This article was downloaded by: [Temple University Libraries]

On: 07 January 2015, At: 01:26

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41
Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of American College Health

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vach20

Self-Defense Training for College Women

a
Nina Cummings BA, CHES
a
Cornell University, Department of Human Service Studies , USA
Published online: 09 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Nina Cummings BA, CHES (1992) Self-Defense Training for College Women, Journal of American College Health,
40:4, 183-188, DOI: 10.1080/07448481.1992.9936280

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448481.1992.9936280

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the
publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or
warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed
by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,
demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly
in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Self-Defense Training for College Women
Nina Cummings, BA, CHES
Abstract. This article explores the effectiveness of self-de-
fense training for college women. Advocates of self-defense
training believe these courses will not only provide women
with the physical survival techniques necessary to repel attacks
effectively, but that this kind of training will also help to pre-
vent future violence by developing traits such as assertiveness
and confidence in individuals. There is evidence that women
who convey such characteristics are less likely to be victimized.
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
Opponents argue that self-defense training does not properly
prepare women for an attack, does not adequately address ac-
quaintance rape threats, and can provide a dangerous false
sense of security to students. This article reviews the relevant
literature, outlines practical suggestions for initiatives in this
area, and describes a model self-defense course at one universi-
ty. Guidelines for evaluation and implications for university
policy and program decisions that address violence against
women on college campuses are included.
Key Words. rape prevention, self-defense training, women
and violence
iolence against women is not a new phenome-
non, but, during the past few years, violence on
college campuses has received increasing atten-
tion.’-’ Research consistently reports that the victimiza-
tion rate is highest for women aged 16 to 19 years and
the risk of rape is four times higher for college women
aged 18 to 24 years than for any other group.3s6p7 Two
alarming trends have surfaced in much of the recent
data. First, the studies confirm that a student is more
likely to be assaulted by someone she knows than by a
stranger.’**s9Second, some reports suggest that victims
who are attacked by someone they know are more reluc-
tant to resist initial threats and are less likely to avoid
completed rapes and
With the growing awareness of rape on campus, ef-
forts to develop and expand educational programs that
address rape, particularly acquaintance rape, have pro-
liferated. Both men and women participate in most
~
Nina Cummings is the sexual assault prevention coordinator
at Cornell Universityand is a master’s candidate in the Depart-
ment of Human Service Studies.
VOL 40, IANUARV 1992
campus events, but some activities are directed at either
men or women. Educational programs for all-male
groups, such as athletic teams or fraternities, are not un-
common. Among the various kinds of programming di-
rected at women are self-defense classes. Athough they
have gradually grown in popularity, these classes are
still not commonplace in institutions of higher educa-
tion. A 1987 survey of colleges and universities in the
United States that offered undergraduate degrees in
physical education found that, out of 211 institutions,
39.7% offered some kind of martial arts training (eg,
judo, karate, aikido), 28% offered courses in self-
defense to the general student population, and only
6.2% designated self-defense classes specifically for
women. Half these women-only classes were offered in
just one state-California. l 3
The self-defense classes that are available generally
provide students with an opportunity to develop a mix-
ture of physical, social, and mental skills through
hands-on practice and interactive training. In contrast
to such avoidance strategies as not going out at night,
adding locks to doors, or walking in groups, self-de-
fense training is a kind of protection that some say
women can always carry with them.I4
Challenges to the effectiveness of self-defense training
generate concerns about its usefulness to college popula-
tions. Differences among “experts” about whether wom-
en should physically fight off an assailant or whether
passivity is the safest response reflect lingering doubts
about a woman’s ability to defend herself. As colleges
and universities struggle to curb the overwhelming num-
bers of acquaintance rapes on campus, the question that
arises is: How does self-defense training fit in with efforts
to reduce the occurrence of sexual assault and rape on
college campuses today?
What Is Self-Defense Training?
Self-defense instruction is defined as “preparation t o
minimize the possibility of assault; it is training to learn
and use a small group of simple effective physical ac-
183
 COLLEGE HEALTH
tions if no other alternative is available. Learning self-
defense is primarily the process of learning how to avoid
becoming a
The training reinforces women’s knowledge of their
bodies, voices, and minds through skill development
and practice. Escape and protecting one’s body are the
two basic underlying concepts in self-defense.
Practice usually incorporates learning how to use
body parts (eg, fists, elbows, teeth, knees) as “weapons”
against particularly vulnerable body “targets” (the
eyes, jaw, nose, solar plexus, ribs, groin). Self-defense
training also emphasizes using the voice as a weapon.
Women who can raise their voices assertively at the on-
set of an attack have been shown to be more likely to
avoid an assault.16 Yet, years of remaining silent, speak-
ing softly, and refraining from arguments may make it
difficult for many young women to raise their voices in
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
anger or fear. Therefore, most self-defense training
stresses the importance of resisting attacks by using the
voice (yelling, screaming, asserting vocally) combined
with some physical technique. Additional training also
frequently includes learning how to use impromptu
weapons (scraping an assailant’s face with a comb, us-
ing keys to strike), developing strong posture and body
language, and developing assertiveness ~kiLls.~*’~-’~ One
of the most important concepts taught to women in self-
defense training is “spirit,” described as a willingness to
challenge an attacker with the confidence that her safety
is worth defending. In Women on Rape, British author
Jane Dowdeswell describes spirit as “a complete change
of attitude: becoming angry at the way your life is re-
stricted; starting to believe you are worth defending;
that you have a right to do those things you want to do;
gaining self-respect and confidence in your own worth;
developing your sense of survival.”2wp65)
Individuals who support self-defense training for
women frequently cite connections between sex role so-
cialization and women’s perceived powerlessness in the
world. Rape, battering, and sexual assault are grounded
in power and control dynamics.’1,21-26 Advocates of self-
defense for women believe that the development of par-
ticular physical and mental skills will strengthen wom-
en’s physical capacities; support women’s independ-
ence; increase women’s mobility; and, ultimately, move
women from a culturally conditioned passivity to being
nonpassive, powerful individual^.^*"^'^*^^ Ultimately, the
goal is to demonstrate that “female status and victim
status are not inevitably ~ a i r e d . ” ~ ~ ‘ ~ ’ ~ )
Once it was recommended that women submit to a
rapist’s demands to avoid more serious harm,’* but re-
cent research suggests that although resistance may
sometimes be correlated with an increase in the victim’s
injuries, the physical injuries are frequently minor, par-
ticularly compared with the potential trauma of a com-
pleted sexual assault.29 Furthermore, researchers found
that resistance by victims did not seem to escalate the vi-
olence, and that women who physically resisted were
less likely to be victims of completed rapes.
7 84
Some women view fighting as unfeminine and think
self-defense training may challenge the very fundamental
roles and behaviors associated with femininity. They be-
lieve that “encouraging women to learn dirty street fight-
ing, to kick and yell and gouge, to be rude to men on the
street and refuse requests for help is, in fact, encouraging
them not to act as women are expected to
Others condemn self-defense training and martial arts be-
cause they equate self-defense with perpetrating violent
acts.MMost likely, however, women are reluctant to use
physical resistance when attacked because they fear that
fighting back will only anger the assailant, making the
risk of injury or death still greater. The evidence, how-
ever, suggests that learning a few self-defense techniques
may, at the very least, help women make the most of the
options available in a dangerous situation.
Overall, the kinds of self-defense training available to
young women vary widely. Depth of training, expertise
of instructor, length of practice, and philosophical
foundations differ from course to course. Searles and
Berger13 examined self-defense programs for women
and concluded that police-sponsored courses lack the
necessary support for individual empowerment, and
martial arts models taught by men frequently exploit
women’s fear of crime. They recommend self-defense
courses that are based on a martial arts model, combined
with a feminist philosophy that addresses practical self-
defense skills and techniques in a training environment
that is sensitive to women’s needs and concern^.'^
Research on the Effectiveness
of Self-Defense Training
The physical or verbal responses a woman may
choose to use or not to use when threatened with harm
are not determinants of responsibility or blame. An ex-
amination of the research on the effectiveness of self-
defense training is not meant to imply that the employ-
ment (or lack of employment) of self-defense techniques
somehow qualifies a woman’s experience or victimiza-
tion. The responsibility for attempted or completed
assaults lies solely with the perpetrator, and this discus-
sion does not suggest otherwise. With that in mind, a
brief review of the relevant research presents some in-
teresting findings regarding the effectiveness of self-
defense training.
Although there are few longitudinal studies on the ef-
fects of self-defense for women, a number of studies
have looked at the short-term effects and outcomes of
self-defense training. Some research areas included psy-
chological variables after course completion, women’s
ability to escape assaults successfully after having re-
ceived instruction in self-defense, techniques perceived
as most helpful in avoiding assaults, and the relation-
ship of self-defense course content to both stranger and
acquaintance rape risk. Most of these studies have in-
volved a college student p ~ p u l a t i o n . ’ ~ ~ ~ ’ - ~ ~
The studies that examined psychological variables
found that the effects most commonly reported by indi-
IACH

viduals who completed self-defense courses were feel-
ings of self-improvement, control over one’s life, and
increased confidence, security, independence, assertive-
ness, and physical prowess. 13*14s31*32 Follansbee” exam-
ined levels of “health and well-being” and “perceptions
of power” in women who had completed a self-defense
course and found that the respondents reported more
positive self-concept than those in a control group who
had had no training in self-defense. The women who
participated in the class also reported increased levels of
fear, which Follansbee attributed to the course emphasis
on “healthy fear” and the participants’ exposure during
the course to fearful and difficult situations. Smith33ex-
amined the effects of a self-defense class upon self-
efficacy expectancies, behaviors, and personality char-
acteristics. In findings similar to those of Follansbee,
Smith reported that, after completing the class, the par-
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
ticipants still feared potential assaults but were more
aware and concerned when they were out alone. She
also found that the efficacy expectancies increased and
that the women were more willing to respond assertively
in the likelihood of an assault.
Research that has been conducted with women who
successfully avoided assaults supports the concepts
taught in most women’s self-defense courses.” Several
reports suggest that women who avoided acquaintance
rape were likely to have behaved in an assertive, action-
oriented manner at the onset of the incident (ie, scream-
ing, running a ~ a y ) . ~ One
~ ” ~study
’ ~ ~found
~ ~ that college
women were more aggressive than most women and that
70% of those studied who were at risk of sexual aggres-
sion were able to escape by using verbal threats or by as-
serting themselves. The research suggests that assertive-
ness may be the most effective strategy if the assailant is
known to the Matt Thomas, the creator of a
self-defense course called Model Mugging, reported
that, of 8,000 women who had been trained by Model
Mugging staff, more than 120 reported back that they
had been able to avoid assaults by using psychological
techniques. Forty-eight graduates of the program re-
ported they were physically assaulted at a later date, and
46 of those chose to fight back physically. The majority
reported they were able to knock out their assailants and
escape, and the rest disabled the assailants enough to
avoid further harm.34
Some experts distinguish between active forms of re-
sistance (running away, physically fighting back) and
passive forms (talking to the assailant, compliance).” A
recent study of perceptions of certain rape avoidance
strategies found that women, men, and sexual assault
experts all agreed that active resistance (kicking the as-
sailant in the groin, poking the assailant in the eyes, or
trying to run away) increases the individual’s chances of
avoiding assault. Similarly, this report showed that such
passive strategies as talking to the assailant or claiming
to have a sexually transmitted disease were not particu-
larly useful technique^.^^ In one study, women who re-
sponded to an attacker with pleading or crying were
VOL40, IANUARY 7992
SELF-DEFENSE TRAlN I N G
more likely to have been raped.” That particular study
also found that the more self-defense strategies em-
ployed by victims, the greater the chances of rape
avoidance. When one of the strategies was physical re-
sistance, a woman’s chance of avoiding rape increased
significantly.
Koss suggested that the degree of violence and intensi-
ty of resistance are assessed differently by men and
women. Although male students in her study admitted
having raped their dates and reported minimal resis-
tance on the part of their victims, the victims in the
study “saw their nonconsent as clearer and occurring
after less consensual intimacy than offenders. Victims
perceived their resistance and the man’s violence as
much more extreme than the offenders did.”3S@16sS)
Skeptics have argued that self-defense training for
women emphasizes techniques that are most appropri-
ate when women are attacked by a stranger, whereas the
vast majority of women are actually raped by someone
they know. Advocates of self-defense training respond
that the training helps to prepare a woman so she is bet-
ter able to cope with any attacker, whether known or
u n k n ~ w n . ~ One
* ~ * study noted that although physical
strikes and punches such as those taught in self-defense
training are less likely to be employed in potential ac-
quaintance-rape situations than in stranger-rape situa-
tions, they are still likely to be successful.” Another
study concluded that much of the data on women who
were threatened by unknown individuals and avoided
stranger rape are generalizable to acquaintance-rape in-
cidents.36
Program Development
If campus personnel choose to initiate self-defense
classes, several factors must be considered. The training
environment, instructor expertise, practice time, and
flexibility of the curriculum are key variables that will
affect course quality. Basically, effective self-defense
training should emphasize the integration of emotional
and physical preparedness for a wide range of danger-
ous or threatening situations.
One purpose of self-defense training is to teach wom-
en how they can avoid or escape from such situations.
Program goals should be (1) to identify the realities and
myths regarding sexual assault and violence against
women; (2) to provide information that will support the
basic attitudes and attributes of self-defense, including
assertiveness, awareness, self-reliance, confidence, and
physical fitness; (3) to establish ways for students to
learn how to identify threatening and high-risk situa-
tions; (4) to provide skill-building activities that incor-
porate mental, vocal, and physical self-defense tech-
niques; ( 5 ) to provide strategies for specific situations
that may occur on campus; and (6) to provide informa-
tion about resources available to women who have been
or may be abused or assaulted.
Essentially, self-defense training should incorporate
instruction that considers at least three factors: the re-
185
 COLLEGE HEALTH
sources of the participant, the resources of the assailant
at the time of the attack, and the situational and en-
vironmental circumstances. A course should emphasize
specific physical and vocal drills rather than abstract
discussions and lectures. Women need hands-on prac-
tice, not only to develop the skills necessary to defend
against an assailant, but also to understand any limita-
tions in their strength and ability. The basic skills that
are practiced should focus on the assessment of a given
situation and on assertiveness, verbal resistance, phys-
ical releasedescapes, strikes, and target areas on the
body. A good course will also emphasize the importance
of practice outside of class or will provide opportunities
for students to schedule regular workouts or to partici-
pate in open training. Course objectives that are consis-
tent with program goals should enable students to (1) in-
crease their awareness of their environment and self, in-
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
cluding their capabilities and limitations; (2) recognize
potentially threatening situations and identify high-risk
behaviors; (3) consider a variety of self-defense options
for a given situation; (4) implement mental, vocal, and
physical techniques that will help them escape from dan-
gerous or threatening situations; (5) identify campus
and community resources available to them; and (6)
find ways to continue learning about self-defense after
course completion.
Self-defense training must be sensitive to the needs of
everyone, including those with physical limitations, peo-
ple with visual and hearing impairments, and those
from various cultural groups. Instructors should be able
to focus on individualized defenses for women with
specific disabilities. Cultural differences may affect ac-
tivities, and the instructor needs to consider culturally
proscribed obstacles to self-defense practices.
Although many men may need self-defense training,
classes open only to women encourage the women to
share their fears about sexual assault. In addition, such
classes offer women unaccustomed to physical or emo-
tional challenges a supportive environment in which to
behave in a manner society has considered “unfem-
inine”-striking and shouting in response to male asser-
tiveness and dominance. The tacit understanding of the
threat of violence that women share, some contend,
could be disrupted by the presence of men in the group.
Other observers, however, suggest that having men par-
ticipate in the class (or some of the sessions) helps make
the threat of assault real and promotes more serious
practice. At the very least, incorporating men into some
of the practices is valuable because the men can provide
useful “attacker” models to help women fight against
individuals generally larger and more powerful than
their female classmates.
Some proponents believe that, when available, a qual-
ified female instructor should be employed if the class is
open only to women students. Although men are fre-
quently effective self-defense instructors, the impor-
tance of a strong, assertive female role model is signifi-
cant for young women. Most important, however, is the
7 86
instructor’s attitude toward having students learn this
kind of material for the first time; a feminist philosophy
has also been cited as particularly beneficial. Support and
empowerment, rather than discouragement and hopeless-
ness, are the values an instructor should impart.
Personnel interested in promoting self-defense train-
ing on campus can learn about the availability of self-
defense instruction by getting in touch with local martial
arts centers, rape crisis organizations, battered women’s
shelters, or women’s centers. Many local martial arts in-
structors, rape crisis agencies, independent self-defense
instructors, and law enforcement personnel are availa-
ble to provide self-defense training on a contractual
basis. Information about national resources on self-de-
fense instruction is currently being compiled by the
Safeskills Association, PO Box 61643, Durham, NC
27715. The directory will provide a nation-wide list of
individuals, schools, and organizations that offer self-
defense instruction.
Once a campus establishes self-defense classes, a con-
scious effort must be made to let the community know
the classes are available so that graduate students, who
are not required to take a physical education course,
and staff and faculty members can participate if they
wish.
A Model Self-Defense Course
Cornell University offers a semester-long course in
self-defense for women through the Physical Education
Department. Offered during both fall and spring semes-
ters since 1986, the course is open to all female students
as well as to female staff and faculty. The course com-
bines the traditional mental and physical skill develop-
ment culled from a martial arts tradition with a feminist
approach to women’s issues and concerns. The class in-
structor is a woman with a black belt rating in karate
who has had 18 years of combined training and teaching
experience. Two or three women who have been formal-
ly studying karate with the instructor act as assistants in
the class each semester. The combination of instructor
expertise, martial-arts-trained assistants, and the course
synthesis of a martial arts/feminist self-defense model
provides a unique class environment.
The course presents a progressive series of physical
and mental exercises designed to give the students fac-
tual and optional information about dealing with dan-
gerous, or potentially dangerous, situations. The em-
phasis is on avoiding physical confrontation. Repetitive
vocalizations with phrases such as “let me go’’ help
students become accustomed to assertive language. The
students are taught about vulnerable target areas on the
body and learn appropriate strikes to those targets.
Drills incorporating different kicks and punches em-
phasize rhythm, power, and combinations. Some class
time is devoted to discussions of avoidance behaviors,
personal boundaries, and ways to get support after dif-
ficult experiences. Much of the curriculum depends
)ACH

upon the expertise of the instructor, which includes her
ability to recognize the students’ capabilities and needs.
Her interest in creating spontaneous situations and her
stature as a powerful role model are strong advantages.
Women bring male friends to one class, and this pro-
vides an opportunity to practice the techniques against
individuals who are usually bigger and stronger than
they are. The experience also gives men a chance to
learn about self-defense and practice techniques that are
new to most of them. A highlight of the course is when
the women break a wooden board with a physical strike,
an action that gives them an opportunity to execute a
technique with power and also reinforces the idea that
women can be physically powerful with very little train-
ing or expertise. Ongoing feedback is provided through-
out the course so that students can reflect on their skill
development and improvement. As they begin to see re-
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
sults of their practice in the class, the women feel more
confident about themselves, and this affirms and rein-
forces their newly acquired abilities.
Student evaluations of the Cornell class have been
consistently positive. The participants report that they
feel more assertive, confident, and aware of their sur-
roundings, and that they appreciate the challenges the
course has posed to them. Most of the women report
that they feel better knowing that they have learned
some techniques that may help them protect themselves,
regardless of whether they ever actually use them. Other
benefits identified include newly developed positive self-
concepts and feelings of empowerment.
Evaluation
Efforts to measure the effectiveness of self-defense
training for students are challenging. Implementation of
the training strategies and life-skills development (eg,
assertiveness, empowerment) can be measured, how-
ever. Longitudinal studies using pre- and posttests and
interviews that follow up on self-defense students after
course completion could confirm a student’s skill devel-
opment or changes in behavior. Most university offi-
cials are probably not as interested in long-term individ-
ual changes as they are in outcomes that can be meas-
ured by cost effectiveness and a decrease in reports or
incidents of completed rapes and assaults. These are im-
portant considerations, but evaluations should focus on
the life skills the individual gained through self-defense
training rather than on any reduction of reported vio-
lent incidents. Determining whether a student was able
to prevent victimization solely because of self-defense
training or whether there is any correlation between a
decrease in reported incidents and women’s having
learned self-defense is extremely problematic.
Evaluation must include an assessment of the enrolled
student’s limitations at the onset of the class, including
both physical and psychological barriers, and cultural
backgrounds that may have led to behavioral restraints
and different expectations. The depth and duration of
practice and training are important variables that seri-
VOL40, )ANVARY 1992
SELF-DEFENSE TRAINING
ously affect abilities in any situation that may require
self-defense, and some students’ initial reactions may
not be quite what the instructors expect. After..one very
brief workshop, a woman said, “I just attended a semi-
nar on how to prevent rape. They told me to fight back.
Squeeze his testicles, scratch his eyes. Jab him in the
groin and try to kill him. . . . I can’t do it. . . . I’d rather
be raped.”6
Evaluation methodology should vary. Using different
methods, such as conducting interviews in addition to col-
lecting written instrument measurements, may prove to be
the most valuable approach. Pre- and posttests that in-
corporate scales with proven validity and reliability
could measure psychological variables, and before and
after demonstrations of physical skill could assess tech-
nique development. A written examination covering
material from required reading assignments would be
useful in determining how well the students know such
facts about self-defense as risk factors, body-target
areas, using objects as weapons, and available resources
on campus. The Model Mugging program uses specially
trained “muggers” at the end of the course to assess a
woman’s ability to escape a very realistic attack. The
muggers, who wear padded garments, are instructed to
attack students in a variety of ways and relinquish their
holds only after they are certain the “victim” fought
back with enough power to have disabled them had they
not been wearing protective clothing.
Evaluations can provide valuable feedback regarding
the effectiveness of the training and will also benefit
self-defense instructors, college administrators, and
other campus personnel responsible for assault and vio-
lencc prevention. Ultimately, however, a broader ap-
proach to assault prevention is necessary if significant
decreases in women’s victimization are to occur.
A Broader Approach
Educational programs designed to reduce the risk of
rape must focus not only on increasing women’s abili-
ties to defend themselves, but also on decreasing as-
sailants’ motivations for victimizing women. Programs
for men must be an integral component of campus ef-
forts to stop violence. Men talking to men about such
related issues as sex role expectations, expressing anger
without violence, communication skills, and power and
control in relationships can provide an effective means
for educating men about the dynamics that may lead to
acquaintance rape. Opportunities for men and women
to discuss their concerns about relationships, communi-
cation, the dysfunction of sex role stereotyping, and
dating expectations can also enhance rape-prevention
programming. Other suggestions include human rela-
tions workshops for men and women that support re-
solving interpersonal conflicts and building self-esteem.
Some authorities also suggest that future research ex-
amine the impact that jealousy, physical attractiveness,
self-esteem, and sex role stereotyping play in dating
violence.3g
187
 COLLEGE HEALTH
It is apparent that administrators and students need a
range of information to make informed decisions about
rape prevention and self-defense training on campus.
The research suggests that, for many women, self-de-
fense training is a starting point rather than an end in it-
self. It offers an option to students worried about their
safety and supplements individual growth and develop-
ment. But rape will end only when men stop raping. U1-
timately, rape prevention strategies and programs that
change the power dynamics between men and women
and decrease our tolerance of violence in our culture will
do the most to eradicate women’s victimi~ation.~’
REFERENCES
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 01:26 07 January 2015
1. Amick A, Calhoun K. Resistance to sexual aggression:
Personality, attitudinal and situational factors. Arch Sex
Behav. 1987;16(2):153-163.
2. Follingstad D, Rutledge L, Polek D, McNeill-Hawkins
K. Factors associated with patterns of dating violence toward
college women. J Family Violence. 1988;3:169-182.
3. Koss M, Gidycz C, Wisniewski N. The scope of rape:
Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimiza-
tion in a national sample of higher education students. J Con-
sult CIin Psychol. 1987;55:162-170.
4. Parrot A. Coping with Date Rape & Acquaintance
Rape. New York: Rosen Publishing Group; 1988.
5. Pritchard C. Avoiding Rape On and Off Campus.
Wenonah, NJ: State College Publishing; 1988.
6. Katz S, Mazur MA. Understanding the Rape Victim: A
Synthesis of Research Findings. New York: John Wiky &
Sons; 1979.
7. Sanford L, Fetter A. In Defense of Ourselves: A Rape
Prevention Handbook for Women. New York: Doubleday;
1979.
8. Kelly L. Surviving Sexual Violence. Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press; 1988.
9. Smith S. Fear of Freedom: A Woman’s Options in
Social Survival & Physical Defense. Racine, WI: Mother
Courage Press; 1986.
10. Rozee P , Bateman P , Gilmore T. The personal perspec-
tive of acquaintance rape prevention: A three tier approach.
In: Parrott A, Bechhofer L, eds. Acquaintance Rape: The
Hidden Crime. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1991.
11. Bart P , O’Brien PH. Stopping Rape: Successful Sur-
vival Strategies. New York: Pergamon Press; 1985.
12. Russell D. Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual
Abuse and Workplace Harassment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications; 1984.
13. Searles P, Berger R. The feminist self defense move-
ment: A case study. Gender & Society. March 1987:61-84.
14. Cohn E, Kidder L, Harvey J. Crime prevention vs. vic-
timization prevention: The psychology of two different reac-
tions. Victimology: A n International Journal. 1978;3:285-2%.
15. McGrath A, Tegner B. Self Defense and Assault Pre-
vention for Girls and Women. Ventura, CA: Thor; 1977.
188
16. Kaufman D, Rudeen R, Morgan C. Safe Within Your-
serf. Alexandria, VA: Visage Press; 1980.
17. Connell N, Wilson C. Rape: The First Sourcebook for
Women. New York: New American Library; 1974.
18. Heydan S, Tarpening A. A Personal Defense for Wom-
en. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing; 1970.
19. Gordon M, Riger S. The Female Fear. New York: The
Free Press; 1989.
20. Dowdeswell J. Women on Rape. New York: Thorsons
Publishing; 1986.
21. Brownmiller S. Against Our Will: Men, Women and
Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster; 1975.
22. Groth N. Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Of-
fender. New York: Plenum Press; 1979.
23. Messerschmidt J. Capitalkm, Patriarchy & Crime:
Toward a Socialist Feminist Criminology. Totowa, NJ:
Rowman & Littlefield; 1986.
24. Russell D. The Politics of Rape. New York: Stein and
Day; 1975.
25. Schecter S. Women and Male Violence: The Vkions and
Struggles of the Battered Women’s Movement. Boston: South
End Press; 1982.
26. Walker L. The Battered Woman. New York: Harper &
Row; 1979.
27, Burgess A. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Research Hand-
book. New York: Garland; 1985.
28. Storaska F. How to Say No to a Rapist and Survive.
New York: Random House; 1975.
29. Baumer T. Research on fear of crime in the United
States. Victimology: A n International Journal. 1978;3:254-
264.
30. Swift C. The prevention of rape. In: Burgess A. Rape
and Sexual Assault: A Research Handbook. New York: Gar-
land; 1985.
31. Kidder L, Boell J, Moyer M. Rights consciousness and
victimization prevention: Personal defense and assertiveness
training. J Social Issues. 1983;39:155-170.
32. Follansbee P. Effects of a Self-Defense Program on
Women’s Psychological Health and Well-Being. Champaign,
IL: Southern Illinois University. Dissertation Abstracts Inter-
national. 1982;43(07).
33. Smith D. A Program Evaluation: The Effects of Self-
Defense Training Upon Efficacy Expectancies, Behaviors and
Personality Variables. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State
University. Dinertation Abstracts International. 1983;44(12).
34. Peri C. Below the belt. Women in the Martial Arts,
Newsletter of the National Women’s Martial Arts Federation.
1991;March:6-14.
35. Koss MP. Hidden rape: Sexual aggression and vic-
timization in a national sample of students in higher educa-
tion. In: Pirog-Good M, Stets J, eds. Violence in Dating Rela-
tionships: Emerging Social Issues. New York: Praeger; 1989.
36. Levine-MacCombie J, Koss M. Acquaintance rape: Ef-
fective avoidance strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly.
1986;10:311-320.
37. Furby L, Fischhoff B, Morgan M. Judged effectiveness
of common rape prevention and self-defense strategies. J In-
terpersonal Violence. March 1989;4:44-64.
38. Boston Women’s Health Collective. Our Bodies, Our
Selves. New York: Simon and Schuster; 1973.
39. Pirog-Good M, Stets J, eds. Violence in Dating Rela-
tionships: Emerging Social Issues. New York: Praeger; 1989.
)ACH