

Chang M. 2006. Forest Hydrology: An introduction to water and forests. Second Edition. CRC Press. 474.

Dingman S.L. 2002. Physical Hydrology. Second Edition. Prentice Hall. 646 p.

Pidwirny, M. 2006. Earth-Sun Relationships and Insolation. Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. Date viewed 2012-09-13
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6i.html

Strahler A.H., Archibold O.W. 2011. Physical Geography – Science and Systems of the Human Environment. 5th Canadian Edition.
John Wiley & Sons Cana-da. 640 p. ISBN 978-0-470-67885-5.

Lecture 3 41
Thank you!!!