Electrical Level Iii Full Notice

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION FOR engineering occupation level - iii BY SIR ANTONY KILOLO
CHAPTER ONE
DC GENERATORS AND MOTORS
DC GENERATOR
Electrical generator is an electrical device which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF D.C GENERATOR

When a conductor cuts, or is cut by lines of magnetic force, an e.m.f is
induced into that conductor.
The magnitude of the e.m.f induced into the loop depends on:-
 Strength of the magnetic field per pole.
 Speed at which line of force are cut by a moving conductor.
 Number of active conductors connected in series.
 Number of pairs of poles used.
DIRECTION OF INDUCED E.M.F
The direction of the induced e.m.f in a generator can be found by using a
Fleming‟s right hand screw rule.
FLEMING‟S RIGHT HAND SCREW RULE
Fleming‟s right hand screw rule states that, “the thumb indicates the
direction of motion, fore finger indicates direction of flux and the middle
finger indicates direction of induced e.m.f
1 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY
FINGER INDICATES
Index finger Direction of the main
field (N to S).
Thumb Direction of rotation
Second finger Direction of current
flow in the rotating
conductor.
CONSTRUCTION OF D.C GENERATORS
D.C generator consists of three main parts:-
 Magnetic field system.
 Armature and commutator.
 Brush gear.
MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEM
Magnetic field system is the stationery or fixed part of the machine.
PARTS OF MAGNETIC SYSTEM
 Mainframe or yoke.
 Pole core and pole shoes.
 Field or exciting coils.
MAIN FRAME OR YOKE
Yoke is the part of the generator which forms the outer casing of the
generator and supports the main field system inside the generator.
THE MAIN PURPOSE (FUNCTIONS) OF YOKE
 It provides low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
 It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the
inner part of the machines.
POLE CORE AND POLE SHOES
Are the poles which are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts.
Since these poles, project inwards they are called salient poles.
FIELD OR EXCITING COILS
Are the coils which are constructed from the enameled copper wire placed
over each pole to produce a magnetic field.

AN ARMATURE
Armature is the rotating part of the DC machine or DC generator.
PARTS OF AN ARMATURE
 Copper coils
 The core
 The commutator
 The armature shaft
Copper coils are the part of an armature which is fixed in the armature
core.
The core is a part of an armature which is made up of laminated silicon
steel sheets, insulated from one another to minimize the effects of eddy
current.
The commutator is a part of an armature which consists of a series of
copper segments insulated with mica.
The armature shaft is a part of an armature containing a fan for cooling
the generator windings on which the armature core and the commutator
are keyed.
BRUSH GEAR
Brush gear is a part of DC generator which used to collect the current from
the armature conductors, the commutator.
DEFINITION TERMS
Armature reaction is the distortion of the main field due to the field of the
current flowing in the armature conductors.
Geometric neutral axis is a line drawn at right angles to the main poles.
Magnetic neutral axis is a line drawn at right angles to the resultant field.
Interpoles are small poles fitted between the main poles and are connected
in series.
Polarity of interpole is the pole that has the same polarity as the pole in
from of it, in the direction of rotation.
TYPES OF FIELD SYSTEMS IN D.C. GENERATOR
 Shunt generator.
 Series generator.
 Compound generator.
SHUNT GENERATOR
Shunt generator is a type of direct current electric generator in which field
winding and armature winding are connected in parallel, and in which the
armature supplies both the load current.
SHUNT GENERATOR OPERATION

This is as follows:-
 The prime mover (petrol engine, electric motor, etc) runs the armature
up to the required speed.
 The armature conductors cut lines of force due to residual magnetism in
t5he main poles.
 This initial flux cutting induces an e.m.f into the armature conductors.
 The e.m.f induced into the armature conductors is applied across the
field since the field is connected in parallel with the armature.
 A current flows in the field coils causing a field which strengthens the
residual field.
 The armature conductors are now cutting a stronger field and the
induced e.m.f builds up until maximum voltage is attained.
CONTROL OF VOLTAGE IN D.C SHUNT GENERATOR
The output voltage of the d.c shunt generator is controlled by connecting
a variable resistor in series with the field.
Control is obtained by varying the field strength.
GENERATED VOLTAGE AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE
There are two main sources of voltage drop in a D.C. shunt generator:-
 The voltage drop due to the current flowing through the armature
conductors.
 The voltage drop due to the contact resistance of the brushes.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SHUNT GENERATOR
 The output voltage of the shunt generator drops approximately 25%
from non load to full load.
APPLICATION OF SHUNT GENERATOR

 It is used for battery charging and motor car generators.
SERIES GENERATOR
Series generator is a type of direct current electric generator in which the
coils and the series field coils are connected in series.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SERIES GENERATOR
 The output voltage is dependent on the load applied. Voltage increases
with load.
APPLICATION OF SERIES GENERATOR
 It is used as a booster on d.c. transmission lines.
COMPOUND GENERATOR
Compound generator is a type of direct current electric generator which
contains both a shunt and series field.
TYPES OF COMPOUNDED GENERATOR

 Cumulative compound.
 Differential compound.
Cumulative compound is the type of compound generator in which shunt
and series fields act together.
Differential compound is the type of compound generator in which shunt
and series field are counter wound to oppose one another.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND GENERATOR

 The output of the compound generator depends on the relative
strength of the two fields and whether they act together (cumulative) or
oppose one another (differential).
APPLICATION OF COMPOUND GENERATOR
 Lighting sets, marine equipment.

FAULTS IN D.C GENERATOR

FAULT CAUSE
No voltage at  Failure of residual magnetism.
terminals. (Remedy:-Disconnect armature and
apply a d.c. voltage across the
shunt field).
 Speed to low.
 Open circuit on armature or field
circuit.
 Short circuit or earth, on armature
or field circuit.
Sparking at brushes.  Brushes in wrong position.
 Loose brush springs.
 Electrical overload.
 Worn brushes or commutator.
 Open circuited, earthed or short
circuited armature coil.
D.C MOTOR
D.C Motor is the type of motor that uses the direct current to convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF D.C MOTOR

 When a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field
interaction takes place between the main field and the field due to the
 The lines of force due to the current flowing in the armature conductors
strengthen one part of the main field and weaken the other part.
 This effect produces concentrations of lines of force on one side of the
conductor (in this instance, the top) and as these lines of force tend to
strengthen out, a force is placed on the conductor.
 The lines of force act like stretched elastic bands which, when bent,
attempt to strengthen themselves out.
 This motor effect is increased when a current-carrying loop is placed in a
magnetic field.

 Under these conditions, the interaction between the two fields (the
main field and the field due to the current flowing in the armature
conductors). Tends to make the loop rotate.
CONSTRUCTION OF D.C. MOTOR
The d.c. motor is similar in construction to the d.c. generator, the only
difference being in the provision made for ventilation.
Motors are built for conditions where water and inflammable gases exists.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
The direction of rotation of the armature may be found by using Fleming‟s
left hand rule.
FINGER INDICATES
Index finger Main field N to S.
Second finger Direction of current
through armature
conductors.
Thumb Direction of rotation.
ARMATURE REACTION IN A D.C MOTOR

Armature reaction is the distortion of the main field due to the field of the
Armature reaction is also called winding reaction.
Points to note:
 The armature reaction represents the impact of the armature flux on the
main field flux.

 The armature field is produced by the armature conductors when

current flows through them and the main field is produced by the
magnetic poles.
EFFECTS OF ARMATURE REACTION
 It leads the flux density of over one-half of the pole increases and over
the other half decreases.
 The resultant flux is distorted.
 The armature reaction induces flux in the neutral zone, and this flux
generates the voltage that causes the commutation problem.
DEFINITION TERMS
Demagnetizing effect is the effect due to which the armature reaction
reduces the total flux.
The MNA axis is the axis in which the value of induced EMF becomes zero.
METHODS TO MINIMIZE ARMATURE REACTION
 Shifting of the position of the brushes such its planes are in the neutral
plane.
 Installation of interpoles in the generator or motor to nullify the effect
of armature reaction.
BACK E.M.F
Back e.m.f is the e.m.f which is generated in the armature conductors as
they cut the lines of force of the main field.
Point to note:
 When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the
driving torque, the armature conductors move through the magnetic
field and hence emf is induced in them as in a generator.
HOW BACK E.M.F OCCUR IN DC MOTOR
 When dc voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the field
magnets are excited and armature conductors are supplied with current.
 As the armature rotates, back emf Eb is induced which opposes the
applied voltage V.
 The applied voltage V has to force current through the armature against
the back emf Eb.
 The electric work done in overcoming and causing the current to flow
against Eb is converted into mechanical energy developed in the
armature.
 It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a dc motor is only
possible due to the production of back emf Eb.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK E.M.F IN THE WORKING OF A DC MOTOR

 The presence of back e.m.f makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating
machine that is, it makes the motor to draw as much armature current
as is just sufficient to develop the torque required by the load.
 When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to
overcome the friction and windage losses
 If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature
to slow down.
 If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily
in excess of the requirement so that armature is accelerated.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARMATURE REACTION AND BACK E.M.F
 Back e.m.f is necessary for steady motor operation, while the armature
reaction has no practical significance.
 Back e.m.f only occur in motors but armature reaction occurs in both
generators and motors
SPEED OF D.C. MOTOR
The speed of d.c. motor depends on four factors which are:-
 Strength of the main field.
 Number of poles in the main field.
 Number of armature conductors.
 Voltage across the armature.
TYPES OF FIELD SYSTEMS IN D.C. GENERATOR
 Shunt motor.
 Series motor.
 Compound motor.

SHUNT MOTOR
Shunt motor is the motor that has the field (connections Z-ZZ) connected
in parallel with (i.e. shunted across) the armature (A-AA).
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL IN SHUNT MOTOR
 When a d.c. motor armature is run up to speed a back e.m.f is induced
into the armature conductors, which opposes the applied e.m.f and so
limits the current flowing.
 During the starting period, additional resistance must be placed in the
low-resistance armature circuit (which is less than 1Ω) to limit armature
current until the speed (and the b.e.m.f) builds up.
STARTER
The purpose of the starter is to reduce armature current until the b.e.m.f
builds up.
FACE PLATE STARTER
A shunt motor is started by placing a variable resistance in the armature
circuit, thus decreasing the armature current until the b.e.m.f builds up.
TYPES OF PROTECTION IN THE FACE PLATE STARTER

 No-volt protection.
 Over current protection.
NO-VOLT PROTECTION
The purpose of this protection is to ensure that the starting handle is
replaced to the off position when the supply is cut-off.
OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
The purpose of this protection is to guard the motor circuit against excess
current.
SPEED CONTROL OF D.C SHUNT MOTOR
Speed control of a d.c. shunt motor is achieved by varying the field
strength.
Points to note:
 When the resistance is increased, speed is increased.

 A decrease in field strength will read to a decrease in b.e.m.f because the

armature conductors are cutting fewer lines of force.
 As b.e.m.f decreases armature current increases, increasing torque and, if
the load remains constant, the speed will increase.
SERIES MOTOR
Series motor is the motor that has the field (Y-YY) and the armature (A-
AA) are connected in series.
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL IN SERIES MOTOR
 The motor is started by connecting a variable resistance in series with
the motor.
COMPOUND MOTOR
Compound motor is the motor that contains both a series field (Y-YY) and
a shunt field (Z-ZZ).
TYPES OF COMPOUNDING MOTOR
 Differential compounding.
 Cumulative compounding.
Differential compounding is the compounding motor where the series field
opposes the shunt field (Y-YY) and shunt field (Z-ZZ).
Cumulative compounding is the compounding motor where the series field
assists the shunt field.
STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL IN COMPOUND MOTOR
The face plate starter can be used for the compound motor. Speed
variations can be achieved by placing a variable resistance in series with
the shunt field.
REVERSING DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF A D.C MOTOR
This is done by reversing either the field or the armature (including inter-
poles, if fitted) connections.
METHODS OF COOLING MOTORS
 Flame-proof type.
 Screen protected type.
 Drip-proof type.
 Pipe ventilated type.
Flame-proof type is the method of cooling motor in which the motor is

generally cooled by the conduction of heat through the motor case.
Screen protected is the method of cooling motor in which ventilation is
achieved by fitting a fan internally.
Drip-proof type is the method of cooling motor in which ventilation is

achieved by fitting a fan internally but the additional precaution of a cover
over the screen is used to stop drips of water from entering the motor.
Pipe ventilated type is the method of cooling motor air is brought from a
dust-free area and piped into the motor.
FAULTS ON D.C MOTORS
FAULT CAUSES
Failure to start  Open circuit on starter resistances (particularly in
series motor circuit).
 Open circuit on field circuit.
Fuses on starting  Short circuit on field circuit or short circuit on
armature circuit.
 Mechanical overload.
 Seized bearings.
Overheating  Partial abort-circuit field or armature.
 Mechanical overload.
 Armature coil short circuited.
Sparking at brushes  Open circuited, shorted, or earthed armature coil.
 Wrong brush position.
 Motor overloaded.
 Dirty, or worn, commutator.
THE IEE REGULATIONS FOR MOTORS
 Motors and control gear must be protected from mechanical damage.
 Efficient means for starting and stopping must be installed close to the
starter.

 Flameproof motors and control gear must be used where there is a

danger of fire (e.g. oil refineries).
 Ventilation is required in electric motors where the insulation is liable to
damage through overheating.
 Cables supplying motor circuits must be capable of carrying starting and
full-load current.
 The volt drop between the consumer‟s terminals and the motor
terminals must not exceed 2.5% of the supply voltage, when the
conductors are carrying full load current.
LOSSES IN D.C. MACHINES
There three types of loss in a d.c. machine namely:-
 Iron losses.
 Copper losses.
 Mechanical losses.
IRON LOSSES
Iron losses are the losses arising in the magnetic circuit of the machine
TYPES OF IRON LOSSES
 Eddy current
 Hysteresis losses
Eddy currents are alternating currents which are induced into the metal
core of the transformer by the alternating field in the core.
Hysteresis is the lagging of the magnet molecules in the core, in response
to the alternating magnetic flux.
Copper losses are the losses arising due to the flow of current through the
copper conductor.
Mechanical losses are the losses made up of bearing friction and wind age.
Bearing friction and wind age is a friction loss due to the movement of the
armature through air.
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CHAPTER TWO
ELECTRICAL MOTOR
Electrical motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Note that:
 The reverse of this is the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical
energy and is done by an electric generator.
MOTOR CONSTRUCTION
MAIN PARTS OF ELECTRICAL MOTOR

Motor contains the following main parts;
 Rotor.
 Stator.
 Air gap.
 Windings.
 Commutator.
Rotor:
Is the part of an electric motor which turns the shaft to deliver the
mechanical power.
Points to note:
 Some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the
conductors.
 The rotor usually has conductors laid into it which carry currents that
interact with the magnetic field of the stator to generate the forces that
turn the shaft.
Stator:
Is the stationery part of the motor‟s electromagnetic circuit and usually
consists of either windings or permanent magnet.
Air gap:
Is the distance between the rotor and stator.
Advantage of the air gap
 The air gap is the main source of the low power factor at which motors
operate.
Qn.Why the air gap of a motor is generally small as possible?
Ans:-The air gap of a motor increases the magnetizing current needed for
operation of a motor. For this reason air gap is generally small as possible
(minimum).
Qn.Why the air gap of an electric motor should not be large?
Ans:-The air gap of a motor should not be large because a large gap has a
strong negative effect on the performance of an electric motor.
Qn.What problems may occur when a motor has very small air gap?
Ans:-When a motor has very small air gap may pose mechanical problems
in addition to noises and losses.
Windings:
Are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft
iron magnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with
current.
Electric machines come in two basic magnetic field pole configurations;
 Salient pole machine.
 Non-salient pole machine.
Salient pole machine;
In the salient pole machine the pole‟s magnetic field is produced by a
winding wound around the pole below the pole face.

Non-salient pole machine;

In the non-salient pole the winding is distributed in pole face slots. Note
that:
Non-salient pole machine is also known as distributed field or round rotor
machine.
Points to note;
 A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays
the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.
 Some motors have conductors which consist of thicker metal, such as
bars or sheets of metal, usually copper, although sometimes aluminum is
used.
 Shaded-pole motors are usually powered by electromagnetic induction.
Commutator:
Is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and certain
AC machines consisting of slip ring segments insulated from each other and
from the electric motor‟s shaft.
Point to note;
 The motor‟s armature current is supplied through the stationary brushes
in contact with the revolving commutator.
Armature is the rotating part of the DC machine or DC generator.
Qn.What is the function of revolving commutator when the rotor rotates
from pole to pole?
Ans:-The revolving commutator causes required current reversal and
applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates
from pole to pole.
Qn.What would happen to the motor when there is absence of current
reversal?
Ans:-When there is absence of current reversal in motor, the motor would
brake to a stop.
Qn.Due to the improved technologies in electronic controller, what are
the devices increasingly being displayed by externally commutated
induction and permanent-magnet motors?

Ans:-Due to the improved technologies in electronic controller the

following devices are increasingly being displayed by externally
commutated induction and permanent-magnet motors;
 Sensor less control.
 Induction motor.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL MOTOR
Electric motors are broadly classified into two categories namely;
 AC motors.
 Dc motors.
AC MOTORS
AC Motor is the type of motor that uses the alternating current to convert
ADVANTAGES OF AC MOTORS;
 Controlled acceleration.
 Adjustable torque limit.
 Low power demand on start.
 Controlled starting current.
 Adjustable operational speed.
 Reduced power line disturbances.
TYPES OF AC MOTOR
 Synchronous motor.
 Asynchronous motor.

Synchronous motor:
Is a motor having a speed directly proportional to the frequency of the
alternating-current power that operates it.
Asynchronous (induction) motor:
Is an alternating current motor designed such that the rotor movement is
not synchronized with the moving stator field.
Qn.Why asynchronous (induction) motors are important in industry?
Ans:-Asynchronous (induction) motors are most common type of AC
motor that are important in industry due to their load capacity.
Qn.Where the single-phase induction motors is commonly used?

Ans:-The single-phase induction motors being used mainly for smaller
loads, like in house hold appliances.
Qn.Where the three -phase induction motors is commonly used?

Ans:-Three-phase induction motors are used more in industrial applications
including like;
 Pumps
 Lifting gear
 Compressors
 Conveyor systems
DC MOTOR
DC Motor is the type of motor that uses the direct current to convert
Point to note:
 The most popular type of DC of motors are 12V and 24V. DC motors
are also called commutating machines.
 DC motors are widely used and can be used from small tools and
appliances, through to electric vehicles, lifts and hoists.
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
 Brushed DC motors (BDC).
 Brushless DC motors (BLDC).

BRUSHED DC MOTOR (BDC)

Brushed DC (BDC) motor is an internally commutated electric motor
designed to be run from a direct current power source.
APPLICATION OF BRUSHED DC MOTORS (BDC)

 Are widely used in applications ranging from toys to push-button
adjustable car seat.
ADVANTAGE OF BRUSHED DC MOTORS (BDC)
 Are cheap, easy to drive and are readily available in all sizes and shapes.
CONSTRUCTION OF BRUSHED DC MOTOR
All BDC motors are made of the same basic components:
 Stator
 Rotor
 Brushes and commutator
Stator:
The stator generates a stationary that surrounds the rotor.
Point to note:
This field is generated by either permanent magnet or electromagnetic
windings.
Rotor (armature):
The rotor also called the armature is made up of one or more windings.
Qn. What will happen when the windings of a rotor are energized?
Ans:-When the windings of a rotor are energized they produce a magnetic
field.
Qn. What will happen when the magnetic poles of the rotor field will be
attracted to the opposite poles generated by the stator?
Ans:-When the magnetic poles of the rotor field will be attracted to the
opposite poles generated by the stator, causing the rotor to turn.
Qn.Why the windings are constantly being energized in a different
sequence as the motor turns?
Ans:-As the motor turns, the windings are constantly being energized in a
different sequence so that the magnetic poles produced by the rotor do
not overrun the poles generated in the stator.
Commutator:
Commutator is a device used to reverse the direction of flow of an electric
current.
Qn.What is commutation?
Ans:-Commutation is the switching of the field in the rotor windings.
Brushes:
Brush are electrical contacts which conduct current between stationary
wires and moving parts, most commonly in a rotating shaft.
Brushes and commutator (segment):
Qn.Why BDC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the
motor windings like other type of electrical motors?
Ans:-BDC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the
motor windings like other type of electrical motors because the
commutation of the windings of a BDC motor is done mechanically.
Operation of Brushes and commutator (segment):
 A segmented copper sleeve called a commutator, resides on the axle of
a BDC motor.
 As the rotor turns, carbon brushes (ride on the side of the commutator
to provide supply voltage to the motor) slide over the commutator,
coming in contact with different segments of the commutator.
 The segments are attracted to different rotor windings; therefore, a
dynamic magnetic field is generated inside the motor when a voltage is
applied across the brushes of the motor.

Point to note:
 The brushes and commutator are the parts of a BDC motor that are
most prone to wear because they are sliding past each other.
How the commutator works?
 As the rotor turns, the commutator terminals also turn and continuously
reverse polarity of the current it gets from the stationary brushes
attached to the battery.
TYPES OF BDC MOTORS
 Permanent magnet motor
 Shunt-wound motor
 Series-wound motor
 Compound-wound motor
 Separated excited DC motor
 Universal motor
 Servo motor
PERMANENT MAGNET (PMDC) MOTOR
Permanent magnet (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are made out
of permanent magnets to produce the stator field.
ADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

 Widely used in low power application.
 No requirement on external excitation.
 Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit copper
losses.
 Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable
smaller.
 Field winding is replaced by a permanent magnet (simple construction
and less space).
DISADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

 Since permanent magnet produces weaker flux densities then externally
supported shunt fields, such as motors have low induced torque.
 There is always a risk of demagnetization from extensive heating or
from armature reaction effects (some PMDC motors have windings built
into them to prevent this from happening).
SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR
Shunt wound DC motor is a direct current motor whose two windings are
in parallel, with the same voltage across each.
Point to note:
 Shunt wound brushed DC (SHWDC) motors have the field coil in
parallel (shunt) with the armature.
Qn.Why shunt wound brushed DC motors are suitable for commercial

applications with a low starting load?
Ans:-Shunt wound brushed DC motors are suitable for commercial
applications with a low starting load because their speed is practically
constant independent of the load.
APPLICATION OF SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR
Shunt wound brushed DC motors are suitable for commercial applications
such as:-
 Centrifugal pump
 Machine tools
 Blower‟s fans
 Reciprocating pumps.
ADVANTAGES OF SHUNT WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR
 Loss of magnetism is not an issue in SHWDC motors so they are
generally more robust than PMDC motors.
 The current in the field coil and the armature are independent of one
another as a result, these motors have excellent speed control.
 Speed can be controlled by either inserting a resistance in series with the
armature (decreasing speed) or by inserting resistance in the field current
(increasing speed).
DISADVANTAGE OF SHUNT WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

 Shunt wound Brushed DC (SHWDC) motors have drawbacks in
reversing applications however because winding direction relative to the
shunt winding must be reversed when armature voltage is reversed.
Here reversing contactors must be used.
SERIES WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR
Series wound DC motor is a direct current motor whose two windings are
in series, with different voltage across each.
Point to note:
 Series-wound brushed DC (SWBDC) motors have the field coil in series
with the armature.
APPLICATION OF SERIES-WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

Series-wound brushed DC motors are suitable for high torque applications
such as traction vehicles like:-
 Conveyor
 Elevators
 Electric cars
 Electric trains
 Cranes and hoists
Qn.Why series-wound brushed DC motors are suitable for high torque
applications?
Ans:-Series-wound brushed DC motors are suitable for high torque
applications because the current in both the stator and armature increases
under load.
ADVANTAGES OF SERIES BRUSHED WOUND DC MOTORS

 They have good accelerating torque.
 They deliver high torque during an overload.
 They have a relatively huge starting torques.
 They draw less current and power from the source compared to a shunt
or compound motor.

DISADVANTAGES OF SERIES WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

 Speed is restricted to 5000RPM.
 It must be avoided to run a series motor with no load because the
motor will accelerate uncontrollably.
 A draw back to SWDC motors is that they do not have precise speed
control like PMDC and SHWDC motors have.
COMPOUND WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR
Compound wound brushed DC motors are the combination of shunt-
wound and series wound motors.
Point to note:
 Compound wound brushed DC motors have higher torque than a shunt
wound brushed DC motor while offering better speed control than
series wound brushed DC motor.
It is used in applications such as;
 Rolling mills
 Heavy machine tools
 Sudden temporary loads
 Punches.
ADVANTAGE OF COMPOUND WOUND MOTOR
 It has a good starting torque and a stable speed.
DISADVANTAGE OF COMPOUND WOUND MOTOR
 The no load speed is controllable unlike in series motor.
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR
Separately excited DC motor is a motor whose field circuit is supplied from
a separate constant-voltage power.
Point to note:
 The separately excited DC motor was sometimes used in DC traction
motors to facilitate control of wheel slip.
 In separately excited DC motor the field coils are supplied from and
independent source, such as a motor-generator and the field current is
unaffected by changes in the armature current.
UNIVERSAL MOTOR
Universal motor is a rotating electrical machine similar to DC series motor,
designed to operate either from AC to DC source.
Point to note:
 The stator and rotor windings of the motor are connected in series
through the rotor commutator.
 The series motor is designed to move large loads with high torque in
applications such as crane motor or lift hoist.
SERVO MOTORS
Servo motors are mechanical devices that can be instructed to move the
output shaft attached to a servo wheel or arm to a specified position.
Point to note:
 Servo motors are designed for applications involving position control,
velocity control and torque control.
SERVO MOTORS COMPONENTS
A servo motor mainly consists of:-
 DC motor
 Gear system
 Control electronics
 Position sensor which is mostly potentiometer
APPLICATION OF SERVO MOTORS
They are used in radio-controlled airplanes to position control surfaces like;
 Rudders
 Elevators
 Walking a robot or operating system.
BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS (BLDC)
Brushless DC motors is a direct current electric motor that operates
without the mechanical brushes and commutator of a traditional brush
motor.
Point to note:
 The motor controller uses Hall Effect sensors to detect the rotors
position and by using this, the controller can accurately control the
motor via current in the rotor coils to regulate the speed.
The advantages of Hall Effect sensors technology are;

 It is the long life.
 Little maintenance.
 High efficiency (85%-90%).
The disadvantages of Hall Effect sensors technology are;
 It is higher initial costs.
 More complicated controllers.
Application of brushless DC motor
 They are used in speed and positional control with applications such as
fans, pumps and compressors.
Example of brushless design includes;
 Stepper motors, which are primarily used in open-loop position control.
DC motors can be used with;
 Conveyors
 Elevators
 Extruders
 Marine applications
 Automobile
 Aircraft
ADVANTAGES OF DC MOTORS
 Easy installation.
 High starting torque.
 It is free from harmonics.
 Linear speed-torque curve.
 Speed control over a wide range.
 Quick starting, stopping, reversing and acceleration.
DISADVANTAGES OF DC MOTORS
 High initial cost.
 They need brushes to connect the rotor winding.
 RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or
electronic devices.

 Increased operation and maintenance cost due to presence of

commutator and brush gear.
 Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment
contains explosive materials.
ELECTROMAGNETIC CONTACTOR
Contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching an
electrical power circuit, similar to a relay except with higher current ratings.
COMPONENTS OF CONTACTOR
A contactor has three main components include;
 Auxiliary
 Power contacts
 Contacts springs
Point to note:
 Electromagnet (coil) that providing the driving force to close the
contacts.
 The contacts are the current carrying part of the contactor.
 The enclosure is a frame housing of the contact and the electromagnet.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF CONTACTOR
When a voltage is applied to coils terminals;
 Electromagnetic force is generated.
 Moving magnet is attracted towards fixed magnet.
 Contacts close.
When a voltage is withdrawn to coils terminals;
 Electromagnetic force no longer exists.
 Return springs push moving magnet back to initial position.

 Contacts open.
THE ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY
Electromechanical relay is a device that provides an electrical connection
between two or more points in response to the application of a control
signal.
Point to note:
 The most common and widely used type of electrical relay is the
electromechanical relay or EMR.
ELECTRICAL TIMER SWITCH
Electrical timer switch is a timer that operates an electric switch controlling
by the timing mechanism.
Electrical timer switch is also called time switch.
Point to note:
 The switch may be connected to an electric circuit operating from mains
power, including via a relay or contactor; or low voltage, including
battery-operated equipment in vehicles.
OVERLOAD RELAY
Overload relay is an electrical device mainly designed for imitating the
heating prototypes of the electric motor, as well as breakups the flow of
current when the heat detecting device in the relay attains a fixed
temperature.
TYPES OF OVERLOAD RELAY

 Thermal overload relay
 Magnetic overload relay
THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAY
Thermal overload relay is a protective device, and that is mainly designed
to cut the power whenever the motor uses too much current for an
extended time period.
TYPES OF THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAY

 Solder pot thermal overload relay
 Bimetal strip thermal overload relay
Points to note:
 Thermal overload relays are economic electromechanical protection
devices for the main circuit.
 Thermal overload relay is designed to open the starting circuit and thus
cut the power to the motor in the event of the motor drawing too
much current from the supply for an extended time.
 The overload relay has a normally closed contact which opens due to
heat generated by excess current flowing through the circuit.
 The overload relays offer reliable protection for motors in the event of
overload or phase failure.
 The thermal overload relay can make up a compact starting solution
together with contactors.

OPERATION OF THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAYS

 If the motor is overloaded, it will cause too much current to flow
through the circuit.
 When a current greater than normal flows through the overload heater,
the heater produces more heat than it does under normal conditions.
 If the current becomes high enough, it will cause the normally closed
overload contact open.
Points to note:
 The overload contact is electrically isolated from the heater. The contact
therefore, can be connected to a different voltage source than the
motor.
 If the overload contact opens, the control circuit is broken and the relay
de-energizes as if the stop button had been pushed.
 After the overload contact re-set to its normally closed position, the coil
will remain de-energized until the start button is again pressed.
MAGNETIC OVERLOAD RELAY
Magnetic overload relay is a protective device that converts electric energy
to magnetic force to open the circuit when an overload condition occurs.
TYPES OF MAGNETIC OVERLOAD RELAY

 Electronic magnetic overload relay
 Dashpot magnetic overload relay
APPLICATIONS OF OVERLOAD RELAY

 An overload relay is extensively used to protect the motor.
 Overload relays deactivate the device whenever it pulls extreme
current.
 Overload relay has developed into microprocessor systems as well as
solid-state electronics.
 An overload relay can be utilized for detecting both overload
conditions as well as fault conditions and then declare trip commands
for a protective device.
STOP AND START BUTTON SWITCH
Point to note:
 A stop button can force a start button to be released.
 This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the
machine or process has no electrical circuits for control.
FAULT (STRESS) OF ELECTRIC MOTOR
MOTOR STRESS ACTUAL
COMPONENT TYPE STRESS OR DAMAGE
Bearings Thermal  Friction
 Lubricant
 Ambient
Dynamic and static  Radial
loading  Axial
 Preload
 Misapplication
Vibration and shock  Rotor
 Driven
 Equipment
 System
Environmental  Condensation
 Foreign materials
 Excessive ambient
Mechanical  Loss of clearances
 Misalignment
 Shaft and housing fits
Electrical  Rotor dissymmetry
 Electrostatic coupling
 Static charges
 Variable frequency drives
Stator Thermal  Thermal aging

 Thermal overload
 Voltage variation
 Voltage unbalance
 Ambient
 Load cycling
 Starting and stalling poor
ventilation
Electrical  Dielectric aging
 Transient voltages
 Partial discharge (corona)
 Tracking
Mechanical  Winding movement damaged
motor leads
 Improper rotor-to-stator
geometry
 Defective rotor
 Flying objects
Environmental  Moisture
 Chemical
 Abrasion
 Poor ventilation
 Excessive ambient
Rotor Thermal  Thermal overload
 Thermal unbalance
 Excessive rotor losses
 Hot spots or sparking
Dynamic  Vibration
 Loose rotor bars
 Rotor rub
 Transient torque
 Centrifugal force or over speed
 Cyclical stress
Mechanical  Casting variations or voids
 Loose laminations and or bars
 Incorrect shaft-to-core fit
 Fatigue or part breakage
 Improper rotor-to-stator
geometry
 Material deviations
 Improper mounting
 Improper design or manufacturing
practices
Environmental  Corrosion
 Abrasion
 Foreign materials
 Poor ventilation
 Excessive ambient temperature
 Unusual external forces
Magnetic  Rotor pullover
 Uneven magnetic pull
 Lamination saturation
 Noise
 Circulating currents
 Vibration electromagnetic effect
Residual  Stress concentration
 Uneven cage stress
Miscellaneous  Misapplication
 Effects of poor design
 Manufacturing variations
 Inadequate maintenance
 Improper operation
 Improper mounting
Shaft Dynamic  Cyclic loads
 Overload
 Shock
Mechanical  Overhung load and bending
 Torsional load
 Axial load
Environmental  Corrosion
 Moisture
 Erosion wear
Thermal  Temperature gradients
 Rotor blowing
Residual  Manufacturing process
 Repair process.
Electromagnetic  Excessive radial load
 Out-of-phase reclosing
MAGNETIC STARTER
Magnetic starter is an electromagnetically operated switch which provides
a safe method for starting an electric motor with a large load.
Point to note:
 Magnetic starters also provide under-voltage and overload protection
and an automatic cut off in the event of a power failure.

STARTER
Starter is a device that controls the use of electrical power to equipment,
usually a motor.
Points to note:
 Starters are made from two building blocks, contactors and overload
protection.
 As the name implies, starters start motors. They can also stop them,
reverse them, and protect them.
FUNCTIONS OF A STARTER
 It represents another evolution in motor control applications.
 It turns an electric motor or motor controlled equipment on or off,
while providing overload protection.
 It repeatedly establishes and interrupts an electrical power circuit when
contactors control the electric current to the motor.
Point to note:
 Overload protection protects motors from drawing too much current,
overheating, and from literally “burning out”.
TYPES OF STARTERS
The two main types of starters are;
 Manual starters
 AC magnetic motor starters
Point to note:
 AC magnetic motor starters commonly known as Motor starters.
Based on the above techniques, the most common types of starters are:-
 Direct on-line starter.
 Star-delta starter.
 Stator resistance starter.
 Auto transformer starter.
 Soft starter.

DIRECT ON-LINE STARTER

Direct on-line (DOL) starter is a device consists of contactor, protective
devices and over load relay which is used for motor starting operations.
Points to note:
 Small capacity motors (below 5HP) doesn‟t have very high starting
currents.
 There is no need to reduce the voltage to the motor at start and hence
motor can be connected directly to the supply lines.
 The type of arrangement employed in a starter is referred as direct on-
line starter or simply DOL starter.
FEATURES OF DOL STARTING
 Voltage dips
 High current peaks
 High starting torque
 Simple switching devices
 Very high mechanical load
 Three connections lines (circuit layout: star or delta)
Note that:
 Although, the starter does not reduce the starting voltage, it provides
the protection to the motor against overloading, single phasing and low
voltage.
ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER

 Most economical and cheapest starter
 Simple to establish, operate and maintain.
 Simple control circuitry.
 Easy to understand and trouble-shoot.
 It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
 Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor.
DISADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER
 Voltage dip
 Mechanically harsh
 High starting torque
 High starting current
 It does not reduce the starting current of the motor
Direct online motor starter is suitable for:-
 Starting small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts.
Qn.Why the maximum size of a motor allowed on a direct on line starter
may be limited by the supply utility?
Ans:-The maximum size of a motor allowed on a direct on line starter may
be limited by the supply utility because;
 A direct online starter can be used if the high inrush current of the
motor does not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit.
Direct online motor starter is not suitable for;
 The peak starting current would result in a serious voltage drop on the
supply system.
 The equipment being driven cannot tolerate the effects of very high
peak torque loadings.
 The safety or comfort of those using the equipment may be
compromised by sudden starting as, for example, with escalators and
lifts.
JOG SWITCH
Jogging is a quickly repeated closure of a circuit to start the motor from
rest in order to accomplish small movement.
Jogging is also called inching.
STAR DELTA STARTER

Star delta starter is a type of reduced voltage starter used for a cage motor
designed to run normally on the delta connected stator winding.
Points to note:
 Star delta starter is designed to run on delta connected stator of an
induction motor.
 The induction motor is connected in star during start and delta while
running with rated speeds.
 It is the most commonly used reduced voltage starter as it is the
cheapest starter among all.
ADVANTAGES OF STAR DELTA STARTER

 Relatively low price.
 The components require very little space.
 The starting current is reduced to approximately one-third.
 There are no limits to the number of times they can be operated.
DISADVANTAGES OF STAR DELTA STARTER
 The supply voltage must be the same as the rated motor voltage for
delta connection.
 The starter can only be applied to motors where the six leads or
terminals can be accessed.
 Because the starting current is reduced to approximately one-third of
the rated current, the starting torque is also reduced to one-third.
Qn. What will happen if the motor does not reach at least 90% of its
rated speed at the time of switching from star to delta?
Ans:-If the motor does not reach at least 90% of its rated speed at the
time of switching from star to delta;
 The current peak will be as high as in a DOL start, thus causing harmful
effects to the contacts of the contactors and the connection system bring
no advantage to the electrical system.
STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER

Stator resistance starter is a type of reduced voltage starter consists of three
resistors in series with each phase of the stator windings, which causes a
voltage drop across each resistor, and as a result, a low voltage is applied
to each phase.
Points to note:
 A reduced voltage is applied to the induction motor by connecting
external resistances in series with each phase of the stator winding.
 During the motor start, external resistances are kept at maximum
position such that a reduced voltage is applied across resistances.
 A three phase auto transformer is connected in series with the motor.
 The three phase auto transformer reduces the voltage applied to the
motor and hence the current.
 When the changeover switch is in the start position, a reduced voltage is
applied to the motor.
Note that:
 The stator resistance starter consists of changeover switch that switches
the motor between reduced voltage and full voltage conditions.
SOFT STARTER
Soft starter is a type of motor starter that uses the voltage reduction
technique to reduce the voltage during the starting of the motor.
Points to note:
 It is another type of reduced voltage starter and it connected in series
with the line voltage applied to the motor.
 In soft starter method, semiconductor power switches are employed for
reducing the starting current to the induction motor.
 This starter consists of back to back thyristors or TRIACs in each phase
of the starter winding.
 By controlling the firing angle to the thyristors, the voltage applied to
the motor will be reduced step lessly.
 This type of voltage reduction gives a smoother operation as compared
to other methods discussed above.
 This results the absence of torque pulsations and hence there no jerking
when starting of the motor.
Note that:
 Once the motor gets the normal speed, the firing angle to the thyristors
is applied such that they allow full voltage to the motor.
 For a large motor, a variable frequency drives are used that incorporates
the soft start function.
 Such drives control the starting current as well as the speed of a motor
to a desired value.
 These starters are also provided with additional protections, such as
overload, low voltage and single phasing.
ADVANTAGES OF SOFT STARTER
 Smooth startup
 No power surges
 Multiple startups
 Reduction of overheating
 Increased life span
 Less maintenance
DISADVANTAGES OF SOFT STARTER
 No speed regulation
 Heat dissipation
 Reduced starting torque
APPLICATIONS OF SOFT STARTER
Soft starter is used in industries and is more appropriate to be used for
motors that run on a constant speed such as:-
 Conveyer belts
 Water or liquid Pump
 Motors using belt and pulleys
 The huge fans used in industries
REMOTE CONTROL CIRCUIT
Remote control is a control intended to start or stop motor (control the
motor) at a distance away from the operate control position.

FLOATING SWITCH
Floating switch is a device used to detect the level of liquid within a tank.
Point to note:
 Floating switch may be used in a pump, an indicator, an alarm, or other
devices.
FLOAT LEVEL SWITCH APPLICATIONS
 Regulate single and multiple levels.
 Low level sensing.
 High level alarm.
 Leak detection.
 Overfill shut off.
 Level and temperature control.
INDUSTRIES THAT USE FLOAT LEVEL SWITCH
 Fuel management.
 Lubrication equipment.
 Marine applications.
 Medical equipment.
 Oil or water separators.
 Food processing equipment.
FLOATING SWITCH CONNECTION
Uses wires;
 Black and blue with these contacts the regulator closes when down
open up.
 Black and brown with these contacts the regulator closes when up open
down.

CHAPTER THREE
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)
Programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special type of computer that is
commonly used in commercial and industrial settings.
Points to note:
 PLCs are designed to run automated systems, such as robotics or other
machines and use inputs and outputs to read and send data.
 Unlike consumer computers, PLCs are designed to be very rugged and
can be operated nearly non-stop.
 Although PLCs are similar to „conventional‟ computers in term of
hardware technology, they have specific features suited for industrial
control:
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLCs
 Rugged, noise immune equipment
 Repair and replace the components quickly and effortlessly
 Standard input/output connections and signal levels
 Easily understood programming language
 Ease of programming and reprogramming in-plant
ADVANTAGES OF PLCs
 Flexibility
 Ease of trouble shooting
 Space efficiency
 Low cost
 Testing
 Visual operation
Flexibility:
 One single PLC can easily run many machines.
Troubleshooting:
 Back before PLCs, wired relay-type panels required time for rewiring of
panels and devices.
 With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as
retyping the logic.
 Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective.
Space efficient:
 Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system.
 The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters, sequencers, and
control relays, so these hardware devices are not required.
 The only field devices that are required are those that directly interface
with the system such as switches and motor starters.
Low cost:
 Prices of PLCs vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is
minimal compared to the prices of the contact, coils, and timers that
companies pay to match the same thing. Using PLCs also saves on
installation cost and shipping.
Testing:
 A PLC program can be tested, evaluated and validated in a lab prior to
implementation in the field.
Visual observation:
 When running a PLC program a visual operation displays on a screen or
module mounted status lamps assist in making troubleshooting a circuit
quick easy, and relatively simple.
COMPONENTS OF A PLC
All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work
together to bring information into the PLC will fail to function properly.
The basic components include:
 Power supply
 Central processing unit (CPU) or Processor
 Co-processor modules
 Input and output modules (I/O)
 Peripheral device

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF PLC BASED SYSTEMS
A thyristor
A thyristor is a solid state semi-conductor device with four layers of
alternating N and P-type material.
Points to note:
 It acts exclusively as a bistable switch, conducting when the gate receives
a current trigger and continuing to conduct while the voltage across the
device is not reversed (forward-biased).
 A three-lead thyristor is designed to control the larger current of its two

leads by combining that current with the smaller current of its other
lead, known as its control lead.
 In contrast, a two-lead thyristor is designed to switch on if the potential
difference between its leads is sufficiently large (break down voltage).
The TRIAC
The TRIAC is a three terminal semi-conductor device for controlling
current.
Point to note:
 It gains its name from the term Triode for Alternating Current.
 It is effectively a development of the SCR or thyristor, but unlike the
thyristor which is only able to conduct in one direction, The TRIAC is a
bidirectional device.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TRIAC AND THYRISTOR
The TRIAC is an ideal device to use for AC switching applications because
it can control the current flow over both halves of an alternating cycle.
WHILE
A thyristor is only able to control them over one half of a cycle. During
the remaining half no condition occurs and accordingly only half the wave
form can be utilized.
Typical or idealized TRIAC and thyristor switching waveforms

Points to note:
 The fact that the TRIAC can be used to control current switching on
both halves of an alternating wave form allows much better power
utilization.
 However the TRIAC is not always as convenient for some high power
applications where its switching is more difficult.
THE DIAC
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be
turned on in both forward and reverse polarities.
Points to note:
 The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words Diode
Alternating Current. The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of
a TRIAC when used in AC switches.
 DIACs are mainly used in dimmer applications and also in starter circuits
for fluorescent lamps.
OPERATION OF THE DIAC

 The DIAC is essentially a diode that conducts after a „break over‟
voltage designated VBO, is exceeded.
 When the device exceeds this break-over voltage, it enters the region of
negative dynamic resistance.
 This results in a decrease in the voltage drop across the diode with
increasing voltage. Accordingly there is a sharp increase in the level of
current that is conducted by the device.
 The diode remains in its conduction state until the current through it
drops below what is termed the holding current, which is normally
designated by the letters IH.
 Below the holding current, the DIAC reverts to its high-resistance (non-
conducting) state.
 Its behaviour is bi-directional and therefore its operation occurs on both
halves of an alternating cycle.

APPLICATIONS OF DIAC
 Typically the DIAC is placed in series with the gate of a TRIAC.
 DIACs are often used in conjunction with TRIACs because these devices
do not fire symmetrically as a result of slight differences between the
two halves of the device.
 This results in harmonics being generated, and the less symmetrical the
device fires, the greater the levels of harmonics in a power system.
Semi-conductor :
Semi-conductors are materials that have the resistances levels between
those of a conductor and an insulator.
Point to note:
 Semi-conductors are quite common found in almost all electronic
devices.
 Good examples of semiconductor materials are germanium, selenium
and silicon.

CHAPTER FOUR
ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a device used for changing voltage values in a circuit.
OR
Transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one
circuit to another without changing frequency.
DEFINITION TERMS
 Induced e.m.f
 Self-induced e.m.f
 E.m.f. due to mutual inductance(Mutually Induced e.m.f)
INDUCED E.M.F
Induced e.m.f is the generation of a potential difference in a coil due to
the changes in the magnetic flux through it.
Points to note:
 Induced e.m.f is also known as induced electromotive force,
electromagnetic induction, and electromotive force induction.
 In simpler words, electromotive Force or EMF is said to be induced
when the flux linking with a conductor or coil changes.
WAYS TO INDUCE E.M.F

Electromotive forces can be induced in two different ways:-
 The first way involves the placement of an electric conductor in a
magnetic field that is moving.
 The second way involves the placement of a constantly moving
conductor of electricity into a magnetic field that is static in nature.
APPLICATIONS INDUCED E.M.F
 Used in generators
 Used in galvanometers
 Used in transformers
Points ton note:
 When a conductor cuts, or is cut by magnetic lines of force an e.m.f
(voltage) is induced into that conductor.
 It is important to note that all of these devices work on the principle of
induced electromotive force.
SELF-INDUCED E.M.F
Self-induced e.m.f is the e.m.f which is induced in a cell due to the
changing flux in the coil cutting the conductors of the coil.
Points ton note:
 Thus self-induced e.m.f is in opposition to the voltage producing it. The
self- induced e.m.f tends to limit the current in the circuit.
 It chokes the current flowing in a coil when it is carrying an alternating,
or changing current.
 The greater the change in the current the greater the e.m.f
E.M.F DUE TO MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Mutually Induced e.m.fis the e.m.f induced in a coil due to the change of
flux produced by another neighbouring coil linking to it.
Points ton note:
 When a coil A carrying an alternating or changing current is placed
beside another coil B an e.m.f will be induced into coil B.
 This e.m.f induced into coil B, termed the e.m.f of mutual inductance, is
in opposition to the force producing it.
 There is no direct electrical connection between the two coils, only a

magnetic connection (i.e., a magnetic linkage).
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
 The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance
between two circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux.
 A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate
and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance.
TRANSFORMER WORKING
 The electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings.
 The core laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the
strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the
cross-section of the core.
 These staggered joints are said to be „imbricated‟. Both the coils have
high mutual inductance.
 A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the
alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that
is connected to a source of alternating voltage.
 Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the
other coil and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force.
Point to note:
 Mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for
transformation of action in an electrical transformer.
 The working principle of transformer depends upon Faradays‟ law of
electromagnetic induction.
FARADAY‟S LAW ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday‟s law electromagnetic induction states that, “the rate of change of
flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced
e.m.f in a conductor coil”.
In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
 Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
 Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
 Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils
having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core.
The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. The
device will also need some suitable container for the assembled core a
MAIN CONSTRUCTION PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
 Primary winding of transformer.
 Magnetic core of transformer.
 Secondary winding of transformer.
Primary winding of transformer is a part of transformer which produces
magnetic flux when it is connected to the electrical source.
Magnetic core of transformer; the magnetic flux produced by primary
winding that will pass through this low reluctance path linked with
secondary winding and create a closed magnetic circuit.
Secondary winding of transformer; the flux, produced by primary winding

passes through the core will link with the secondary winding. This winding
also wounds on the same core and gives the desired output of the
transformer.
USES OF TRANSFORMER
 It is used to isolate two circuits electrically.
 It is used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
 It step up the level of voltage at generation side before transmission and
distribution.
 It is used for impedance matching, so these were the simple uses and
application of transformer.
 It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or
resistance in an AC circuit. Thus acts as an impedance transferring device.
 It step down the level of voltage for example form 11kV to 220 V single
phase and 440 V three phase in distribution side, for commercial or
domestic use of electricity,

 It can rise or lower the level of level of Voltage or Current (when

voltage increases, current decreases and vice versa because P =V x I,
and Power is same) in an AC Circuit.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their
purposes such as:-
 Generation
 Distribution and transmission
 Utilization of electrical power, etc.
The types of transformer are as follows:-
 Instrument transformer
 Step up transformer and step down transformer
 Single phase and three phase transformer
 Power transformer
 Distribution transformer
 Double wound transformer and auto transformer
 Indoor transformer and outdoor transformer
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformer is a high accuracy class electrical device used to
isolate or transform voltage or current levels.
APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

 It helps in measurement of high voltage or current.
 It provides low voltage and current to the electrical device.
 Its measure application is in the protection system where relay is work

on low amount of voltage and current.
TYPES OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
 Current transformer
 Potential transformer
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)
Current transformer is a type of transformer that is used to reduce or
multiply an alternating current.
APPLICATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)
 They are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (PT)
Potential transformer is a voltage step down transformer which reduces
the voltage of a high voltage circuit to a lower level for the purpose of
measurement.
Potential transformer is also known as voltage transformer (VT).
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (PT)
 It is used for metering purposes
 It is used for protection of the feeders
 It is used for synchronizing the generators and feeders
 It is used for protecting the impedance of the generator
STEP UP AND STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
Step up transformer:
Step up transformer is a transformer that increases the voltage from
primary to secondary.

Point to note:
 Step up transformer has more secondary winding turns than primary
winding turns.
Application of Step up transformer:-
 It used in transmission lines for transforming the high voltage produced
by the alternator.
Note that: The power loss of the transmission line is directly proportional
to the square of the current flows through it.
Step down transformer:
Step down transformer is a transformer that decreases the voltage from
primary to secondary.
Point to note:
 Step down transformer has more primary winding turns than secondary
winding turns.
Application of Step down transformer:-
 It used in the interconnection of transmission system with different
voltage levels.
SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Single phase transformer:
Single phase transformer is a type of power transformer that utilizes single
phase alternating current, meaning the transformer relies on a voltage
cycle that operates in a unified time phase.
Point to note:
 Single phase transformer operates as a step-down voltage transformer
and decreases the home voltage value to the value suitable for
electronics supplying.
Application of Single phase transformer:-

 It is widely used in commercial low voltage application as electronic
device.
Three phase transformer:
Three phase transformer is a transformer made of three sets of primary
and secondary windings, each set wound around one leg of an iron core
assembly.
Application of Three phase transformer:-

 It commonly used to supply domestic, commercial and industrial
premises with electrical power.
POWER TRANSFORMER
Power transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from
one circuit to another without changing frequency.

Application of Power transformers:

 They are used in the high voltage transmission network to step up and
step down the voltage.
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
Distribution transformer is a transformer that provides the final voltage
transformation in the electric power distribution system, stepping down
the voltage used in the distribution lines to the level used by the customer.
APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

 They are often used for the power supply facilities outside settlements,
such as isolated houses, farmyards or pumping stations at voltages
below 30kV.
DOUBLE WOUND TRANSFORMER
Double wound transformer is a transformer with two windings which are
electrically isolated from each other.
Double wound transformer is also known as two winding transformer.

The double-wound transformer is constructed as follows;

 There two coils, insulated from one another, and wound round a silicon
steel core.
 The windings consist of insulated copper conductors, wound on a
bobbin or former of insulating material.
 The core of the transformer is made up of layers of stampings, or
laminations of silicon steel.
Points to note:
 These sheets of silicon steel are insulated from one another with shellac,
paper or kaolin.
 Silicon steel is used because it retains very little magnetism and provides
a low reluctance (magnetic resistance) path for magnetic lines of force.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Autotransformer is a transformer having only one winding, a part of which
acts as a primary and the other as a secondary.
APPLICATION OF DOUBLE WOUND AND AUTO WOUND

TRANSFORMERS
 To increase or decrease the available voltage (incoming supply voltage)
as per the requirement.
INDOOR TRANSFORMER AND OUTDOOR TRANSFORMER
Indoor transformer is a transformer that designed for installing at indoor.
Outdoor transformer is a transformer that designed for installing at
outdoor

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER ACCORDING TO

CONSTRUCTION
As per construction, transformers are classified as:-
 Core type
 Shell type
 Berry type
There are two basic types of core namely:-
 The core type
 The shell type
Points to note:
 The vertical parts of core are termed the limbs.
 The largest transformers are fitted into a welded sheet-steel case which is
filled with oil for cooling purposes.
CYCLE OF OPERATION
There are two distinct circuits namely:-
 The primary winding (coil A) to which the incoming supply is connected
 The secondary winding (coil B) across which the load is connected.
Cycle of operation is as follows:
 An alternating current supply ( ) flows in the primary winding A.
 This alternating current produces an alternating magnetic field linking
the primary and secondary windings.
 The variation of the magnetic flux induces (a) an e.m.f of self-inductance

into the primary winding and (b) an e.m.f of mutual inductance into the
secondary winding.
 When a load is connected across the secondary winding B a current ( )
flows through it.
 The field due to this alternating secondary current ( ) has a
demagnetizing effect on the primary winding and to neutralize this
effect a greater current must flow in the primary winding.
TRANSFORMATION RATIO
Transformation ratio is the ratio of the e.m.f in the secondary coil to that in
the primary coil.
Problem01.A double-wound transformer has a 240V primary consisting
2400 turns. Calculate the voltage per turns.
winding voltage
Volts per turn
no. of turns
V
.1V
∴The voltage per turns is 0.1V.
TURNS AND VOLTAGE RATIOS IN STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
VP NP
VS NS
whereas;
VP Primary voltage
VS Secondary voltage
NP Number of turns in primary
NS Number of turns in secondary
And;
IP NP
IS NS
whereas;
IP Primary current

IS Secondary current
Problem01: A transformer has 200 turns in the primary, 50 turns in the
secondary and 120 volts applied to the primary (Vp ). What is the voltage
across the secondary (VS )?
Given:
VP 1 volts
NS 5 turns
Np turns
VS
Solution:
VP NP
VS NS
1 volts 5 turns
VS
turns
VS V
Problem01:There are 400turns of wire in an iron-core coil. If this coil is to
be used as the primary of a transformer, how many turns must be wound
on the coil to form the secondary winding of the transformer to have a
secondary voltage of one volt if the primary voltage is five volts?
Solution:
Given;
VP 5volts
NS 5 turns
Np turns
VS 1volt
NS
Solution:
VP NP
VS NS

1
NS
5
NS turns
∴The number of turns must be wound on the coil to form the secondary
winding of the transformer is 80turns.
TURNS AND VOLTAGE RATIOS IN STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS
VP NP
VS NS
whereas;
VP Primary voltage
VS Secondary voltage
And;
IP NP
IS NS
whereas;
IP Primary current
IS Secondary current
Problem01: A transformer has 500 primary turns and 3000 secondary
turns. If the primary voltage is 240V, determine the secondary voltage,
assuming an ideal transformer.
Solution:
Data given;
VP V
NP 5
NS
VS
From,
VP NP
VS NS
5
VS
VS
5
VS 1 V or 1. kV
∴ Secondary voltage is 1 V or 1. kV
Problem02: An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:7 is fed from a
240V supply. Determine its output voltage.
Solution:
Data given;
NP N S
VP V
NP
NS
VS
From,
VP NP
VS NS
VS
VS
VS V
∴ The output voltage is V.
Problem03.An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 3:8 has an output
voltage of 640V. Determine its input voltage.
[ans240V]
Solution:
Data given;
NP N S
NP
NS
VS V
VP
From,
VP NP
VS NS
VP
VP
VP V
∴ The input voltage is V.
Qn. Why electric motors are rated in kW instead of kVA?
Ans:- Electric motors are rated in KW instead of KVA because motor has
fixed Power factor that is, motor has defined power factor.
Qn.Why electric transformers are rated in kVA instead of kW?

Ans:-Electric transformers are rated in kVA instead of kW because the
losses occurring in the transformers are independent of power factor.
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
There are two losses in transformer:-
 Copper losses
 Iron losses or core losses or insulation losses
Copperloss is a loss occurring in a conductordue to the flow of current,
when conductors were traditionally made of copper.
Iron lossis a loss of available energy by hysteresis and eddy currents in an
electromagnetic apparatus (as a transformer).
EFFECT OF LOAD
 When a load device is connected across the secondary winding of a
transformer, current flows through the secondary and the load.
 The magnetic field produced by the current in the secondary interacts
with the magnetic field produced by the current in the primary.
 This interaction results from the mutual inductance between the primary
and secondary windings.

MUTUAL FLUX
Mutual flux is the flux produced by the windings which links all the
windings present.
Points to note:
 A control transformer is designed to provide rated output voltage at full
VA. As the load decreases, the output voltage will go up.
 Conversely, increases in load will result in lower output voltages.
 Typically, the smaller the VA size of the unit, the greater difference there
is between no-load and full-load voltage.
TURNS AND CURRENT RATIOS
IP NP IS NS
Where
IP NP Ampere turns in the primary winding
IS NS Ampere turns in the secondary winding
By dividing both sides of the equation IP Ns , you obtain:
NP IS
NS IP
Since;
VS NP
VP NP
Then:
VP NP
VS NS
Thus;
VP IS
VS IP
Where;
VS Voltage across the secondary in volts
VP Voltage applied to the primary in volts
IS Current in the secondary in amperes
IP Current in the primary in amperes

Problem01: A transformer has a 6:1 voltage ratio. Find the current in the
secondary if the current in the primary is 200 mill amperes.
Solution
Given;
VP V (assumed)
VS 1V
IP mA or . A
IS
VP IS
VS IP
V . A
IS
1V
IS 1. A
∴The current in the secondary is1. A
Problem02:A transformer with a turns ratio of 1:12 has 3 amperes of
current in the secondary. What is the value of current in the primary?
Solution:
Given;
NP 1turn(assumed)
NS 1 turns
IS A
IP
Solution
NP IS
NS IP
Ns Is
IP
NP
1
IP
1
IP A
∴The value of current in the primary is A

CHAPTER FIVE
MANAGEMENT
Management is the process of reaching organizational goals by working
with and through people and other organizational resources.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT
 It is a process or series of continuing and related activities
 It involves and concentrates on reaching organizational goals
 It reaches the goals by working with and through people and other
organizational resources
MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
 Planning
 Organizing
 Influencing
 Controlling
Planning:
Planning involves choosing tasks that must be performed to attain
organizational goals, outlining how the tasks must be performed and
indicating when they should be performed.
Organizing:
Organizing is to create a mechanism to put plans into action.

Influencing:
Influencing is the guiding of the activities of organization members in the
direction that helps the organization move towards the fulfillment of the
goals.
Controlling:
Controlling are the roles played by the manager.
Roles played by the manager are as follows:-
 Gather information that measures performance
 Compare present performance to pre-established performance norms.
 Determine the next action plan and modifications for meeting the
desired performance parameters.
Point to note: Controlling is an on-going process.
DIVISION OF WORK WITHIN AN ORGANIZATION

AND DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSIBILITY AND AUTHORITY
NO STAGE MANAGERS AT DIFFERENT LEVEL HAVE ORGANIZATION
TO OF
1. Determine the essential actions and tasks required Division of work
to achieve the organization‟s aims
2. Divide these actions and tasks into assignments, Structure
which can be carried out by departments units or
teams
3. Divide these actions and tasks into assignment for Action plan
each individual person
4. Decide who is responsible for completion of Delegation
actions and tasks
5. Organize (arrange) the coordination of the work Co-ordination
of each team and group (department)
WORKSHOP LAYOUT
Layout is the arrangement of facilities or machines in a given space.
Example:- A workshop.

Qn. Why workshop layout planning?

Ans:- Workshop layout planning because of the following:-
 Enlarging or reducing existing department or space
 Movement of the department
 Adding or removing department
 Replacing equipment and add new equipment.
IMPORTANCE OF WORKSHOP LAYOUT PLANNING
 To reduce distance moved and time consumed
 Poor facilities or machines which are not necessary should be removed
 Utilization of space and labour
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN ESTABLISHING WORKSHOP
 Lighting
 Heating
 Ventilation
 Noise levels
 Furniture
 Color scheme
 Location of people (stole, comfort safely)
 Standard of decoration (cleanliness state repair)
 Accessibility room to move between machines
PRINCIPLES OF WORKSHOP LAYOUT DESIGN
 Generally control panels tools, suppliers or raw materials and
components should be arranged in semi-circular form which enable
application of the principles of efficient human body movement.
 Machinery and equipment can be arranged according to product or
process product based factory layout involves grouping together in one
location all the equipment need to manufacture a particular good from
start to finish.

GENERAL CONSIDERATION WHEN ESTABLISHING A TRAINING

WORKSHOP
 Nature of trade to be studied (syllabus, this will be the case of thinking
about tools and equipment).
 Safety and health aspects
 Laws and regulations
LEADERSHIP IN MANAGEMENT
Leadership is psychological process of influencing followers or
subordinators and providing guidance to them.
Leader is the one who guide and direct other people he or she gives the
efforts of his or her followers direction and purposely influencing their
behavior.
TYPES OF LEADERS
 Formal leader
 Informal leader
Formal leader is a leader appointed by the management.
Informal leader is a leader elected by the workers themselves.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
 Maturity
 Intelligence
 Vision and foresight
 Acceptance and responsibility
LEADERSHIP STYLE
Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,
implementing plans, and motivating people.
Leadership styles include:-
 Autocratic or authoritarian
 Dictatorial leader
 Participate or democratic leader
 Laisser affair or free rein leader

Autocratic or authoritarian:
Autocratic or authoritarian is a leader who maintains total control over his
or her team.
Characteristics of autocratic or authoritarian:-
 Gives orders which he or she insists must be obeyed
 Does not give more details information about future plans
 He or she makes all decision and retains all power
 Followers become dependent and feel lost in leader absence
Dictatorial leader:
Dictatorial leader is a negative leader using threat of punishment promotes
unrest and dissatisfaction.
Participate or democratic leader
Participate or democratic leader is one who gives order after consisting the
group look for aid opinion and achieve from the followers and encourages
participate follows can function effectively.
Laisser affair or free rein leader
Is a leader who does not lead but leaves the group entirely to itself.
THE DIFFERENT BETWEEN A LEADER AND BOSS
A LEADER A BOSS
Is a person who seem to combine Is a person who controls or gives to
the knack of leading and he or she workers in an overbearing way.
knack of winning friends, he or she
must be satisfied with respect to
followers.
Admits mistakes Knows every thing
Shows how to do things Tell that must be done
Gives advice Criticize
Listens first before talking Talk first
Gives direction Gives orders
REPORT
Report is a document that presents information in an organized format for
a specific audience and purpose.

Point to note:
 Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete
reports are almost always in the form of written documents.
Reporting is the means for collection and dissemition of data.
Point to note:
 The report should give an analysis of the tools equipment materials etc.
PLANNING AND PREPARING A LONG REPORT
Points to note:
 It is very essential for all the types to be known in preparation but in
this regard we will talk about the long report.
 In planning and preparing a long report there are three major parts to
consider.
PURPOSE OF THE REPORT
A report must have a specific purpose or objective. Most report have the
following objectives:-
 To provide information
 To analyses facts
 To put forward ideas
 To recommend a cause of action
The leader
In order to determine the approach to the subject his good that the report
writer known the readers attitude.
It is theory fore advisable to the writer to ask him or herself the following
questions:-
 Who has requested the report?
 Who is likely to read the report?
 What does the leader know already about the subject?
 How is the leader likely to use the report?
A good report
In writing a report which must be considered or good, the following rules
must be followed;
 Correctness: facts and figures must be accurate correct and verifiable

 Clarify: selection of words that make the meaning clear
 Coherence: thoughts must be arranged in a logical sequence
 Conciseness all information must be relevant
 Completeness all the necessary information must be included.
PRINCIPLE PARTS OF REPORTS
 Title page
 Acknowledgment
 Table of contents
 Summary
 Introduction
 The body
 Conclusion
 Recommendation
 Appendix
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Environment is everything surrounding us including air, water, land,
animals and plants.
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
 The atmosphere
 The land
 Water

THE ATMOSPHERE
This consists the following:-
 Oxygen gas
 Nitrogen gas
 Hydrogen gas
 Dust
THE LAND
 Forest
 Soil
WATER
 Fish
 Rivers
 Lakes
 Oil
Point to note:
 The components of the environment collectively are known as
resources.
DIFFERENT WAYS OF NAMING THE ENVIRONMENT
The best way to manage the environment is to have a systematic approach
based on
 Planning
 Checking
 Adding
Policy:
Policy is a statement or document containing details of what is supposed
to be done.
Planning:
Planning is a systematic or logic way of how to get things done.

POLLUTION
Pollution is any action of condition impinging on land, air, or water,
which is detrimental to health, sanitation and public interest.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are the substances that cause pollution.
CATEGORIES OF POLLUTANTS
 Non degradable
 Toxic (poisonous)
 Environmental pollution
Non degradable are the pollutants which cannot breakdown or can
breakdown very slowly. e.g:- Glass, metal, scraps, plastics etc.
Toxic (poisonous) are the pollutants that may build up in the bodies of
plant or animals. e.g:- Pesticides fertilizers, industrial wastes, minerals like
lead mercury.
Environmental pollution is an action of adding to the environment

harmful materials which may result to reduction of the quality of the
environment and loss of productivity.
POLLUTANTS SOURCE
 Sulphur oxide Coal and oil combustion smelters
 Suspended Combustion product (fuel biomass) tobacco
particulate matter smoke
 Nitrogen oxide Fuel and gas combustion
 Carbon monoxide Incomplete petrol and gas combustion
 Ozone Photochemical reaction
 Lead Petrol and coal combustion producing batteries,
cables and solder paints.
 Organic substances Petrol chemical solvents vaporization of unburnt
fuel

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is the process of adding harmful substances to the
atmosphere causing problems to animals and plants due to created
substances.
Air pollution can cause problems such as:-
 Health effects
 Genetic make up
 Weather condition
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution mainly resulted from emission of poisonous gases like:-
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen monoxide
 Carbon monoxide from vehicles
 Metal smelters and industries
 Sulphurous gas
 Dusts
 Fluorine gas
 Chlorine gas
Most of poisonous gases are from:-
 Nuclear testing
 Burning of garbage
 Industrial development
 Pollution caused by transportation and mining activities
 Agricultural spray using chemicals like pesticides, fungicides.
 Bush fires produces smokes containing carbon dioxide gases
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
 Global Warming
 Climate Change
 Acid Rain
 Smog effect
 Deterioration of fields

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the tendency of the earth to become warmer due to the
increase of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and increase ozone layer
depletion, in which in turn allowing sunlight radiations to reach the earth‟s
surface and preventing radiant from escaping to earth‟s surface hence
increase temperature.
CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING

 Emission of GHGs from industries
 Deforestation
 Poor land use management
SOCIAL ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
 Change in vegetation cover.
 Heat related mortality and morbidity.
 Malnutrition from food supply shortage.
 Rising sea level due to thermo expansion hence reduces land for use.
 Poor standard of living due to occurrence of natural hazards; such as
floods due to the ice melting in the north and southern poles.
 Increase of air borne diseases like tuberculosis, skin cancer, skin rashes
and asthma.
CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING
 Enforcing laws to reduce GHGs emissions.
 Improve technology such as cleaner production.

 Afforestation and reforestation as plants are capable of sink carbon

dioxide and bring out oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
 Improve industrial technology
 International meeting and agreement on environmental and specifically
on air pollution
 Establish anti-pollution laws
 Control bush fire
 Burning of wastes and garbages should be located far away from the
residents
 Opt to use energy efficient fuels in order to ensure full combustion
LAND POLLUTION
Land pollution is the addition of substances on the land, which bring about
harmful effects.
CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION
 Application of chemicals fertilizers e.g: Phosphates and nitrates
 Application of agricultural sprays e.g. Insecticides, pesticides and
fungicides
 Discharge oils from cars, trains and machines
 Waste water disposal both from domestic as well as industrial
EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION
 Eruption of disease
 Infertile soil
 Loss of biodiversity
 Poor settlement
CONTROL OF LAND POLLUTION
 Training and education to the communities
 Use of biological fertilizers or organic fertilizers
 Good disposal of wastes, e.g: Using sanitary landfills

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the addition of harmful substances to water hence
results to the reduction of the quality of water.
TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION
 Microbiological organisms
 Biodegradable organic compounds
 Particulate matter
 Nitrates
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
 Industrial wastes.
 Addition of organic matter or waste to the water.
 The use of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane (DDT) in agriculture
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
 Establish anti-pollution laws.
 Wastes should be properly disposed
 Treatment of wastewater for both industries and municipal
 Reduce the use of atrophic chemicals such as ammonium nitrates and
ammonium sulphate.
 Manufacturing industries should be located at far places away from
human residents.

CHAPTER SIX
ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
Electrical maintenance is a process done to keep items with longer life span
or action taken to return an item in acceptable condition.
THE REASONS FOR NEGLECTING MAINTENANCE

 Funds (money).
 No preventive maintenance organization.
 In general people are not aware of the importance of preventive
maintenance.
TYPES OF WORK ENTAILED BY MAINTENANCE
 Administration.
 Preventive maintenance.
 Corrective maintenance.
 Modification.
 Replacement.
ADMINISTRATION
Points to note:
 It stands to reason that every maintenance department requires some
administration.
 The functions of maintenance administration consist of designing and
putting into effect the various systems of the maintenance organization.
SYSTEMS EMPLOYED IN MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENTS

Points to note:
 In many cases companies with a highly developed maintenance
organization will have systems for technical and economic analysis of
the various operations.
 Maintenance administration also entails the purchasing of spare parts
consumable items and services.
The following systems are frequently employed in maintenance
departments:-
 Machinery records spare parts system
 Preventive maintenance system
 Work sequence system
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance includes all types of programmed maintenance or
all measure aiming at the prevention of faults or at the discovery of
incipient faults before any serious damage can take place.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
Corrective maintenance is any work with the purpose of correcting faults.
MODIFICATION
Modification is a process intended to modify equipment in such a way as
to reduce the need for maintenance or to facilitate maintenance
operations.
Points to note:
 Modifications are frequently carried out by the instructor at institution.
It can be done by co-operation between the instructors.
REPLACEMENT
Replacement is the action or process of replacing someone or something.
Points to note:-
 For an institution plant to remain efficient and competitive, equipment
will have to be replaced from time to time.
 This is another area in which the maintenance department normally
carries out such work as is necessary.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
There are main two types of maintenance:-
 Preventive maintenance.
 Corrective maintenance.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance is a type of maintenance done before failure.
TYPES OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

 Direct preventive maintenance.
 Indirect preventive maintenance.
Direct preventive maintenance is the type of maintenance which all
measures aimed at preventing the development of faults in equipment.
Indirect preventive maintenance is the type of maintenance which covers

all operations intended to determine the need for direct preventing
maintenance measures of repairs.
EXAMPLES OF DIRECT EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Measurement of bearing clearances. Adjustment of bearing clearance.
Measurement of ball bearing shock Replacement of ball bearing.
pulse.
Preparation of work diagram for Piston overhead.
diesel engine.
BENEFITS OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
 Less pollution
 Less down time
 Increased safety
 Less overtime needed
 Less overtime needed
 Minimum maintenance cost
 Ability to contract maintenance
 Less standby equipment needed
 Minimum spare parts inventory
 Maintenance performed when convenient
 Less disruption through emergency maintenance

CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
Corrective maintenance is a type maintenance done after failure.
Definition terms in corrective maintenance:-
 Repairing
 Testing
Repairing is the process of replacing a faulty component with a new one.
Testing is the process conducted to the electrical installations to ensure that
they are safe to use.
OTHER TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
 Predictive maintenance.
 Conditional based maintenance.
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
Predictive maintenance is a technique to predict the future failure point of
a machine component, so that the component can be replaced, based on a
plan, just before it fails.
Thus, equipment downtime is minimized and the component lifetime is
maximized.
Down time is a time where the equipment is out of service.
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
This technique involves the measurement of various parameters that show
a predictable connection with the component life cycle.
Examples of such parameters are as follows:
 Bearings vibration
 Temperature of the electrical connections
 Insulation resistance of the motor coil
CONDITIONAL BASED MAINTENANCE
Conditional based maintenance is a maintenance strategy that monitors
the actual condition of an asset to decide what maintenance needs to be
done.
ADVANTAGES OF CONDITIONAL BASED MAINTENANCE
 Reduces the cost of asset failures
 Improves equipment reliability
 Minimizes time spent on maintenance

 Minimizes requirement for emergency spare parts
 Improves worker safety
DISADVANTAGES OF CONDITIONAL BASED MAINTENANCE
 Unpredictable maintenance periods
 Condition monitoring test equipment is expensive to install, and
databases cost money to analyze
 Fatigue or uniform wear failures are not easily detected with CBM
measurements
 Condition sensors may not survive in the operating environment
 May require asset modifications to retrofit the system with sensors
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
Maintenance schedule is a chart which shows the maintenance time table.
OR,
Systematic scheduled maintenance is the set of maintenance tasks that are
performed on equipment or installation by following an established
program, according to working time, the quantity produced and mileage,
according to a fixed schedule or following some other cycle that is
repeated periodically.
Point to note:
Maintenance schedule is also known as systematic scheduled maintenance.
TYPES OF TASKS IN SYSTEMATIC MAINTENANCE
Among the types of tasks that typically include the systematic maintenance
are as follows:-
 Features verification.
 Equipment technical clearing
 Checking the proper operation of the instrumentation and its
calibration.
 Replacement of the elements subjected to wear, such as impellers,
bearings, sealing elements, blades, cylinder liners, cylinder heads, etc.
 Checking the inner state of some elements, whose verification cannot be
done with equipment in service and which requires a complex
disassembly.
TRAINING AND EDUCATION

Training is a process of increasing the skills and abilities of individual for
best performance of particular jobs.
IMPACTS OF TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENT
 It increases the overall organizational performance.
 It increases the efficiency and the effectiveness of both employees and
the organization.
 The employee performance depends on various factor.
EDUCATION
Education is a process of developing the mental faculties of people to
enables them have a better understanding of the physical, economic, social
and political environment surrounding them.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
Trouble shooting is the process of solving a problem or determining a
problem to an issue.
ELECTRICAL FAULT
Electrical fault is a condition in the electrical system that causes failure of
the electrical equipment in the circuit.
Examples of such equipment are:-
 Bus bars
 Generators
 Transformers
 Cables and all other equipments in the system that operate a given
voltage level.
PRINCIPLE TYPES OF FAULTS
By nature of electrical systems, at the basic level, electrical faults can be
categorized as:-
 Short circuit faults
 Open circuit faults
SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS
Short circuit is a specific condition in which electricity strays outside the
established pathway of an electrical circuit.
OR,
Short circuit is an abnormal connection of very low impedance between
two points of different potential, whether made intentionally or
accidentally.
Points to note:
 Short circuit faults are also called as shunt faults.
 A short circuit fault occurs when there is an insulation failure between
phase conductors or between phase and earth or both.
 These faults are caused due to the insulation failure between phase
conductors or between earth and phase conductors or both.
The various possible short circuit fault conditions include:
 Three phase clear of earth
 Three phase to earth
 Phase to phase
 Single phase to earth
 Two phase to earth
 Phase to phase plus single phase to earth

CAUSES OF SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS

These may be due to internal or external effects
 Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or equipment,
aging of insulation, deterioration of insulation in generator, transformer
and other electrical equipments, improper installations and inadequate
design.
 External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure
due to lighting surges and mechanical damage by public.
EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS
 Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as
transformers and circuit breakers.
 Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which
further leads to reduction of life span of their insulation.
 The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their
acceptance values that creates harmful effect to the service rendered by
the power system.
 The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as
long as the short circuit fault persists.

Sir.Antony Wilhard Kilolo

AUTOBIOGRAPHY
S
ir.Antony Wilhard Kilolo was born in 1994 at the village of Kifura,
Kibondo-Kigoma. He started primary school in the year 2003 at
Busagara primary school at Kifura village. He graduated primary
education in the year of 2009 at Wazo Hill primary school in the city of
Dar es salaam. In the year of 2010 he joined with secondary education and
finished his studies in 2013 at Twiga secondary school. From 2014 to 2016
he studied advanced level at Tegeta high school.
On 13th July, 2016 he joined with national service training at the military
camp no.834KJ Makutupora, in the city of Dodoma. After back from the
national service training, he worked voluntarily for the society through
teaching various subjects at different academic centers. In the year of 2018
he got an offer of joining with the college of Lugalo which it is owned by
the Tanzania people‟s defense force (TPDF). In the year of 19 he
finished his studies of electrical installation and he awarded a certificate of
appreciation as a best student of Lugalo College.
Sir.Kilolo has been working as an author of different books since 2016. He
is already written different academic books of ordinary level and that of
the academic syllabus of vocational education. Also Sir.Kilolo has been
writting books based on different documentaries such a those of the
society, technology, creativity, economics, philosophy, skills, discovery,
stories, diplomacy, sports etc.
Sir.Kilolo is the best young motivator in different aspects of development
and he is a successor in changing the life of many people day up to day
through his work as an author.
For the needs of being a supplier of books from Iwachu Printers contact
with us through;
0699 502 708 / 0768 214 061

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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION FOR engineering occupation level - iii BY SIR ANTONY KILOLO

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF D.C GENERATOR

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SHUNT GENERATOR OPERATION

APPLICATION OF SHUNT GENERATOR

TYPES OF COMPOUNDED GENERATOR

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND GENERATOR

5 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

FAULTS IN D.C GENERATOR

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF D.C MOTOR

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ARMATURE REACTION IN A D.C MOTOR

7 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

 The armature field is produced by the armature conductors when

SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK E.M.F IN THE WORKING OF A DC MOTOR

9 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

TYPES OF PROTECTION IN THE FACE PLATE STARTER

10 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

 A decrease in field strength will read to a decrease in b.e.m.f because the

Flame-proof type is the method of cooling motor in which the motor is

Drip-proof type is the method of cooling motor in which ventilation is

12 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

 Flameproof motors and control gear must be used where there is a

*** Proudly Kigoma Special State ***

13 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

MAIN PARTS OF ELECTRICAL MOTOR

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Non-salient pole machine;

16 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

Ans:-Due to the improved technologies in electronic controller the

17 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

Qn.Where the single-phase induction motors is commonly used?

Qn.Where the three -phase induction motors is commonly used?

18 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

BRUSHED DC MOTOR (BDC)

APPLICATION OF BRUSHED DC MOTORS (BDC)

20 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

ADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

DISADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

Qn.Why shunt wound brushed DC motors are suitable for commercial

DISADVANTAGE OF SHUNT WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

APPLICATION OF SERIES-WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

ADVANTAGES OF SERIES BRUSHED WOUND DC MOTORS

23 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

DISADVANTAGES OF SERIES WOUND BRUSHED DC MOTOR

The advantages of Hall Effect sensors technology are;

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 Increased operation and maintenance cost due to presence of

 Return springs push moving magnet back to initial position.

TYPES OF OVERLOAD RELAY

TYPES OF THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAY

29 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

OPERATION OF THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAYS

TYPES OF MAGNETIC OVERLOAD RELAY

APPLICATIONS OF OVERLOAD RELAY

Stator Thermal  Thermal aging

33 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

34 Hotline 0699 502 708 Published by IWACHU STATIONERY

DIRECT ON-LINE STARTER

ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER

STAR DELTA STARTER

ADVANTAGES OF STAR DELTA STARTER

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *

* Proudly Kigoma Special State *