Sanet - St-Rigor in Your Classroom A Toolkit For Teachers

Rigor in Your Classroom
How can you ensure students are engaged and learning at deeper levels?
This book from bestselling author Barbara R. Blackburn is a treasure chest
of more than 250 practical and effective tools that can be used across grade
levels and subject areas to increase rigor, leading to higher levels of learning
and success.
Topics include scaffolding, differentiation, higher-level questions, high

expectations, gradual release of responsibility, and more. This essential
second edition offers more than 50 additional tools, updated research, and
new topics such as teaching academic discourse, creating an environment of
respect, and building students’ social and emotional learning.
Rigor in Your Classroom will be your go-to resource throughout the school
year, as you continually use new tools with your students. Bonus: The tools
are accompanied by graphic organizers, charts, templates, and reproducibles
for easy implementation.
Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, a Top 30 Global Guru in Education, is the bestselling

author of over 25 books and is a sought-after national and international
consultant. She was an award-winning professor at Winthrop University and
has taught early childhood, elementary, middle, and high school students.
Also Available from Barbara R. Blackburn
(www.routledge.com/k-12)
Rigor in the Remote Learning Classroom:
Instructional Tips and Strategies
Rigor and Differentiation in the Classroom: Tools and Strategies
Rigor in the 6–12 ELA and Social Studies Classroom:
A Teacher Toolkit
with Melissa Miles
Rigor in the K-5 ELA and Social Studies Classroom:
A Teacher Toolkit
with Melissa Miles
Rigor in the K-5 Math and Science Classroom:
A Teacher Toolkit
with Abbigail Armstrong
Rigor in the 6–12 Math and Science Classroom:
A Teacher Toolkit
with Abbigail Armstrong
Rigor in the RTI and MTSS Classroom:
Practical Tools and Strategies
with Bradley S. Witzel
Rigor Is Not a Four-Letter Word, 3rd Edition
Rigor and Assessment in the Classroom
Motivating Struggling Learners: 10 Ways to
Build Student Success
Rigor for Students with Special Needs, 2e
with Bradley Witzel
Rigor Made Easy: Getting Started
Rigor in Your School: A Toolkit for Leaders
Ronald Williamson and Barbara R. Blackburn
Rigor in Your Classroom
A Toolkit for Teachers
Second Edition
Barbara R. Blackburn
Designed cover image: © FatCamera / Getty Images
Second edition published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Barbara R. Blackburn
The right of Barbara R. Blackburn to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. The purchase of this copyright material confers the right
on the purchasing institution to photocopy or download pages which bear a
copyright line at the bottom of the page. No other parts of this book may be
reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2014
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Blackburn, Barbara R., 1961- author.
Title: Rigor in your classroom: a toolkit for teachers/Barbara R. Blackburn.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY: Routledge, 2023. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022028669 | ISBN 9780367559229 (hardback) | ISBN
9780367559236 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003095743 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: School improvement programs. | Academic achievement. |
Teaching.
Classification: LCC LB2822.8. B528 2023 | DDC 371.2/07—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022028669
ISBN: 978-0-367-55922-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-55923-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-09574-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743
Typeset in Palatino
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367559236
To my Mom, who continues to inspire me every day
with her attitude toward change.
Contents
Acknowledgements xv
Meet the Author xvi
Support Material xvii
Introduction xix
1 Understanding Rigor 1
Myths About Rigor 1
Myth 1: Lots of Homework Is a Sign of Rigor 2
Myth 2: Rigor Means Doing More 2
Myth 3: Rigor Is Not for Younger Students 2
Myth 4: Rigor Is Not for Struggling Students or Those With
Special Needs 2
Myth 5: When You Increase Rigor, Student Motivation Decreases 3
Myth 6: Providing Support Means Lessening Rigor 3
Myth 7: Resources Equal Rigor 3
Myth 8: Standards Alone Take Care of Rigor 4
Myth 9: Rigor Means You Have to Quit Doing Everything You
Do Now and Start Over 4
Myth 10: Rigor Is Just One More Thing to Do 4
Conclusion 8
2 Raising Expectations Through Questioning and Adult Behaviors 9

Tool 1: Sample Questions Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy 10
Tool 2: Planning Tool for Bloom’s Taxonomy 11
Tool 3: Essential Questions 11
Tool 4: Sample Essential Questions 11
Tool 5: Paideia Seminars 12
Tool 6: Questions for a Socratic Dialogue 12
Tool 7: The Williams Model 13
Tool 8: Questioning Types 13
Tool 9: Applying the Williams Model 14
Tool 10: SCAMPER Strategy 14
Tool 11: SCAMPER Structure 15
Tool 12: Moving From Low to High-Level Questions 16
Tool 13: Nine Characteristics of Effective Questioning 17
Tool 14: Quality Students’ Responses 19
Tool 15: Examples and Non-Examples 20
viii ◆ Contents
Tool 16: Connecting What You’ve Learned 20

Tool 17: Behaviors That Reflect High Expectations 21
Tool 18: Differentiating Behavior by Level of Expectancy 21
Tool 19: Marzano’s Four-Step Process 22
Tool 20: Expecting the Best 23
Tool 21: Expecting the BEST 23
Tool 22: Refuse to Use the Word “Won’t” 25
Tool 23: Don’t Allow the Word “Can’t” 26
Tool 24: Each Student Demonstrates Understanding 27
Tool 25: Required Completion of Work 27
3 Raising Expectations Through Complex Tasks 29

Tool 26: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge 29
Tool 27: Sample Activities Using DOK 32
Tool 28: The DOK and Writing 33
Tool 29: Cognitive Rigor Matrix 35
Tool 30: Math and Science CRM 37
Tool 31: Writing and Speaking CRM 38
Tool 32: Social Studies and Humanities CRM 39
Tool 33: 3rd Grade Math 40
Tool 34: Grades 4-12 Math 41
Tool 35: Middle/High School Math 42
Tool 36: Middle/High School STEM 42
Tool 37: Kindergarten/First Grade Science 43
Tool 38: Third Grade Science 44
Tool 39: Upper Elementary/Middle School Science 44
Tool 40: High School Science 45
Tool 41: Grade Four Writing 45
Tool 42: Middle School Language Arts 46
Tool 43: High School English 46
Tool 44: Fourth Grade Social Studies 47
Tool 45: Seventh Grade Social Studies 47
Tool 46: High School Social Studies 48
Tool 47: The Human Rights Game (Interdisciplinary) 48
Tool 48: Critiquing a Performance (Music, Theatre) 50
Tool 49: Computer Science 50
Tool 50: Career Technology 51
4 Increasing Depth of Instruction 53

Tool 51: Problems With Student Talk 54
Tool 52: PURPOSEful Discourse 54
Tool 53: Organizers for Academic Discussion 54
Tool 54: Examples of Discourse 55
Contents ◆ ix
Tool 55: Sample Classroom Norms 56

Tool 56: Sample Questioning Prompts 57
Tool 57: Starter Questions 57
Tool 58: Objectives 58
Tool 59: Tiers of Vocabulary 59
Tool 60: Tier Two Vocabulary 59
Tool 61: Tier Three Vocabulary 60
Tool 62: Project-Based and Problem-Based Learning 61
Tool 63: Examples of Project-Based Learning 62
Tool 64: Elementary Reading 62
Tool 65: Elementary/Middle School Social Studies 63
Tool 66: Middle School Science 63
Tool 67: Middle School Math 63
Tool 68: High School English 64
Tool 69: High School Social Studies 64
Tool 70: Other Topics 64
Tool 71: PBL Key Areas 65
Tool 72: Assessing Project- and Problem-Based
Learning 65
Tool 73: Sample Peer Assessment 66
Tool 74: Science Rubric Excerpt 66
Tool 75: Cubing to Look at Perspectives 67
Tool 76: Story Cubing Pattern 68
Tool 77: Cubing Prompts 69
Tool 78: Additional Cubing Prompts 69
Tool 79: Thinking Hats 70
Tool 80: RAFT 70
Tool 81: Sample RAFTs 71
Tool 82: Debates 72
Tool 83: Sample Debate Topics 72
Tool 84: Process for Debates 73
Tool 85: Graphic Organizer for Debates 73
Tool 86: Informal Debates 74
Tool 87: Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning 74
Tool 88: Sample Task 75
Tool 89: Standards 76
Tool 90: Uncovering Pictures 76
Tool 91: Discover the Mistakes 76
Tool 92: Word Sorts 77
Tool 93: Entrance Slips 77
Tool 94: Pizza Wheel 77
Tool 95: Sample Exit Slip 79
Tool 96: Read the Room 79
x ◆ Contents
5 Giving Scaffolding and Support 81

Tool 97: Gradual Release 82
Tool 98: K-W-L 83
Tool 99: LINK Strategy 84
Tool 100: IIQEE 84
Tool 101: Spinner 85
Tool 102: Sample Prompts 85
Tool 103: Sample Reading Anticipation Guide 86
Tool 104: Topic Anticipation Guide 86
Tool 105: Math Anticipation Guide 87
Tool 106: Characteristics of Effective Anticipation Guides 87
Tool 107: Paying Attention With the SLANT Model 88
Tool 108: Teaching Students a Process 89
Tool 109: Think Alouds 91
Tool 110: Guide-o-Ramas With Text 92
Tool 111: Guide-o-Rama for Videos 93
Tool 112: Building a Guide-o-Rama 93
Tool 113: Broader Viewing Guide 94
Tool 114: Vocabulary Graphic Organizer 95
Tool 115: Word Cards 96
Tool 116: Using Evidence to Support Your Thoughts 96
Tool 117: Elementary Graphic Organizer 96
Tool 118: Social Studies Graphic Organizer 97
Tool 119: PERSIA Graphic 98
Tool 120: Math Word Problems 100
Tool 121: Pythagorean Theorem 101
Tool 122: Science Experiment Steps 102
Tool 123: High School Science 102
Tool 124: Music Graphic Organizer 103
Tool 125: Mini-Assessment 104
Tool 126: Math Mini-Assessment 105
Tool 127: Sample Elementary Differentiated Lesson 105
Tool 128: Fractions Differentiated Lesson 106
Tool 129: Content Literacy Differentiated Lesson 108
Tool 130: Differentiated Learning Through Learning Centers 110
Tool 131: Steps for Working With Learned Helplessness 112
Tool 132: Modifications and Accommodations 112
Tool 133: Schema-Based Problem Solving 113
Tool 134: Say-Ask-Check 114
Tool 135: Technology for Specific Support 114
Tool 136: Use of Visuals 115
Tool 137: Use of Language 115
Contents ◆ xi
Tool 138: Sentence Frame 115

Tool 139: Technology for ELL Students 115
Tool 140: Tips for Teaching Gifted Students 116
Tool 141: Working With Underachievers 117
Tool 142: Tips for Working With Students With Autism 118
Tool 143: Strategies for Working With ADD/ADHD Students 120
Tool 144: Extra Help 120
6 Options for Assessment 123

Tool 145: Characteristics of Formative Assessment 124
Tool 146: Transformative Assessment 125
Tool 147: Demonstrating Understanding Through Four Corners 126
Tool 148: Demonstrating Understanding Through Pair/Shares 126
Tool 149: Reflecting on What I Know 127
Tool 150: 1-2-3 Times Two 127
Tool 151: “I” Responses 127
Tool 152: CROWN 128
Tool 153: Learning Logs 128
Tool 154: Laundry Day 128
Tool 155: Other Options for Formative Assessment 129
Tool 156: Ensuring Assignment Is Appropriate 129
Tool 157: HOTS for Lord of the Flies by William Golding (novel) 130
Tool 158: HOTS for Cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allan Poe
(short story) 131
Tool 159: HOTS for “Free At Last” by Martin Luther King, Jr. 132
Tool 160: Culture Assignment 133
Tool 161: Assignment Yields Results 133
Tool 162: Archaeology Assignment 134
Tool 163: Characteristics of Effective Feedback 134
Tool 164: Feedback Process 135
Tool 165: Teacher Feedback During Questioning 136
Tool 166: 1-2-3 137
Tool 167: Principles of Effective Homework 137
Tool 168: Purpose-Driven Homework 138
Tool 169: Quality-Driven Homework 138
Tool 170: Analysis of Homework Assignment 139
Tool 171: Student-Driven Homework 139
Tool 172: Sample Homework Activities 140
Tool 173: Interactive Homework 140
Tool 174: Purposes of Grading 141
Tool 175: How to GRADE 141
Tool 176: Student-Created Categories 142
xii ◆ Contents
Tool 177: Remove Effort, Behavior, and Attendance from Grading 142
Tool 178: Align Grading to Assessment 143
Tool 179: Wanted Poster 144
Tool 180: Revised Grading Guidelines 145
Tool 181: The Instant Credit Recovery Model 146
Tool 182: Teaching Responsibility 147
Tool 183: Sample Reassignment Policy 148
Tool 184: Sample Rubric for Not Yet Grading 149
Tool 185: Extra Credit Undermines Authentic Grading 150
Tool 186: Grading for Exceptional and Struggling Learners 150
Tool 187: Ideas for Working With Students With Special Needs 151
7 Reinvigorating the Environment 153

Tool 188: Vision Letters 154
Tool 189: Autobiographies 154
Tool 190: Creating a Timeline 154
Tool 191: Where I’m From Poems 155
Tool 192: Creating Respect 155
Tool 193: Contract of Norms 155
Tool 194: RESPECT 157
Tool 195: EARNing Respect 157
Tool 196: Student Credo 158
Tool 197: Respecting Diversity 158
Tool 198: Culture Boxes 158
Tool 199: Creating a Classroom Culture Web 159
Tool 200: Positive vs. Negative Interactions With Students 160
Tool 201: Tracking Positive and Negative Interactions 160
Tool 202: Sample Negative and Positive Comments 161
Tool 203: Positive and Negative Body Language 161
Tool 204: Praise and Encouragement Statements 162
Tool 205: Sample Certificates 163
Tool 206: Possible Zones for an Elementary Classroom 164
Tool 207: Sample Role Models 165
Tool 208: Template for Student Role Model Poster 165
Tool 209: Ideas for Door Themes 166
Tool 210: Sample Phrases for Welcome Messages 166
Tool 211: Examples of Critical Information 167
Tool 212: How to Figure Out a Word You Don’t Know 167
Tool 213: Safety Procedures 168
Tool 214: Safety Equipment 169
Tool 215: Following Directions 169
Tool 216: Shifting Roles 170
Contents ◆ xiii
Tool 217: Choice of Topics 170

Tool 218: Literature Choice Board (Grade 4) 171
Tool 219: High School Biology Contract 172
Tool 220: Sample Resources 173
Tool 221: Does it COUNT? 174
Tool 222: Bookmark 174
Tool 223: Process for Student Choice in Scaffolding 175
Tool 224: Sample Scaffolding Tools Regularly Available
(General or Specific) 175
Tool 225: Choice in Self-Reflection 175
Tool 226: Choice in Assessment 176
Tool 227: Show What You Know Exam 176
Tool 228: Choice-Based Portfolios 177
Tool 229: Portfolio Choices for Students 177
Tool 230: Student-Created Rules 177
8 Common Concerns 179

Tool 231: Strategies for Current Situations 180
Tool 232: Sources for Building Your PLNs 181
Tool 233: Quotes to Encourage You 182
Tool 234: Websites That Provide Tips for Work-Life Balance 182
Tool 235: Reasons to Become an Advocate 183
Tool 236: Characteristics of an Effective ADVOCATE 183
Tool 237: Stakeholders 184
Tool 238: Ten Principles of Effective Communication 185
Tool 239: Interacting With Your School Board 185
Tool 240: PAIR With Parents 186
Tool 241: General Tips for Parents 187
Tool 242: Rigor Tip Sheet for Parents 187
Tool 243: Social Media Tools 189
Tool 244: Inform and Transform 189
Tool 245: Parent Brochure 190
Tool 246: Rigor Column 190
Tool 247: Relationships Are Shared 191
Tool 248: Sample Agenda for Parent–Teacher Meeting 192
Tool 249: Characteristics of Social-Emotional Learning 194
Tool 250: Social Emotional Learning Self-Assessment, Version 1 194
Tool 251: Social Emotional Learning Self-Assessment, Version 2 196
Tool 252: Incorporating SEL in the Classroom 197
Tool 253: Children’s Books to Teach SEL 198
Tool 254: Young Adult Novels 198
Tool 255: Core Beliefs About Rigor and Remote Learning 199
xiv ◆ Contents
Tool 256: Math Example 200

Tool 257: Science Example 200
Tool 258: Social Studies Example 201
Tool 259: English/Language Arts Example 201
9 Leading Rigor in Your School 203

Tool 260: Six Steps 204
Tool 261: Sample Steps 205
Tool 262: Sample Feedback Questions 207
Tool 263: Three Bs for Working With Teachers 207
Tool 264: Building a Relationship 208
Tool 265: Characteristics of PLCs 209
Tool 266: Benefits of PLCs 209
Tool 267: Three Questions for PLCs 210
Tool 268: Providing Collaborative Time 210
Tool 269: Teachers’ Self-Assessment 211
Tool 270: Lesson Studies 213
Tool 271: Video Lessons 214
Tool 272: Reflection and Improvement 214
Tool 273: Critiquing for Rigor 215
Tool 274: Organizer for Critique 215
Tool 275: Sample Non-Rigorous Behaviors 215
Tool 276: Process for Looking at Tasks and Assignments 216
Tool 277: Rigor Check 216
Tool 278: Assessing a Sample 217
Tool 279: Adding Rigor to Existing Evaluations for Textbooks or
Other Programs 218
Tool 280: Evaluating Individual Resources 219
Tool 281: Professional Development: Understanding Rigor 220
Tool 282: Professional Development: Myths of Rigor 220
Tool 283: Professional Development: Expectations 220
Tool 284: Professional Development: Using Technology
to Increase Rigor 221
Tool 285: Self-Reflection 221
Appendix A 223
Appendix B 225
Appendix C 229
Appendix D 232
Bibliography 234
Acknowledgements
To my husband Pete, who is always an inspiration.
For my best friend/sister Abbigail, who is my constant support and encour-

agement.
As always, to Lauren Davis, my editor and publisher; thank you for always
helping me share my message.
To Emma Capel, thank you for a wonderful cover design.
To Apex CoVantage for all the work coordinating production, and for
Autumn, who continually makes my books better.
Finally, for the teachers and leaders who have collaborated with me
remotely during the pandemic, especially Clarke High School and Clayton
County Schools in Georgia, Hillside Schools in New Jersey, Graham Local
Schools in Ohio, and New London High School in Connecticut.
Meet the Author
Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, an international speaker and Top 30 Global Guru,

has dedicated her life to raising the level of rigor and motivation for pro-
fessional educators and students alike. What differentiates Barbara’s over 25
books are her easily executable concrete examples based on decades of expe-
rience as a teacher, professor, and consultant. Barbara’s dedication to educa-
tion was inspired in her early years by her parents. Her father’s doctorate and
lifetime career as a professor taught her the importance of professional train-
ing. Her mother’s career as school secretary shaped Barbara’s appreciation of
the effort all staff play in the education of every child.
Barbara has taught early childhood, elementary, middle, and high school
students and has served as an educational consultant for three publishing
companies. She holds a master’s degree in school administration and was cer-
tified as both a teacher and school principal in North Carolina. She received
her Ph.D. in curriculum and teaching from the University of North Carolina
at Greensboro. In 2006, she received the award for Outstanding Junior Pro-
fessor at Winthrop University. She left her position at the University of North
Carolina at Charlotte to write and speak full-time.
In addition to speaking at state, national, and international conferences,
she also regularly presents workshops for teachers and administrators in
elementary, middle, and high schools, both remotely and on-site. Her work-
shops are lively and engaging and filled with practical information. Her most
popular topics include:
♦ Rigor Is NOT a Four-Letter Word

♦ Rigorous Schools and Classrooms: Leading the Way
♦ Motivation + Engagement + Rigor = Student Success
♦ Rigor for Students with Special Needs
♦ Instructional Strategies That Motivate Students
♦ Content Literacy Strategies for the Young and the Restless
♦ Motivating Yourself and Others
♦ Engaging Instruction Leads to Higher Achievement
♦ High Expectations and Increased Support Lead to Success
Support Material
The following tools from the book are also available on our website as free
downloads, so you can easily print and reproduce them for classroom use.
To access the materials, go to the book product page at www.routledge.
com/9780367559236 and click on the link that says Support Material.
Tool 2: Planning Tool for Bloom’s Taxonomy

Tool 16: Connecting What You’ve Learned
Tool 76: Story Cubing Pattern
Tool 85: Graphic Organizer for Debates
Tool 95: Sample Exit Slip
Tool 116: Using Evidence to Support Your Thoughts
Tool 125: Mini-Assessment
Tool 126: Math Mini-Assessment
Tool 205: Sample Certificates
Tool 269: Teachers’ Self-Assessment
Tool 280: Evaluating Individual Resources
Tool 285: Self-Reflection
Introduction
Rigor in Your Classroom: A Toolkit for Teachers is a compilation of over 250

strategies to increase rigor for you and your students. What you’ll find in
each chapter is a wealth of ideas, far too many to be used immediately. I’ve
designed it as a true toolkit—something you can go back to again and again
to pull new ideas when you need them.
This book differs from my other books on rigor. For example, Rigor Is Not
a Four-Letter Word is a foundational book on rigor. There are also books that
focus on specific topics related to rigor such as Rigor and Differentiation in the
Classroom, Rigor and Assessment in the Classroom, Rigor for Remote Learning, and
Rigor for Students with Special Needs.
Rigor in Your Classroom, on the other hand, paints a broad picture. You’ll
have a brief introduction to rigor, but then you have a treasure chest of ideas,
one right after another, that you can choose from to tailor rigorous instruction
for your class. The activities are appropriate for preK–12th grade and can be
used across all subject areas.
In this second edition, I keep classic parts of the first edition that are crit-
ical to a rigorous classroom. Then, I have added new or expanded sections
on questioning, academic discourse, assessment, scaffolding, and common
concerns. I have also incorporated exemplars of rigorous tasks and assess-
ments throughout the book. Finally, Chapter 9 is new, just for instructional
specialists, coaches, and other teacher-leaders, with a wide range of tools and
activities you can use as you work with teachers.
If you are an administrator, I encourage you to review Rigor in Your School:
A Toolkit for Leaders. It focuses on leadership strategies you can use to increase
rigor throughout your school.
Finally, I think you’ll find the ideas to be very practical. Some are ones
I used in my classroom, others are from teachers I know, and some are from
other authors. No matter the source, my framework for choosing them was
that you could immediately use the strategy to make a difference in your
class. Don’t hesitate to contact me if you would like to share an idea or talk
with me.
1
Understanding Rigor Rigor in Your ClassroomUnderstanding Rigor
Instructional rigor is a key component of effective instruction. Too often, we

think that our instruction is rigorous, but oftentimes it is not. Our assumptions
about rigor, as well as our practices, make a difference in what we expect from
students. In this chapter, we’ll explore the myths of rigor and turn our attention
to what true instructional rigor is, then look at the structure of this book.
Myths About Rigor

Despite all the research, there are ten commonly held myths about rigor.
I hear these repeated over and over again, and each undermines true instruc-
tional rigor. Let’s look at them in turn.
Ten Myths About Rigor

Myth 1: Lots of homework is a sign of rigor.
Myth 2: Rigor means doing more.
Myth 3: Rigor is not for younger students.
Myth 4: Rigor is not for struggling students or those with special needs.
Myth 5: When you increase rigor, student motivation decreases.
Myth 6: Providing support means lessening rigor.
Myth 7: Resources equal rigor.
Myth 8: Standards alone take care of rigor.
Myth 9: Rigor means you have to quit doing everything you do now and start
over.
Myth 10: Rigor is just one more thing to do.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-1
2 ◆ Rigor in Your Classroom
Myth 1: Lots of Homework Is a Sign of Rigor

For many people the best indicator of rigor is the amount of homework
required of students. Some teachers pride themselves on the amount of home-
work expected of their students, and there are parents who judge teachers by
homework quantity. Realistically, all homework is not equally useful. Some of
it is just busywork, assigned by teachers because principals or parents expect
it. For some students, doing more homework in terms of quantity leads to
burnout. When that occurs, students are less likely to complete homework
and may be discouraged about any learning activity.
Myth 2: Rigor Means Doing More

“Doing more” often means doing more low-level activities, frequently
repetitions of things already learned. Such narrow and rigid approaches to
learning do not define a rigorous classroom. Students learn in many differ-
ent ways. Just as instruction must vary to meet the individual needs of stu-
dents, so must homework. Rigorous and challenging learning experiences
will vary with the student. Their design will vary, as will their duration.
Ultimately, it is the quality of the assignment that makes a difference in
terms of rigor.
Myth 3: Rigor Is Not for Younger Students

I work with primary teachers regularly, and they almost always agree
with me that younger children are capable of working at rigorous levels. This
may be as simple as asking them “Why” after they answer a basic question,
which requires them to think about explaining or justifying their answer.
Myth 4: Rigor Is Not for Struggling Students or Those With Special Needs
Often, teachers think the only way to ensure success for everyone is
to lower standards and lessen rigor. This may mask a hidden belief that
some students can’t really learn at high levels. You may have heard of the
Pygmalion effect—students live up or down to our expectations of them.
Each student can complete rigorous work at high levels, whether they
are advanced or a student with special needs. Does the end result look
Understanding Rigor ◆ 3
different for those two students? Yes, but I know from my own experience
as a teacher of struggling students reading far below their grade level that
any teacher can be rigorous, and any student can reach higher levels with
the right support.
Myth 5: When You Increase Rigor, Student Motivation Decreases

This myth is particularly relevant if you already teach students who aren’t
motivated. If they already aren’t motivated, how will they be motivated to
do more rigorous work? There are two reasons this doesn’t have to be true.
First, many people who work with motivation, especially addressing what
parents should understand about their kids, find that students are less moti-
vated when they are bored. I saw this with my own stepson. If it’s too easy,
why bother? Second, students can handle more challenging work as long as
you provide the support and scaffolding to help them be successful.
Myth 6: Providing Support Means Lessening Rigor

In America, we believe in rugged individualism. We are to pull ourselves
up by our bootstraps and do things on our own. Working in teams or accept-
ing help is often seen as a sign of weakness. Supporting students so that they
can learn at high levels is central to the definition of rigor. As teachers design
lessons moving students toward more challenging work, they must provide
scaffolding to support them as they learn.
Myth 7: Resources Equal Rigor

Recently, I’ve heard a common refrain. “If we buy this program, or text-
book, or technology, then we would be rigorous.” The right resources can
certainly help increase the rigor in your classroom. However, raising the level
of rigor for your students is not dependent on the resources you have. Think
about the resources you have now. How can you use them more effectively?
Do you use a textbook that includes true-false tests? Often, they are not rigor-
ous because students can guess the answer. However, add one step for more
rigor. Ask students to rewrite all false answers into true statements, and it
requires students to demonstrate true understanding. It’s not the resources;
it’s how you use them that make a difference.
Myth 8: Standards Alone Take Care of Rigor

Standards alone, even if they are rigorous, do not guarantee rigor in the
classroom. Most state and national standards are designed to increase the level
of rigor in classrooms. However, they were not necessarily designed to address
instruction. They usually provide a framework for what is to be taught and what
students are expected to know. If implemented without high levels of question-
ing or applications, the standards themselves are weakened. Your instructional
practices, or how you implement standards, are just as critical as the curriculum.
Myth 9: Rigor Means You Have to Quit Doing Everything

You Do Now and Start Over
Probably the biggest frustration I hear from teachers is the feeling that
they have to change how or what they teach to increase rigor. I can understand
that feeling, knowing how much time and energy you have put into your
teaching. I don’t want you to waste those efforts, I want you to take what you
have done and simply adjust it as needed. Will there be some assignments or
activities that can’t be adapted? Perhaps. But I’ve found most lessons can be.
Myth 10: Rigor Is Just One More Thing to Do

Rigor is not another thing to add to your plate. Instead, rigor is increasing
the level of expectation of what you are already doing. For example, if you are
teaching vocabulary, instead of asking students to write their own definition
of the word, ask them to create clues in order to write a riddle. It’s the same
end result, but at higher levels of thinking.
Defning Rigor
Now that we have looked at what rigor is not, let’s look at what rigor is. In
Rigor Is Not a Four-Letter Word, I define rigor as: Creating an environment in which:
• Each student is expected to learn at high levels.

• Each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels.
• Each student demonstrates learning at high levels.
Notice we are looking at the environment you create. The tri-fold approach
to rigor is not limited to the curriculum students are expected to learn. It is
more than a specific lesson or instructional strategy. It is deeper than what a

student says or does in response to a lesson. True rigor is the result of weav-
ing together all elements of schooling to raise students to higher levels of
learning. Let’s take a deeper look at the three aspects of the definition.
Expecting Students to Learn at High Levels

The first component of rigor is creating an environment in which each
student is expected to learn at high levels. Having high expectations starts
with the recognition that every student possesses the potential to succeed at
his or her individual level.
Almost every teacher or leader I talk with says, “We have high expecta-
tions for our students.” Sometimes that is evidenced by the behaviors in the
school; other times, however, faculty actions don’t match the words. There
are concrete ways to implement and assess rigor in classrooms.
As you design lessons that incorporate more rigorous opportunities for
learning, you will want to consider the questions that are embedded in the
instruction. Higher-level questioning is an integral part of a rigorous class-
room. Look for open-ended questions, ones that are at higher levels. You’ll
find more on questioning in Chapter 2.
It is also important to pay attention to how you respond to student ques-
tions. When we visit schools, it is not uncommon to see teachers who ask
higher-level questions. But for whatever reason, I then see some of the same
teachers accept low-level responses from students. In rigorous classrooms,
teachers push students to respond at high levels. They ask extending ques-
tions. Extending questions are questions that encourage a student to explain
their reasoning and think through ideas. When a student does not know the
immediate answer but has sufficient background information to provide a
response to the question, the teacher continues to probe and guide the stu-
dent’s thinking rather than moving on to the next student. Insist on thinking
and problem solving.
Supporting Students to Learn at High Levels

High expectations are important, but the most rigorous schools ensure
that each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, which is
the second part of our definition. It is essential that teachers design lessons
that move students to more challenging work while simultaneously provid-
ing ongoing scaffolding to support students’ learning as they move to those
higher levels.
Providing additional scaffolding throughout lessons is one of the most
important ways to support your students. Oftentimes students have the abil-
ity or knowledge to accomplish a task but are overwhelmed at the complexity
of it, therefore getting lost in the process. This can occur in a variety of ways,
but it requires that teachers ask themselves during every step of their lessons,
“What extra support might my students need?” In Chapter 5, we’ll explore
this in more detail.
Examples of Scafolding Strategies

• Asking guiding questions.
• Chunking information.
• Highlighting or color-coding steps in a project.
• Writing standards as questions for students to answer.
• Using visuals and graphic organizers such as a math graphic organizer
for word problems, maps to accompany history lessons, or color-coded
paragraphs to help students make meaning of texts.
Ensuring Students Demonstrate Learning at High Levels

The third component of a rigorous classroom is providing each student
with opportunities to demonstrate learning at high levels. A teacher recently
said to me, “If we provide more challenging lessons that include extra sup-
port, then learning will happen.” What I’ve learned is that if we want students
to show us they understand what they learned at a high level, we also need to
provide opportunities for students to demonstrate they have truly mastered
that learning. In order for students to demonstrate their learning, they must
first be engaged in academic tasks, precisely those in the classroom.
Student engagement is a critical aspect of rigor. In too many classrooms,
most of the instruction consists of teacher-centered, large-group instruction,
perhaps in an interactive lecture or discussion format. The general practice
during these lessons is for the teacher to ask a question and then call on a
student to respond. While this provides an opportunity for one student to
demonstrate understanding, the remaining students don’t do so.
Another option would be for the teacher to allow all students to pair-
share, respond with thumbs up or down, write their answers on small white-
boards and share their responses, or respond on handheld computers that
tally the responses. Such activities hold each student accountable for demon-
strating his or her understanding.
Beliefs That Support Rigor

As we think about the myths and what rigor is, we can describe our beliefs
that support rigorous instruction. Each of these is crucial to how we teach in
a rigorous manner.
Beliefs That Support Rigorous Instruction
• Rigor is not a negative concept. It is about meeting students where they are
in their learning process and helping them move to a higher level of learning.
• Every student should be given the opportunity to learn at high levels.
• Students are more likely to succeed if they are held to high expectations
and provided appropriate encouragement and support.
• Rigor may “look” different for different students, but all students can
master complex, higher-order skills and concepts.
• Students need varying levels of support as they move to more rigorous
work.
• A classroom environment that promotes student motivation, student
ownership and empowerment, and a growth mindset is critical.
Before you read any further, think about your own beliefs and misconcep-
tions. Are they similar to any of these I’ve described?
Structure of the Book

This book will provide you
the tools you need to implement Chapters
instructional rigor in your class- Chapter 2: Raising Expectations Through
room. Each chapter is set up Questioning and Adult Behaviors
around a central topic, so you Chapter 3: Raising Expectations Through
do not need to go in a particular High Standards
order. For example, if scaffold- Chapter 4: Increasing Depth of Instruction
ing is your major concern, start Chapter 5: Giving Scafolding and Support
with Chapter 5. Or, if you want
Chapter 6: Options for Assessment
to begin with Chapter 8, “Com-
Chapter 7: Reinvigorating the Environment
mon Concerns,” begin there.
Each chapter contains a vari- Chapter 8: Common Concerns
ety of tools. You’ll have a short Chapter 9: Leading Rigor in Your School
explanation of the tool, with an
accompanying graphic or tem-
plate if appropriate. There are a wide variety of tools; please do not feel like
you should implement all of them. I’ve designed the book so you can pick
and choose which are most appropriate for your classroom and your students.
You’ll find examples from a variety of grade levels and subject areas, but each
tool can be adapted for your use.
In Chapter 2, “Raising Expectations Through Questioning and Adult
Behaviors,” and Chapter 3, “Raising Expectations Through High Standards,”
we’ll explore at the variety of ways you can put high expectations into prac-
tice. In Chapter 2, we’ll look at models for questioning and the behaviors
that reinforce high expectations. In Chapter 3, we’ll turn our attention to the
instructional aspects of high expectations, focusing on complex tasks.
Next, in Chapter 4, “Increasing Depth of Instruction,” we will explore a
wide range of tools you can use to effectively impact your instruction. These
include academic discourse, project- and problem-based learning, multiple
perspectives and points of view, and starting and ending lessons.
Chapter 5, “Giving Support,” addresses the scaffolding needed to sup-
port students as they move to more rigorous work. Before-, during-, and
after-lesson strategies frame this chapter.
Chapter 6, “Options for Assessment,” provides a range of options for
assessment. We’ll focus on formative assessment, quality assignments, feed-
back, homework, and grading.
In Chapter 7, “Reinvigorating the Environment,” we turn our attention
to the overall environment of your classroom. What role does the physical
environment play in a rigorous classroom? What about the role of the teacher
and students’ views of success and failure?
Chapter 8, “Common Concerns,” focuses on the major questions I receive
when I’m working with teachers. Time, student motivation, and parents are
among the topics. Finally, Chapter 9, “Leading Rigor in Your School,” is pro-
vided for instructional specialists, coaches, and other teacher-leaders in your
school. It addresses building support with administrators, building a rela-
tionship with teachers, and professional learning communities
Conclusion
I hope you will find the tools throughout the book helpful. They all are
designed to meet today’s rigorous standards, whether that is the Common
Core or your own state’s standards. Each is an effective, research-based
strategy and one that you can implement immediately in your classroom.
Remember that I’ve provided a wide range of tools, too many to be used
immediately. Please don’t get overwhelmed; think of this as a true toolkit,
one to return to again and again when you need a strategy for your students.
I wish you the best on your journey—a journey to higher levels of learning for
both you and your students. Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you have
any questions or if you’d like to share your successes. You can reach me at
www.barbarablackburnonline.com or at bcgroup@gmail.com.
2
Raising Expectations Through
Questioning and Adult Behaviors
The Pygmalion Effect, named after the play by George Bernard Shaw,
states that people respond to the expectations placed upon them. For exam-
ple, if we expect students to perform at high levels, they do. Conversely, if we
have low expectations, they tend to prove that we are right to believe so. In
this chapter, we’ll focus on two ways to raise expectations: questioning strat-
egies and adult behaviors.
Questioning
Our questioning strategies reflect our high expectations. When we ask
students higher-order questions, we are showing them we expect them
to answer at higher levels. On the other hand, when we only ask students
recall questions such as “Who
did this?” we are demonstrat- Questioning Models
ing that we don’t really expect
Bloom’s Taxonomy
them to know any more than
Essential Questions
the most basic answers.
Socratic Questioning
There are multiple mod- The Williams Model
els for questioning available SCAMPER
to you. In order to provide Moving From Low to High-Level Questions
the fullest understanding of Efective Questions
the concept of higher-order
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-2
questioning, we’ll begin with the classic, Bloom’s Taxonomy, then look at six
other models. We’ll finish with discussing what students’ responses should
look like in a rigorous classroom.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The original Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, released in
1956, was designed to help teachers write objectives and create tests to address
a variety of levels of understanding. In the early 2000s, a group of researchers
revised the original taxonomy to include a more rigorous progression.
By using the verbs and descriptors, you can plan objectives, activities, and
assessments that allow students to learn different types of knowledge using
a variety of processes. The widely used revised taxonomy is a complex but
useful method for addressing all levels of questioning.
Tool 1: Sample Questions Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy

Level Description Sample Question
Remember Retrieve knowledge, recognize, Identify the villain in the
recall, locate, or identify. story.
Understand Clarify, paraphrase, illustrate, Summarize the characters’
classify, categorize, summarize, encounters with the
predict, compare/contrast. villain.
Apply Apply to a familiar or Choose your favorite
unfamiliar task. scene and apply it to a
real-life situation.
Analyze Determine how parts relate, Identify the three major
organize/outline, differentiate plot points, providing
between relevant and evidence as to why those
irrelevant material. are the most relevant.
Evaluate Make judgments based on Critique the actions of the
evidence, judge, critique. villain.
Create Generate, hypothesize, plan, Generate an alternative
produce. ending.
Raising Expectations Through Questioning and Adult Behaviors ◆ 11
Tool 2: Planning Tool for Bloom’s Taxonomy

If you’d like to use Bloom’s Taxonomy, the following tool will help you
plan your activities.
Designed for Rigor or

Bloom’s Category Your Activities
Scafolding
Tool 3: Essential Questions

Another way to look at questioning is through Jay’s six characteristics of
essential questions (McTighe, 2017).
Six Characteristics of Essential Questions

1. It is open ended.
2. It is intellectually engaging.
3. It refects big ideas.
4. It raises additional questions.
5. Answers require support.
6. It recurs over time.
Let’s look at a sampling of essential questions from Jay McTighe (2017).
Tool 4: Sample Essential Questions
To what extent can fiction reveal “truth”?
How are science and common sense related?
How does where we live influence how we live?
When is the “correct” answer not the best solution?

Tool 5: Paideia Seminars

When I was teaching, I learned about the Paideia Seminar. A critical part
of the seminar discussions was the notion of Socratic questioning. Although
some questions were provided for guidance, I still struggled with asking
questions at the highest levels. In 2016, Richard Paul and Linda Elder pro-
vided a list of six types of Socratic questions in nine categories. They are use-
ful as you help students develop metacognition, or the concept of thinking
about their own thinking.
Tool 6: Questions for a Socratic Dialogue
Type of Question Samples
Questions of What do you mean by________?

Clarification What is your main point?
Could you give me an example?
Questions That What was your purpose when you said ________?
Probe Purpose How do the purposes of these two groups vary?
Was this purpose justifiable?
Questions That What are you assuming?
Probe Assumptions All of your reasoning depends on the idea that _____.
Why have you based your reasoning on xxx rather
than ________?
Why do you think the assumption holds here?
Questions That What are your reasons for saying that?
Probe Information, What led you to that belief?
Reasoning, How could we go about finding out whether that is
Evidence, and true?
Causes
Questions About You seem to be approaching this issue from xxx
Viewpoints or perspective.
Perspectives Why have you chosen this perspective rather than that
perspective?
Can/did anyone see this another way?
Questions That What are you implying by that? Would that
Probe Implications necessarily happen or only probably happen?
and Consequences If this and this are the case, then what else must be true?
Type of Question Samples
Questions About How could someone settle this question?

the Question Can we break this question down at all?
Why is this question important?
Questions That Do these two ideas conflict? If so, how?
Probe Concepts How is this idea guiding our thinking as we try to
reason through this issue? Is this idea causing us
problems?
Which main distinctions should we draw in reasoning
through this problem?
Questions That On what information are we basing this conclusion?
Probe Inferences Is there a more logical inference we might make in this
and Interpretations situation?
Given all the facts, what is the best possible
conclusion?
Tool 7: The Williams Model

When I was reading Strategies for Developing Higher-Order Thinking Skills
by Wendy Conklin, I was excited to discover a model of questioning that
I had not seen before. The Williams Model, developed by Frank Williams,
has several aspects, but I want to focus on Wendy’s types of questions that
support the Williams Model.
Tool 8: Questioning Types

Questioning Types
Questions promote . . .
Fluency (generate many ideas)
Flexibility (seek various objects or concepts, create various categories)
Elaboration (expand or enrich content based on prior ideas)
Originality (seek new ideas)
Curiosity (question and wonder)
Risk-taking (deal with new and/or unknown)
Complexity (build structure in something that is unstructured)
Imagination (visualize possibilities, move beyond the practical)
How does this work in practice? Let’s look at a lesson for middle/high
school art students in which they are asked to critique a piece of art. You
could also adapt it to other subjects, such as critiquing a musical performance
or evaluating a science project.
Tool 9: Applying the Williams Model

Questioning in Practice
Critiquing a Piece of Art
Type of Question Prompts
Fluency Who would like this piece of art? What aspect would they
specifically like?
Flexibility Choose one element of the work of art. How does that
change the overall piece? How might someone view it
differently?
Elaboration Take each key element of the artwork such as shading or
color. Describe it in detail, including how it impacts the
overall piece.
Originality If you were to use this piece of art to promote a cause or
issue, what would it be? Why?
Curiosity If the painting could speak, what would it say to the
artist? To you?
Risk-Taking Choose another type of art. It might be from a different time
period, such as the Renaissance, or it might be a different
format, such as a sculpture. Use it to change the work.
Complexity What is the overarching theme of the artwork? What
other elements support it? How do they do that?
Imagination Imagine you are creating your own work. You’d like to
include the best of what you see but improve upon it.
What would you do?
Tool 10: SCAMPER Strategy

Another strategy that can be helpful for older students is SCAMPER.
SCAMPER is an acronym for a checklist of idea-spurring questions, which
was originally developed by Alex Osborn. Bob Eberle expanded the concept
in his book, SCAMPER: Games for Imagination Development.
Tool 11: SCAMPER Structure
Sample Words (excerpted

Acronym What It Means from Strategies for Developing
Higher-Order Thinking Skills)
Substitute Can I substitute or replace a Exchange, swap, switch

something part of the concept?
Combine Can I take a part and combine Blend, join, merge
it with it with another part or
something something different to help me Adjust, modify, revise
else understand it better?
Amplify, expand, enlarge
Adapt Is there something else I can
something copy and change to make this
Apply, utilize, make use of
to it concept my own?
Magnify it Is there a way to zoom in on Minimize, reduce, remove

this or exaggerate it to help me
Put it to some understand it? Change, reorganize, reshuffle
other use
How can I apply it to something
Eliminate else in a practical way?
something
Can I get rid of something to
Reverse or help me understand it better?
Rearrange it Is it clearer if I write it
backwards or upside down?
Let’s say you want students to describe the causes of a particular event.
After they write their basic response, the SCAMPER steps serve as questions
for them to elaborate on their answer. For the final response, they revise their
answer, including additional detail they discovered through the process.
Tool 12: Moving From Low- to High-Level Questions

Alan Hosley, an academic coach in Clayton County, Georgia, developed a
one-page tool that is helpful in moving from low-level questions to higher-or-
der questions. The questions and sentence frames are helpful as you move
into more rigorous questions.
Leveling up to Higher Order Thinking

alan.hosley@clayton.k12.ga.us
Lower Order … change to ... Higher Order Higher Order

Answer Stems
Answers
____ led to ____ because____.
Cause Not that it led to the other, but how it led Had it not been for _____, then ____ would not have
part lead to the other? to the other.
and E˜ect happened because _____.
Had _____ happened di˜erently, then _____ would
have been di˜erent as well because _____.
Not that they are working together or the _____ allows ____ to happen because____.
order they are working together, but how
Since there is ____, ____ can happen be-
they interrelate in working together, how
Process each part allows the other parts to hap-
cause______.
outcome? If not for ___, then ___ could not happen be-
pen, how the outcome can only come
from all of the parts cause_____.
Because the text says ______, I also know _______.
I have to add _______ in order for what is in the text

to make sense.
Even though the text says _____, I know that the au-
Not a paraphrase of what is stated, but
text, how do these parts lead me to see Inference what is not stated and why I know that.
thor is referring to _______.
what is not stated? Without knowing _____, (what is in the text) won’t
make sense.
Because of (outside context), I know that ______in
the text could mean _____.
While there is the problem _______, it is outweighed

Not just what the pros and cons are, but
by ______ because ____.
pros and cons of each part and how do how I reason that and why my reasoning
is correct.
_______.
because ______.
Since the frst system can only do ______, adding

Not that they are di˜erent systems that ______ from the other system would help because
di˜erent in two systems (compare and can work together, but exactly how they ________.
contrast), how would these two sys- Synthesis An issue to address when combining these would be
tems work together to create a new strengths, weaknesses, and problems ______, because ______.
system? with the new system.
While ______ would be an issue with the new sys-
tem, that could be addressed by _________.
Only by adding _______ and _______ could _______
happen because ______.
Tool 13: Nine Characteristics of Efective Questioning

Finally, I’ve developed a list of nine characteristics of effective question-
ing, using the acrostic for QUESTIONS.
Quality Triumphs Over Quantity

Underestimate—Don’t
Encourage Other Questions
Student Ownership Created
Turn Attention to Deeper Issues
Ignite Other Questions
Onward and Upward
Nuanced, Not Simplistic
Show Relationships
Quality Triumphs Over Quantity: As you develop questions, remem-

ber that quality is more important that quantity. Sometimes, it’s easy to
get focused on the sheer quantity of information to be covered, and we
pepper students with questions. For effective questioning, choose fewer
questions with more depth.
Underestimate—Don’t: Don’t underestimate your students’ abilities
to think at higher levels. I know when I first started teaching, because
my students were reluctant to answer questions, I assumed I needed
to make them easier. What I later realized was that my students simply
needed more encouragement, especially since they were reluctant to
answer the easier questions, too! It wasn’t the level of the questioning;
it was that they didn’t want to be embarrassed in front of their peers if
they missed the answer.
Encourage Other Questions: The best questions encourage other ques-
tions from students. Ideally, when you ask a question and a student an-
swers it, other students are prompted to ask questions such as, “Why do
you think that?” or “What else happens?” At times, your questions will
also encourage other questions from you—ones that facilitate understand-
ing and that point out something pertinent from the text or resource.
Student Ownership Created: You also want to create student owner-
ship. When students take control of the discussion, staying on point
and becoming truly involved in the conversation, you see high levels of
student engagement. If students feel like the discussion is theirs,

rather than yours, you’ve created an environment in which students
can thrive.
Turn Attention to Deeper Issues: Effective questioning also occurs
when you turn your attention to deeper issues rather than staying at a
surface level. I know when I was teaching, there were times I felt tre-
mendous pressure just to keep up the pace of the material. Occasionally,
it felt as though I was covering the material but not really teaching it. We
need to make sure we dig into the content with our students, probing
them to think about the deeper meaning of the material.
Ignite Other Questions: In addition to just encouraging other questions,
you want to ignite other questions. Think about it—rather than simply
encouraging students to think of their own questions, you also want to
teach them to initiate questioning without any prompting from you. It’s
like lighting a flame of a candle—once it’s lit, you don’t need to do any-
thing else. You’ve probably led a discussion like that, where the students
truly take over the conversation and you become, to some degree, an
observer. This doesn’t mean students are off topic; rather, they are totally
immersed in the content.
Onward and Upward: I was recently asked, “Is there a place for lower-
level questions in a classroom?” The answer is yes. At times, we need
to start with a more basic, informational question so that we can move
onward and upward to the higher levels. We must never forget that
higher-level questions require a student to know basic information and
then apply it for analysis and reflection.
Nuanced, Not Simplistic: Effective questions should be understand-
able by students, but that doesn’t mean they have to be simplistic. They
can be nuanced, requiring students to think not only about the answer
but also about the question. We want students to think about their own
thinking, and nuanced questioning encourages it.
Show Relationships: Finally, effective questions should show relation-
ships among different concepts, subject areas, or the student and real
life. We would prefer that students see these relationships themselves,
but they often do not. Therefore, our questions can guide them to mak-
ing connections.
Tool 14: Quality Students’ Responses

It’s one thing to talk about questions, but it is equally important to dis-
cuss how we want students to respond. I remember students who would give
short, one-word answers and others who would say as many words as pos-
sible, hoping I would pick out the part that was correct. I’ve found there are
four key ingredients of quality, rigorous answers.
Quality, Rigorous Answers

Clear and Precise
Focus on Depth
Justify Response With Evidence
Include, but Go Beyond, the Text or Lesson
First, students’ responses are clear and precise. When a response is con-
fused, that reflects the thought process of the student, and it may reflect
the effectiveness of our teaching. For example, we may not have explained
a concept effectively, but on the other hand, the student may not have had
the appropriate background knowledge. Either way, this provides formative
feedback. The response should also be precise. When I ask a question, I want
students to answer that question, not veer off into multiple areas. For example,
when I ask “If Jamal has two pieces of pizza and Suzanna has one piece, how
many do they have together?”, I don’t want to know about your favorite type
of pizza. I may have asked that earlier, but now students should focus on the
math. I find that a “parking lot” is helpful. This is a section of your wall where
students can use post-it notes to write their off-topic thoughts to revisit later.
Next, students should focus on providing a deeper answer that moves
beyond surface knowledge. For example, if I ask students to describe the
characteristics of biomes, then put them into groups to investigate that infor-
mation, I expect more than a list; I want them to provide detail on each charac-
teristic. One caution: sometimes students mistake depth for “as many words
as possible.” We still want to be clear and precise.
Third, students should justify their responses with evidence. Evidence
means more than their opinion; it includes facts from a lesson, the text, other
subjects, or real life. An easy prompt is to follow any student response with . . .
because (evidence).
It’s important to remind students multiple times that evidence is differ-
ent from their opinion. A helpful tool is to show them examples and non-
examples of evidence.
Tool 15: Examples and Non-Examples
Examples Non-Examples
On page 12 . . . I like it.

During the video, the author I think I heard someone else say that
said . . . answer.
I read . . . I think my answer is better.
When I visited . . . I saw . . . I remember that from somewhere.
Finally, students’ rigorous responses should include information from the

text, video, lesson, and so on, but should also go beyond it. It’s important to
have students regularly making connections from their lesson to the larger
world. You may want to use an anchor chart or graphic organizer similar to
the following one.
Tool 16: Connecting What You’ve Learned
Subject/Content/Lesson
→
Examples From My Examples From Other Examples Examples From

Life the Lives of People From Real Life Other Subjects or
I Know Something I Have
Learned in School
Tool 17: Behaviors That Refect High Expectations

Teachers’ beliefs, ref lected in actions, demonstrate their expectations for
their students. In other words, teachers treat students differently depending
or what they expect. Our change in behavior may not be intentional, but stu-
dents notice it and will meet those expectations no matter whether high or
low.
How do our behaviors reflect our expectations? For example, teachers
tend to probe students more if they have high expectations. This sends a
clear message that “I know you know the answer, and if I give you hints,
you will formulate a reasonable response.” Teachers also demonstrate
expectations in the types of assignments or activities implemented in the
classroom. Abbigail remembers a time when her gifted students partic-
ipated in thought-provoking activities such as figuring out the rise of a
ramp to meet regulations to be fitted on a building, whereas her “general
classes” were given drill-and-practice assignments with very little discus-
sion of solutions and perspectives. In foundational work, Robert Marzano
(2010) describes typical behaviors related to low and high expectations of
students.
Tool 18: Diferentiating Behavior by Level of Expectancy

Diferential Treatment of High- and Low-Expectancy Students
Afective Tone Academic Content Interactions
Negative Less eye contact Call on less often

Smile less Provide less wait time
Less physical contact Ask less challenging questions
More distance from Ask less specific questions
student’s seat Delve into answers less deeply
Engage in less playful Reward them for less rigorous responses
or light dialogue Provide answers for students
Use of comfort talk Use simpler modes of presentation and
(That’s okay, you evaluation
can be good at other Do not insist that homework be turned
things) in on time
Display angry Use comments such as, “Wow, I’m
disposition surprised you answered correctly”
Use less praise
Diferential Treatment of High- and Low-Expectancy Students
Positive More eye contact Call on more often

Smile more Provide more wait time
More physical contact Ask more challenging questions
Less distance from Ask more specific questions
student’s seat Delve into answers more deeply
Engage in more playful Reward them for more rigorous responses
or light dialogue Use more complex modes of
Little use of comfort talk presentation and evaluation
(That’s okay, you can be Insist that homework be turned in on time
good at other things) Use more praise
Tool 19: Marzano’s Four-Step Process

Marzano also provides a four-step process for identifying and address-
ing these differences in expectations. We’ve added suggestions for each step,
which are helpful as you consider how to ensure overall high expectations for
your students.
Marzano’s Four-Step Process to Identifying Expectation Behaviors
Step 1: Identify students for whom you have low expectations.

Create a three-column chart and label each column High Expectations, Low
Expectations, No Expectations. This may be a difficult task, so think of it in terms
of when it comes to completing an assignment, who will turn it in early, who will
turn it in on the due date with minutes to spare, and who will not even bother.
Step 2: Identify similarities in students.
Consider ways your students are similar. Ask yourself, “Do I have similar
expectations because of my students’ similarities?” “Are my expectations
high or low?” The similarities may be skin color, ethnicity, cultural group,
sex, or gender. This, too, is not an easy task. Discovering our own biases
is challenging, but if you confront why you are treating your students
differently, you can begin your journey to equity in expectations.
Step 3: Identify differential treatment of low-expectancy and high-expectancy
students (see previous chart).
Marzano’s Four-Step Process to Identifying Expectation Behaviors
Step 4: Treat low-expectancy and high-expectancy students the same.

Choose three behaviors that you discovered you use with students for whom
you have high expectations and practice these behaviors for a few days. It
may be that you choose to smile at all students. It may be that if any student
gives you an incorrect answer, you will give the student process time or time
to ask a friend before moving on. Whatever the behavior, keep a log of the
behavior and who received the treatment. Also consider technology and apps
that can facilitate the change. For example, Random by ClassDojo, Transum
Name Selecting App, and Random Student Selector by LiveSchool allow you
to call on random students to ensure that you do not limit your choice of
students for responses.
Tool 20: Expecting the Best

When I taught students who were at risk, it was difficult to see their poten-
tial. Although I’m a big believer in viewing students as “butterflies-in-the-
making,” there were days that my students seemed to be wrapped up in a
chrysalis or slowly crawling along like caterpillars. They certainly didn’t seem
to be beautiful butterflies! One of the most difficult things for teachers to do is
to keep our expectations high, especially when our students’ actions make us
think less of them. There were days my students challenged me to come up
with any positive thoughts about them, but those were the days they needed
me the most. I found they needed me to believe they are butterflies when they
are most acting like worms! I found that it’s particularly during those times
they need us to give them our BEST.
Tool 21: Expecting the BEST
Give Students Your BEST

Belief
Encouragement
Support
Time
Belief: The most basic characteristic to invest in your students is a strong belief
that they are important, valued, and capable. If you believe in your students, you
will call on each one to give them an opportunity to share a response. You’ll also
stick with them when they don’t know an answer. For example, if La’Quandra
doesn’t know, or stumbles with an answer, I have several possible responses.
I can tell her she is wrong, call on another student to help her out, answer for her,
or give up and move on to another question. However, another alternative is to
use a series of questions to guide her to the correct answer. I might go to another
student for help, but I continue to come back to her until she demonstrates under-
standing. By doing so, I show her that I believe she can learn.
Encouragement: Students who do not have a lot of self-confidence need a
steady stream of encouragement. Encouragement is communicated through
appropriate praise and feedback, as well as nonverbal cues such as a smile.
Encouragement is always a signal to the student to keep trying. It’s import-
ant to encourage students regularly, especially when they are less successful.
Think back to the example we just discussed. When a student is struggling
to answer a question, it’s important to encourage them with supportive com-
ments while guiding them to the correct answer. Focus on their strengths to
give them the confidence to continue.
Support: Providing support to accompany increased expectations is not
optional. This can be as basic as guiding students through responses, as in
the prior example. However, it also includes ensuring that each student has
access to the resources needed to accomplish more rigorous tasks. Finally, as
teachers, we need to build scaffolding into projects and assignments so that
students can be successful. We’ll focus on that in Chapter 5, “Giving Scaffold-
ing and Support.”
Time: Ultimately, inspiring students through your belief, encouragement,
and support requires that you make a choice to invest your time in particular
students. This is evidenced in two specific ways. First, it is critical to allow
appropriate wait time for every student to answer. Some students need more
time to reflect before they are ready to respond. That’s one of the reasons I like
the strategy of Think–Pair–Share. After you ask a question, ask everyone to
stop and think for approximately 45 seconds to a minute. It allows students
to have more time to reflect before you ask for a group answer.
You may also choose to pay extra attention to those students who are
sometimes overlooked. In fewer than five minutes per day, you can say an
extra positive comment several times during the day. Or you can write addi-
tional feedback on a student’s paper or schedule time to meet with a student
during the school day to go over material he or she doesn’t understand. The
important part is not the amount of time you spend; it is that you commit to
doing these things consistently with the students who need you.
Learning Is Not Optional: Another aspect of high expectations is com-

municating that learning is not optional. Many students think it’s okay to
“take a zero,” and in a rigorous classroom, that is not acceptable.
Tool 22: Refuse to Use the Word “Won’t”

I took several teachers and the principal from a local school to visit a
high-poverty school in a neighboring state. The school had a strong reputa-
tion for closing achievement gaps, despite the challenging student popula-
tion. Bob, the principal of a local middle school, describes his experience:
The option to not do work was not there. If as adults, we accept that
students cannot do work, we are not doing the kids any service at all.
This comes out in several ways, starting with our vocabulary. If we
say “Students just won’t do the work,” we are part of the problem. We
have to get those words out of our vocabulary. They won’t do because
we don’t make them do.
Tool 23: Don’t Allow the Word “Can’t”

When I was teaching, my students’ default response to assignments was,
“I can’t do that.” It became so automatic to them that they would answer
“I can’t” before I asked them to do something. Finally, I added it to our class-
room rules: You are not allowed to use the word can’t. It took about six weeks,
but students stopped using the word. I was in an elementary school in Cleve-
land, Ohio, and a teacher shared her response to the same issue. Each student
took a can, and filled it with sheets of paper noting all the things they couldn’t
do. Then, they buried their “can’ts” and started fresh.
Tool 24: Each Student Demonstrates Understanding

Another way to show
students that learning is Strategies for Involving Each Student
not optional is to require Thumbs Up and Thumbs Down
each student to demonstrate
Computer Response Clickers
he or she understands
Individual Whiteboards
your content throughout
the lesson. For example, iPad Interactive Whiteboards (such as ShowMe)
when we call on one stu- Reciprocal Teaching
dent, we have allowed all Jigsaw Cooperative Learning Groups
the other students to dis-
engage. We assume they
also know the answer, and if we ask students if they agree with the student who
responded, the others tend to nod. But that doesn’t really mean they understand.
Instead, look for options such as pair-share that require each student to respond
individually, with a partner, or in a small group so that they truly demonstrate
understanding of the content.
Tool 25: Required Completion of Work

If something is important enough for you to assign it, then it should be
important enough for a student to complete it. Let me clarify a key point. This
is not just about the student’s responsibility. You play a major role in his or
her success. First, it means we design assignments that are valuable, not just
busy work. In addition to helping students understand the value of the work,
we hold them responsible for completion.
When I was teaching, that meant that students who did not complete an
assignment stayed with me during lunch and completed it while eating. You
don’t have to give up your lunchtime, but requiring students to complete
something means you also provide a structure and support to ensure they fin-
ish. I was recently in a high school where the teachers posted office hours for
students to receive extra help. That’s a great idea, but the students who need
the most help usually don’t voluntarily seek it. Another school in the same
district offered specified times for help, but it was required for any student
who failed a test. The teachers sent a clear message that learning was not a
choice.
A Final Note
Raising your expectations of students is foundational to
increasing rigor in your classroom. Increasing our levels of ques-
tioning, adjusting our adult behaviors, and insisting that learning
is not optional are concrete ways we can exhibit high expectations.
Refection Into Action

1. What are three main tools from this chapter you could use
in your classroom?
2. Which of those three will you put into place?
3. Are there any resources you need to make this happen?
4. What other tools do you want to consider for the future?
3
Raising Expectations Through
Complex Tasks
In this chapter, we’ll look at how we can raise expectations through com-
plex tasks. Webb’s Depth of Knowledge is widely used across the nation.
Focusing on depth and complexity rather than verbs, such as those with
Bloom’s Taxonomy, it provides descriptions that can inform our understand-
ing. We’re going to look at his framework, then turn our attention to the Cog-
nitive Rigor Matrix, another popular frame of reference that blends Webb’s
Depth of Knowledge with Bloom’s Taxonomy. Let’s take a look at each.
Webb’s Depth of Knowledge

Cognitive Rigor Matrix
Tool 26: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge

Level One Level Two
Level 1 (Recall) includes the Level 2 (Skill/Concept) includes the
recall of information such as engagement of some mental processing
a fact, definition, term, or a beyond a habitual response.
simple procedure, as well as
performing a simple algorithm A Level 2 assessment item requires students
or applying a formula. That is, to make some decisions as to how to
in mathematics, a one-step, approach the problem or activity, whereas
Level 1 requires students to demonstrate a
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-3
Level One Level Two

well-defined, and straight rote response, perform a well-known
algorithmic procedure should algorithm, follow a set procedure (like a recipe),
be included at this lowest or perform a clearly defined series of steps.
level. In science, a simple
experimental procedure Key words that generally distinguish a Level
including one or two steps 2 item include classify, organize, estimate,
should be coded as Level 1. make observations, collect and display data,
and compare data. These actions imply more
Other key words that signify a than one step. For example, to compare data
Level 1 include identify, recall, requires first identifying characteristics of the
recognize, use, and measure. objects or phenomenon and then grouping or
Verbs such as describe and ordering the objects.
explain could be classified at
different levels depending on Some action verbs, such as explain, describe,
what is to be described and or interpret, could be classified at different
explained. levels depending on the object of the action.
For example, if an item required students to
explain how light affects mass by indicating
there is a relationship between light and
heat, this would be considered a Level 2.
Interpreting information from a simple graph,

requiring reading information from the graph,
is also a Level 2. Interpreting information
from a complex graph that requires some
decisions on what features of the graph need
to be considered and how information from
the graph can be aggregated is a Level 3.
Caution is warranted in interpreting Level

2 as only skills because some reviewers will
interpret skills very narrowly, as primarily
numerical skills, and such interpretation
excludes from this level other skills such
as visualization skills and probability
skills, which may be more complex simply
because they are less common.
Other Level 2 activities include explaining

the purpose and use of experimental
procedures; carrying out experimental
procedures; making observations and
collecting data; classifying, organizing,
and comparing data; and organizing and
displaying data in tables, graphs, and charts.
Raising Expectations Through Complex Tasks ◆ 31
Level Three Level Four
Level 3 (Strategic Thinking) Level 4 (Extended Thinking) requires

requires reasoning, planning, complex reasoning, planning, developing,
using evidence, and a higher and thinking, most likely over an
level of thinking than the extended period of time. The extended
previous two levels. In most time period is not a distinguishing factor
instances, requiring students if the required work is only repetitive
to explain their thinking is a and does not require applying significant
Level 3. Activities that require conceptual understanding and higher-
students to make conjectures order thinking. For example, if a student
are also at this level. has to take the water temperature from
a river each day for a month and then
The cognitive demands at Level construct a graph, this would be classified
3 are complex and abstract. The as a Level 2. However, if the student is to
complexity does not result from conduct a river study that requires taking
the fact that there are multiple into consideration a number of variables,
answers, a possibility for both this would be a Level 4.
Levels 1 and 2, but because the
task requires more demanding At Level 4, the cognitive demands of the
reasoning. An activity, however, task should be high and the work should
that has more than one possible be very complex. Students should be
answer and requires students required to make several connections—
to justify the response they give relate ideas within the content area or
would most likely be a Level 3. among content areas—and have to select
one approach among many alternatives
Other Level 3 activities on how the situation should be solved, in
include drawing conclusions order to be at this highest level.
from observations, citing
evidence and developing a Level 4 activities include designing
logical argument for concepts, and conducting experiments, making
explaining phenomena in terms connections between a finding and
of concepts, and using concepts related concepts and phenomena,
to solve problems. combining and synthesizing ideas
into new concepts, and critiquing
experimental designs.
Source: http://facstaff.wcer.wisc.edu/normw/WEBBMonograph%2018AlignmentPaper.pdf
Notice how, with the complexity of descriptions, the levels are truly more
than the verbs. For example, in the Level 3 description, Norman Webb notes that:
In most instances, requiring students to explain their thinking is a

Level 3. Activities that require students to make conjectures are also at
this level. The cognitive demands at Level 3 are complex and abstract.
The complexity does not result from the fact that there are multiple
answers, a possibility for both Levels 1 and 2, but because the task
requires more demanding reasoning.
Considering the depth of the task and/or question is key. It is not enough
to simply generate something (a task at the highest level of Bloom’s Taxon-
omy), such as a children’s book. A student can complete that task by simply
summarizing information. For a DOK Level 3, creation should require analy-
sis of multiple sources, making an argument within that children’s book and
backing it up with evidence, and critiquing his or her own work to ensure
accuracy.
Tool 27: Sample Activities Using DOK

This may sound a bit overwhelming. Let’s look at other possible activities
using the DOK levels. These are samples taken from Webb’s Depth of Knowl-
edge Guide Career and Technical Education Definitions.
Sample Activities Based on Webb’s DOK
DOK Level Possible Activities
Level One Develop a concept map showing a process or describing a topic.

Write in your own words.
Make a cartoon strip showing the sequence.
Paraphrase a chapter.
Outline the main points.
Basic measurement tasks that involve one step.
Use a simple formula where at least one of the unknowns is
provided.
Locate information in maps, charts, tables, graphs, and
drawings.
Level Two Construct a model to demonstrate how it looks or works.
Write a diary/blog entry.
Make a topographic map.
Write an explanation about this topic for others.
State relationships among a number of concepts and/or
principles.
Multi-step calculation tasks.
Aggregate/organize data collected in a basic presentation form.
DOK Level Possible Activities
Level Three Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast.

Make a flow chart to show critical stages.
Write a letter to the editor after an evaluation product.
Prepare a case to present your view about a topic.
Explain abstract terms and concepts.
Complex calculation problems that draw on multiple processes.
Create graphs, tables, and charts where students must reason
and organize information with teacher prompts.
Level Four Apply information to solve ill-defined problems in novel
situations.
Writing/research tasks that involve formulating and testing
hypotheses over time.
Perspective taking and collaboration with a group.
Create graphs, tables, and charts where students must reason
through and organize information without teacher prompts.
Writing tasks with a strong element of persuasion.
Write a jingle to advertise a new product.
Source: Samples from www.aps.edu/rda/documents/resources/Webbs_DOK_Guide.pdf
Tool 28: The DOK and Writing

When I was emailing Norman Webb’s assistant, he provided another doc-
ument that I found extremely helpful when looking at the Common Core and
other rigorous state standards. His Depth-of-Knowledge Levels for Four Content
Areas takes four content areas and provides detailed descriptions of what is
expected at each level. For our purposes, I chose the writing descriptors, since
writing is used across all areas of the curriculum. I’m providing all four lev-
els, but keep in mind rigorous work for most students would be at Levels 3
and 4. Of course, you may have some students developmentally who need to
start at Levels 1 and/or 2 and then move forward.
Writing
Level 1
Level 1 requires the student to write or recite simple facts. This writing or
recitation does not include complex synthesis or analysis but basic ideas.
The students are engaged in listing ideas or words as in a brainstorming
activity prior to written composition, are engaged in a simple spelling or
vocabulary assessment, or are asked to write simple sentences. Students
are expected to write and speak using Standard English conventions.
This includes using appropriate grammar, punctuation, capitalization,
and spelling. Some examples that represent but do not constitute all of
Level 1 performance are:
• Use punctuation marks correctly.

• Identify Standard English grammatical structures and refer to resources for
correction.
Level 2
Level 2 requires some mental processing. At this level, students are engaged
in first draft writing or brief extemporaneous speaking for a limited number
of purposes and audiences. Students are beginning to connect ideas using
a simple organizational structure. For example, students may be engaged
in note taking, outlining, or simple summaries. Text may be limited to one
paragraph. Students demonstrate a basic understanding and appropriate
use of such reference materials as a dictionary, thesaurus, or web site. Some
examples that represent but do not constitute all of Level 2 performance
are:
• Construct compound sentences.

• Use simple organizational strategies to structure written work.
• Write summaries that contain the main idea of the reading selection and
pertinent details.
Level 3
Level 3 requires some higher-level mental processing. Students are
engaged in developing compositions that include multiple paragraphs.
These compositions may include complex sentence structure and may

demonstrate some synthesis and analysis. Students show awareness of their
audience and purpose through focus, organization, and the use of appropri-
ate compositional elements. The use of appropriate compositional elements
includes such things as addressing chronological order in a narrative or
including supporting facts and details in an informational report. At this
stage, students are engaged in editing and revising to improve the quality
of the composition. Some examples that represent but do not constitute all
of Level 3 performance are:
• Support ideas with details and examples.

• Use voice appropriate to the purpose and audience.
• Edit writing to produce a logical progression of ideas.
Level 4
Higher-level thinking is central to Level 4. The standard at this level is a
multi-paragraph composition that demonstrates synthesis and analysis of
complex ideas or themes. There is evidence of a deep awareness of purpose and
audience. For example, informational papers include hypotheses and supporting
evidence. Students are expected to create compositions that demonstrate a dis-
tinct voice and that stimulate the reader or listener to consider new perspectives
on the addressed ideas and themes. An example that represents but does not
constitute all of Level 4 performance is:
• Write an analysis of two selections, identifying the common theme and gen-
erating a purpose that is appropriate for both.
Tool 29: Cognitive Rigor Matrix

Another framework I find helpful is the Cognitive Rigor Matrix. Devel-
oped by Karin Hess, the Cognitive Rigor Matrix applies Webb’s Depth of
Knowledge to Bloom’s Taxonomy. Since Bloom focuses on types of thinking
needed to complete a task and Webb discusses the depth you need to under-
stand the content to interact with it, the two can work together to provide a
comprehensive model for increasing rigor in the classroom. Hess has devel-
oped eight subject-specific matrices for use in classrooms.
Following, you will find three of the matrices: Math and Science, Written
and Oral Communication, and Social Studies and Humanities. You can access
each matrix at www.karin-hess.com/cognitive-rigor-and-dok.
Tool 30: Math and Science CRM
HESS COGNITIVE RIGOR MATRIX | MATH-SCIENCE CRM

TOOL 2 Integrating Depth-of-Knowledge Levels with Bloom’s Cognitive Process Dimensions
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy DOK Level 1 DOK Level 2 DOK Level 3 DOK Level 4
Recall and Reproduction Skills and Concepts Strategic Thinking or Reasoning Extended Thinking
Remember o Recall, observe, and recognize facts,
Retrieve knowledge from long-term
principles, properties Use these Hess CRM curricular examples with most mathematics
o Recall/ identify conversions among
memory, recognize, recall, locate,
identify
representations or numbers (e.g., or science assignments or assessments.
customary and metric measures)
Understand o Evaluate an expression o Specify and explain relationships (e.g., o Use concepts to solve non routine o Relate mathematical or scientifc concepts
o Locate points on a grid or number non examples or examples; cause-effect) problems to other content areas, other domains, or
Construct meaning, clarify, paraphrase,
on number line o Make and record observations o Explain, generalize, or connect ideas other concepts
represent, translate, illustrate, give ex- o Solve a one-step problem o Explain steps followed using supporting evidence o Develop generalizations of the results
amples, classify, categorize, summarize, o Represent math relationships in o Summarize results or concepts o Make and justify conjectures obtained and the strategies used (from
generalize, infer a logical conclusion, words, pictures, or symbols o Make basic inferences or logical o Explain thinking or reasoning when more investigation or readings) and apply them
predict, compare–contrast, match like o Read, write, compare decimals in predictions from data or observations than one solution or approach is possible to new problem situations
ideas, explain, construct models scientifc notation o Use models or diagrams to represent or o Explain phenomena in terms of concepts

explain mathematical concepts
o Make and explain estimates
Apply o Follow simple procedures o Select a procedure according to criteria o Design investigation for a specifc purpose o Select or devise approach among many
(recipe-type directions) and perform it or research question alternatives to solve a problem
Carry out or use a procedure in a
o Calculate, measure, apply a rule o Solve routine problem applying multiple o Conduct a designed investigation o Conduct a project that specifes a problem,
given situation; carry out (apply to
(e.g., rounding) concepts or decision points o Use concepts to solve non routine identifes solution paths, solves the
a familiar task), or use (apply) to an
o Apply algorithm or formula o Retrieve information from a table, graph, problems problem, and reports results
unfamiliar task
(e.g., area, perimeter) or fgure and use it solve a problem o Use and show reasoning, planning,
o Solve linear equations requiring multiple steps and evidence
o Make conversions among repre- o Translate between tables, graphs, words, o Translate between problem and symbolic
sentations or numbers, or within and symbolic notations (e.g., graph data notation when not a direct translation
and between customary and metric from a table)
measures o Construct models given criteria
Analyze o Retrieve information from a table or o Categorize, classify materials, data, fgures o Compare information within or across o Analyze multiple sources of evidence
graph to answer a question based on characteristics data sets or texts o Analyze complex or abstract themes
Break into constituent parts, determine
o Identify whether specifc information o Organize or order data o Analyze and draw conclusions from o Gather, analyze, and evaluate information
how parts relate, differentiate between
is contained in graphic o Compare–contrast fgures or data data, citing evidence
relevant-irrelevant, distinguish, focus,
representations (e.g., table, graph, o Select appropriate graph and organize and o Generalize a pattern
select, organize, outline, fnd coher-
T-chart, diagram) display data o Interpret data from complex graph
ence, deconstruct o Identify a pattern or trend o Interpret data from a simple graph o Analyze similarities–differences between
o Extend a pattern procedures or solutions
Evaluate “UG”—unsubstantiated generalizations = stating an opinion without o Cite evidence and develop a logical o Gather, analyze, and evaluate information
providing any support for it! argument for concepts or solutions to draw conclusions
Make judgments based on criteria,
o Describe, compare, and contrast o Apply understanding in a novel way,
check, detect inconsistencies or
solution methods provide argument or justifcation for the
fallacies, judge, critique o Verify reasonableness of results application
Create o Brainstorm ideas, concepts, or o Generate conjectures or hypotheses based o Synthesize information within one o Synthesize information across multiple
perspectives related to a topic on observations or prior knowledge and data set, source, or text sources or texts
Reorganize elements into new o Design a mathematical model to inform
experience o Formulate an original problem given
patterns or structures, generate, and solve a practical or abstract situation
a situation
hypothesize, design, plan, produce
o Develop a scientifc/mathematical
model for a complex situation
© Karin K. Hess (2009, updated 2013). Linking research with practice: A local assessment toolkit to guide school leaders. | Permission to reproduce is given when authorship is fully cited www.karin-hess.com
Tool 31: Writing and Speaking CRM

HESS COGNITIVE RIGOR MATRIX | WRITING-SPEAKING CRM
Remember o Complete short answer questions
with facts, details, terms, principles, Use these Hess CRM curricular examples with most writing and
etc. (e.g., label parts of diagram)
identify
oral communication assignments or assessments in any content area.
Understand o Describe or defne facts, details, o Specify, explain, show relationships; o Write a multi paragraph composition for o Use multiple sources to elaborate on how
terms, principles, etc. explain why, cause–effect specifc purpose, focus, voice, tone, and concepts or ideas specifcally draw from
o Select appropriate word or phrase o Provide and explain non examples and audience other content domains or differing
represent, translate, illustrate, give ex-
to use when intended meaning or examples o Develop and explain opposing concepts (e.g., research paper, arguments
amples, classify, categorize, summarize,
defnition is clearly evident o Take notes; organize ideas or data (e.g., perspectives or connect ideas, principles, of policy—should this law be passed? What
generalize, infer a logical conclusion,
o Write simple complete sentences relevance, trends, perspectives) or concepts using supporting evidence will be the impact of this change?)
predict, compare–contrast, match like
o Add an appropriate caption to a o Summarize results, key concepts, ideas (quote, example, text reference, etc.) o Develop generalizations about the results
ideas, explain, construct models
photo or illustration o Explain central ideas or accurate o Develop arguments of fact (e.g., Are these obtained or strategies used and apply
o Write “fact statements” on a topic generalizations of texts or topics criticisms supported by the historical facts? them to a new problem or contextual
(e.g., spiders build webs) o Describe steps in a process (e.g., science Is this claim or equation true?) scenario
procedure, how to and why control
variables)
Apply o Apply rules or use resources to o Use context to identify or infer the o Revise fnal draft for meaning, progression o Select or devise an approach among many
edit specifc spelling, grammar, intended meaning of words or phrases of ideas, or logic chain alternatives to research and present a
Carry out or use a procedure in a given o Apply internal consistency of text novel problem or issue
punctuation, conventions, or o Obtain, interpret, and explain information
situation; carry out (apply to a familiar organization and structure to a full o Illustrate how multiple themes (historical,
word use using text features (table, diagram, etc.)
task), or use (apply) to an unfamiliar
o Apply basic formats for documenting o Develop a (brief) text that may be limited composition or oral communication geographic, social) may be interrelated
task to one paragraph, précis o Apply a concept in a new context within a text or topic
sources
o Apply basic organizational structures o Apply word choice, point of view, style,
(paragraph, sentence types, topic rhetorical devices to impact readers’
sentence, introduction, etc.) in writing interpretation of a text
Analyze o Decide which text structure is o Compare–contrast perspectives, events, o Analyze interrelationships among o Analyze multiple sources of evidence, or
appropriate to audience and characters, etc. concepts, issues, and problems in a text multiple works by the same author, or
purpose (e.g., compare–contrast, o Analyze–revise format, organization, and o Analyze impact or use of author’s craft across genres, or time periods
how parts relate, differentiate between
proposition–support) internal text structure (signal words, (literary devices, viewpoint, dialogue) in a o Analyze complex or abstract themes,
relevant-irrelevant, distinguish, focus,
o Determine appropriate, relevant key transitions, semantic cues) of different single text perspectives, concepts
select, organize, outline, fnd
words for conducting an Internet print and non print texts o Use reasoning and evidence to generate o Gather, analyze, and organize multiple
coherence, deconstruct (e.g., for bias
search or researching a topic o Distinguish: relevant–irrelevant criteria for making and supporting an information sources
or point of view)
information; fact–opinion (e.g., What are argument of judgment (Was FDR a great o Compare and contrast conficting
the characteristics of a hero’s journey?) president? Who was the greatest ball judgments or policies (e.g., Supreme
o Locate evidence that supports a player?) Court decisions)
perspective–differing perspectives o Support conclusions with evidence
Evaluate “UG”—unsubstantiated generalizations = stating an opinion without o Evaluate validity and relevance of evidence o Evaluate relevancy, accuracy, and
providing any support for it! used to develop an argument or support a completeness of information across
Make judgments based on criteria, perspective multiple sources
check, detect inconsistencies or o Describe, compare, and contrast solution o Apply understanding in a novel way,
fallacies, judge, critique methods provide argument or justifcation for
o Verify or critique the accuracy, logic, and the application
reasonableness of stated conclusions or o Critique the historical impact
assumptions (policy, writings, discoveries, etc.)
Create o Brainstorm facts, ideas, concepts, o Generate conjectures, hypotheses , or o Develop a complex model for a given o Synthesize information across multiple
problems, or perspectives related to predictions based on facts, observations, situation or problem sources or texts in order to articulate a
Reorganize elements into new
a topic, text, idea, issue, or concept evidence/observations, or prior o Develop an alternative solution or perspec- new voice, alternate theme, new
patterns or structures, generate,
knowledge and experience tive to one proposed (e.g., debate) knowledge or nuanced perspective
hypothesize, design, plan, produce
o Generate believable “grounds” (reasons)
for an opinion-argument
Tool 32: Social Studies and Humanities CRM
HESS COGNITIVE RIGOR MATRIX | SOCIAL STUDIES-HUMANITIES CRM

Remember o Recall or locate key facts, dates,
terms, details, events, or ideas Use these Hess CRM curricular examples with most assignments, assessments, or inquiry
explicit in texts
identify
activities in social studies, history, civics, geography, economics, or humanities.
Understand o Select appropriate words or terms o Specify, explain, illustrate relationships; o Explain, generalize, or connect ideas using o Explain how concepts or ideas specifcally
when intended meaning is clearly explain why (e.g., cause–effect) supporting evidence (quote, example, text relate to other content domains or con-
evident o Provide and explain non examples and reference, data) cepts (social, political, historical, cultural)
represent, translate, illustrate, give
o Describe or explain who, what, examples o Support inferences about explicit or o Apply generalizations to new
examples, classify, categorize,
where, when, or how o Summarize results, concepts, main ideas, implicit themes problem-based situations
summarize, generalize, infer a logical
o Defne facts, details, terms, principles generalizations o Describe how word choice, point of view, o Use multiple sources to elaborate on
conclusion, predict, observe, compare–
o Locate or identify symbols that o Make basic inferences or logical or bias may affect the reader or viewer how concepts or ideas specifcally draw
contrast, match like ideas, explain,
represent . . . predictions (using data or text) interpretation from other content domains or differing
construct models
o Raise related questions for possible o Locate relevant information to support o Write multi-paragraph composition or concepts (e.g., research paper, arguments
investigation explicit-implicit central ideas essay for specifc purpose, focus, voice, of policy: Should this law be passed? What
tone, and audience will be the impact of this change?)

Apply o Apply basic formats for documenting o Use context to identify the meaning of o Investigate to determine how an o Integrate or juxtapose multiple (historical,
sources words or phrases historical, cultural or political context may cultural) contexts drawn from source
Carry out or use a procedure in a given be the source of an underlying theme, materials (e.g., literature, music, historical
o Apply use of reference materials o Interpret information using text features
situation; carry out (apply to a familiar central idea, or unresolved issue or crisis events, media) with intent to develop
and tools for gathering information (diagrams, data tables, captions, etc.)
task), or use (transfer) to an unfamiliar a complex or multimedia product and
(e.g., key word searches) o Apply simple organizational structures
or non routine task
(paragraph outline) personal viewpoint
Analyze o Identify causes or effects o Compare similarities or differences in o Analyze information within data sets or o Analyze multiple sources of evidence
o Describe processes or tools used processes, methods, styles due to infuenc- a text (e.g., interrelationships among across time periods, themes, issues
to research ideas, artifacts, or es of time period, politics or culture concepts, issues, problems) o Analyze diverse, complex or abstract
how parts relate, differentiate
images refecting history, culture, o Distinguish relevant–irrelevant information, o Analyze an author’s viewpoint or perspectives
between relevant-irrelevant,
tradition, etc. fact or opinion; primary from a secondary potential bias (e.g., political cartoon) o Gather, analyze, and organize information
distinguish, focus, select, organize,
o Identify ways symbols and source o Use reasoning, planning, and evidence to from multiple sources
outline, fnd coherence, deconstruct
metaphors are used to represent o Draw inferences about social, historical, support or refute inferences in policy or o Analyze discourse styles or bias in speech-
(e.g., for bias, point of view,
universal ideas cultural contexts portrayed in (literature, speech es, legal briefs, etc. across time or authors
approach/strategy used)
o Identify specifc information given arts, flm, political cartoons, primary o Use reasoning and evidence to generate o Compare and contrast conficting
in graphics (e.g., map, T-chart, dia- sources) criteria for making and supporting an judgments or policies (e.g., Supreme
gram) or text features (e.g., heading, o Explain, categorize events or ideas in the ‘argument of judgment’ (e.g., Was FDR a Court decisions)
subheading, captions) evolution of _____ across time periods great president? Is this a fair law?)
Evaluate “UG”—unsubstantiated generalizations = stating an opinion without o Develop a logical argument for o Evaluate relevancy, accuracy, and
providing any support for it! conjectures, citing evidence completeness of information using
Make judgments based on criteria, multiple sources
o Verify reasonableness of results of others
check, detect inconsistencies or
o Critique conclusions drawn, evidence used, o Apply understanding in a novel way,
fallacies, judge, critique credibility of sources provide argument or justifcation for the
application
o Critique the historical impact on policy,
writings, advances
Create o Brainstorm ideas, concepts, prob- o Generate testable conjectures or hy- o Synthesize information within one source o Synthesize information across multiple
lems, or perspectives related to a potheses based on observations, prior or text sources or texts
Reorganize elements into new
topic , principle, or concept knowledge, and/or artifacts o Develop a complex model or symbol for o Articulate a new voice, alternate theme,
patterns,structures, or schemas,
given issue new knowledge or new perspective
generate, hypothesize, design,
o Develop and support an alternative o Create historical fction drawing on sources
plan, producee
solution
For more detailed information, see Karin Hess’s new book: Rigor by Design,
Not Chance: Deeper Thinking Through Actionable Instruction and Assessment.
Rigor in Practice: Rigorous Tasks and Assignments

Now that we have reviewed two frameworks, let’s look at sample tasks
that are rigorous. What I’ve found is that looking at actual assignments helps
us better understand what rigor is. Throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll
look at sample tasks for varying subjects and grade levels, followed by a short
explanation of why the example is rigorous.
Subject Areas
Math
Science
English/Language Arts
Social Students
Related Subject Areas
Math
Tool 33: 3rd Grade Math
Third Grade
Mathematics Unit 3
Name___________________________________________ Date_____________
Directions: Read each question two times. Please CIRCLE the correct
answer for each question. Show your math thinking for each problem.
It’s okay to write on this test!
1. MCC.3.OA.5 Jermaine was asked to determine if the following equation

was true or false, and then he had to explain why. Which answer choice
was his explanation?
3×3×3>9×3
A. False, because the product of 9 × 3 is greater than the product of

3 × 3 × 3.
B. False, because the two products are equal. 9 × 3 is the same as 3 × 3 × 3.
You just decomposed the 9 into 3 × 3 before multiplying by the other 3.
C. True, because when you multiply two factors together, you will get a
smaller product than when you multiply three factors together.
D. True, because the product of 9 × 3 is less than the product of 3 × 3 × 3.
2. MCC.3.OA.5 Now, you will try it yourself. Determine if the following

equation is true or false. If it is true, solve the problem and explain how you
know it is correct. If it is false, explain why it is wrong, solve it correctly,
and explain how you know it is now correct.
2×2×3<4×3
Notice that in this assignment, students must determine not only if each
statement is true or false but why the statement would be true or false. To
complete the first question, students must have a thorough understanding of
the math concepts. Then, in order to move to a higher level, they must do a
similar problem, this time on their own without choices.
Tool 34: Grades 4–12 Math
Name: Date:
Error Analysis
Read the word problem. Look at the student’s work and solution. Identify
the error and describe it. Solve the problem correctly. Then share a strategy
this student could use to prevent the same error in the future.
Problem: __________________________________________
Incorrect Work/Solution Identify and Explain the Error
Correct Work/Solution Share a Strategy

Error analysis, a common math strategy used at most grade levels, is very
similar to the previous problem. In this case, it is more open ended, with stu-
dents reading a word problem and solution. Then, they identify and explain
the error, ideally using math terminology. After working it correctly, they
share their strategy with another student. I would also recommend students
explain why they know they now have the correct answer. Identifying and
explaining misconceptions, the heart of this assignment, is quite rigorous.
Tool 35: Middle/High School Math

Pythagorean Theorem . . . What Is That?
Thanks to Pythagoras, we have a great equation that we can use to find the
length of the sides of a right triangle. The theorem is used in architecture,
navigation, and surveying, which are important parts of our lives, but what
if Pythagoras had never come up with the theorem? Sure, you could use
measurement of a tool, but some things may be impossible to measure, such
as if you are trying to find distances between long navigation points. Your
charge is to come up with a replacement equation that would assist you with
the following problem. You should be able to explain how you came up with
the new equation and also include the drawbacks of using this equation. . . .
Pythagoras can’t be replaced, but I bet you can come close.
For instance, a plane can use its height above the ground and its distance from
the destination airport to find the correct place to begin a descent to that airport.
Source: https://sciencing.com/real-life-uses-pythagorean-theorem-8247514.html
The Pythagorean Theorem activity takes application of knowledge to a

higher level. If you consider a traditional assignment, students might explain
a real-world application of the theorem. But in this case, they have to imagine
it does not exist and create a new equation. Requiring students to create a new
solution rather than applying an existing one takes learning to a higher level.
Tool 36: Middle/High School STEM
Following the design process of engineering, students design and build an

original, workable device they can use to propel T-shirts into the onlooker
stands during next week’s ballgame. The cost must come in under budget
and must distribute shirts in a random manner across all areas of the stands.
Students must justify each aspect of the project, using research and data from
the actual use of the device during the ballgame.
In this example used for science–technology–engineering–math, stu-

dents are working at one of the highest levels of rigor. In addition to using
analytical and design skills, students must also connect all four areas and a
real-life application to successfully complete the assignment. Finally, they are
expected to justify their project, not just on their opinion, but on research and
data.
Tool 37: Kindergarten/First Grade Science

Planting Seeds (K–1)
As a group, discuss seeds. Ask students to predict what would happen if

they planted a seed. Then, ask each student to plant a seed in the dirt in his
or her cup. Place the cups around the room, using different variables, such as
sunlight and indoor lighting. Ask students to draw a picture in their science
journals of what they think will happen. Each day, observe the seeds and
draw in science journals their current observations. Discuss as a group what
is happening and why. After seeds have sprouted, ask students to compare
their plants. Why are they different or the same? Draw this in journals.
Discuss as a class, with answers such as, “mine grew more because it was in
the sun.” At the end, have each student explain (justify) why his or her plant
grew the way it did and why (variables) with a partner, and ask the partner
to decide if that is correct. Working together, have small groups of students
choose someone’s plant that did not grow as much as others. Ask them how
they would solve that problem. In the whole group, ask students to explain
how the variables (such as the sun) would make a difference with something
else related to plants (like a garden). Finally, ask students how these variables
might matter to something other than plants. You’ll need to use specific
guiding questions.
Note—you’ll want to give all students an opportunity to have their plants grow, perhaps after you complete this
activity.
I’m often asked what rigor looks like at the kindergarten level, and this is
a good example. Rather than the traditional “plant a seed and watch it grow,”
this assignment adds reflective aspects throughout the task. Students are then
asked to go beyond what they have learned to broaden the information to
other variables.
Tool 38: Third Grade Science

Mars Challenge
PBL Driving Question: What life skills do we need to sustain life as a new
colony on Mars?
Create a school on Mars. Design your ideal school. Think about what
it should look like, how you would build it, what will be taught, and what
kinds of teachers will be there. You need to think about themes, concepts,
elements, and so on. Next, build a village around your school. You’ll need to
consider what you need such as gardens or greenhouses, jobs needed, and
transportation.
After you have designed your school and village, justify each of your
choices. You can do this in writing, orally, or visually. Remember to base your
reflection on what you learned in class and from the materials provided as
well as your own experience.
Note—the teacher who provided this set of 10 lessons explained it encompasses a
period of 3–4 weeks. Throughout, students are working in groups and partners for
planning, reflection, and feedback. It is designed to be a combination of a PBL project
and Genius hour.
On the surface, this appears to be a typical “create a planet” assignment.

However, this project is far more than creating a model or display. Students
must consider all aspects of our lives here on Earth, transfer them in a practi-
cal way to live on Mars, and then justify each of their decisions. Higher-order
thinking is at the heart of the project.
Tool 39: Upper Elementary/Middle School Science
Students identify an issue, or a situation related to science, such as the

proposal to add solar panels to the roof of the school or creating a school
garden. Research the issue, including benefits and disadvantages, and
identify any impact on the school, students, teachers, or anyone else
interested in the decision. Finally, design and present a plan to convince
teachers and parents of their position and any recommended changes, with
specific evidence supporting their decision.
The upper elementary/middle school science example, which can be

adapted to higher or lower grade levels or to other subject areas such as
social studies, also puts higher-order thinking at its core. By asking students
to identify an issue to research, students must investigate topics to determine
their choice. After completing additional research on the topics, they design
a plan to convince others of their position. In order to do so, they must con-
sider the positives and negatives of their proposal, as well as thinking about
counter-arguments they may encounter, all of which must be evidence based.
Tool 40: High School Science

Estimating Population Size
In small groups, design a research question about proportion, then design

an experiment that will answer the research question. It must differ in some
manner from what you did in the experiment and computer model. After
you have completed the experiment, write an analysis that includes the
results of your experiment; how the results address the research question;
evidence for your responses that are based on the experiment, other
experiments, and your knowledge of science; and how this experiment
provides information that affects real life.
Similar to the issue-based assignment, students design a research ques-

tion and the accompanying experiment. The higher level of investigation is
accompanied by an analysis that, once again, is based on the data from this
experiment, other experiments, and their overall knowledge. Finally, stu-
dents are asked to generalize the information to real life.
Tool 41: Grade Four Writing

Heroes and Heroines
We’ve been reading books and watching videos about heroes and heroines.
Choose someone who is your hero, heroine, or role model. Next, make a list
of why you chose them. Then, make a list of how they are like either Jackie
Robinson, Allie Murray Smith, Jimmy Carter, or Martin Luther King, Jr.
Create write a script for a short video explaining why your person is a hero,
heroine, or role model using information from our lessons and what you
know about the famous person you chose.
As with several of our other examples, this task relies on students explain-
ing their thesis using evidence from lessons in class, other sources, and their
own experiences. These characteristics can apply to many rigorous activities,
especially those in the language arts areas.
Tool 42: Middle School Language Arts

Identifying a Theme
What is the theme of “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”? Make sure to use
details from the text to support this choice. “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”
was written nearly 200 years ago. Justify whether this theme applies to today.
Provide an example from modern life to validate your answer
The Goldilocks example follows a similar path to the heroes lesson but
contains a twist. Instead of asking for a real-life example, students are required
to take the theme from 200 years ago and apply it to our world today. Thus,
the real-life application is taken to an even higher level.
Tool 43: High School English

Example Two: Close Reading Research and Writing
Read Malala Yousafzai’s Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech. Analyze
the stylistic decisions she made when writing it. Consider her purpose, the
varied syntax, connotative diction, imagery, personal testimonies, and the
choice to switch from first- to second-person point of view. How do these
decisions impact the overall tone and delivery of her speech?
Now read the article, “In Pakistan, A Self-Styled Teacher Holds Class for
150 in a Cowshed,” by Philip Reeves. How are the dreams and aspirations of
Malala justified after reading about the reality of girls’ education in Pakistan
today? How do these differ from and compare to inequalities in American
history with minority groups (African Americans, women, immigrant
children)? In addition to using evidence from the texts, provide real-life
examples to support your thesis.
In this example, two accessible texts are being paired, requiring a more
complex level of analysis and evaluation. Not only do students need to eval-
uate author’s craft in the first piece, they must also establish connections
between the two seemingly unrelated pieces and consider how the same con-
cept applies to other social groups in our country. This type of assignment
could easily apply to any social studies reading as well.
Tool 44: Fourth Grade Social Studies

Ecosystems
Research your chosen region in California. Think of a realistic change that

might happen to affect the plants and animals in your environment. Write
an argument with evidence discussing what would happen to the other
populations of animals. You must also propose how these cited problems
could be fixed.
As we turn our attention to social studies, we see that students are asked to
look at changes over time and across different populations. In order to do that,
they must consider a variety of aspects of geography. Finally, as an exclama-
tion point to rigor, students are asked to propose a solution to the problems.
Tool 45: Seventh Grade Social Studies

Environmental Issues of Europe
Choose one of the three environmental issues of Europe we have discussed

in class (air pollution in United Kingdom; acid rain in Germany; and nuclear
disaster in Chernobyl, Ukraine) or an alternative that I approve.
Create a news report (video with script or newspaper article) concerning
one of the issues. The report must contain the causes of the issue, the effects
of the issue, and the solutions the country has used and must include specific
information and data based on sources.
Next, create an opinion-based commentary or editorial proposing your
own solution to the issue. It should, again, be based on factual information
and should address the real-life concerns of those who are impacted by the
issue.
As we move into a middle school example, we are once again asking stu-
dents to use evidence as a basis for their work. However, they must use that
for an informational piece and then an opinion piece.
Tool 46: High School Social Studies

Exploring Perspectives/Dinner Parties
Imagine a dinner party with esteemed guests such as Stalin, Truman,

Churchill, and Eleanor Roosevelt. Using your knowledge of the Yalta,
Potsdam, and Tehran conferences in the 1940s, write a script in which these
historical figures converse about their different views of what the world
would look like after World War II. Choose a character and role play this
scenario, keeping the original integrity of your guest intact. At your dinner
party, be sure to include what each historical figure would say about the state
of society today.
In the third example, students must take information they have learned
and go beyond the knowledge gained to internalize the information and use
it in another format. Students are stepping into a role-play scenario, using
evidence and reasoning to generate hypothetical conversations between peo-
ple with opposing viewpoints while maintaining the essence of the person’s
true personality. Finally, they are taking their knowledge about each of the
persons and applying it to a current situation. This also requires them to
move beyond the text, which in this case is what they have learned. While
this assignment uses historical figures, it could easily be used with characters
from a novel.
Other Subject Areas

Human Rights (Interdisciplinary)
Performances
Computer Science
Career and Technology
Tool 47: The Human Rights Game (Interdisciplinary)

One of my favorite new resources is the Human Rights Game (https://
humanrightsgame.com) from the Brainery. You might think a game is not
rigorous, but take a look at the reflection questions.
1. What have you learned about Freedom, Equality, and Dignity from
playing The Human Rights Game? Give an example.
2. Along with Freedom, Equality, and Dignity, the UN says they also come
with responsibilities. If people did not have responsibilities to each other,
how do you think the freedoms and rights associated with the UN would
work? Explain your answer.
3. At times, it can be hard to make choices. How could you use the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights to help you make better choices
in a variety of everyday situations?
4. Along with respectful human interactions and relationships involving

Freedom, Equality, and Dignity, trust is essential to a well-functioning
world. How do you think trust relates to Freedom, Equality, and Dignity
in relation to human rights? Give an example.
5. Name some projects your school could take on to help people benefit
from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
6. If it was your job to teach students in developing countries who may not
have access to The Human Rights Game or the funds to purchase learning
resources, how would you go about the job?
7. Which playing card(s) challenged you the most? Say why.
8. Which playing card(s) challenged you the least? Say why.
9. What did you like most about this game?
10. What would you want to change about this game? Please feel welcome to
send your suggestions to info@thebrainary.com
Although I would prefer justification rather than explanation, the ques-

tions themselves require that students use their knowledge from the game
experience to apply to current life experiences.
Tool 48: Critiquing a Performance (Music, Theatre)

Critiquing a Performance
Students listen to/view a performance of your choice (either their own

or one on the internet). Each student writes a short critique, which must
include the student’s opinion of the work, support of the opinion based on
the lessons taught by the teacher and the student’s own experiences, and
recommendations for improvement.
Oftentimes, we ask students to give their opinion of a performance, per-

haps a recording of a band or chorus performance or a video of a drama. In
order to increase rigor, we follow a familiar pattern of requiring students to
base their opinion on classroom lessons and their own experience.
Tool 49: Computer Science

Data Tracking: Dangers and Benefts
Building on our class discussion, find at least three credible sources on the
topic of data tracking. In particular, you are looking at both the advantages
and disadvantages of using data tracking. Design a tool (video, webpage,
etc.) designed to convince your audience of your perspective on data
tracking. For example, if you believe companies should be allowed to use
data tracking, create a technology-based format to convince others of your
belief. In your information, you should include the reasons that support
your position, as well as addressing the typical objections. Your presentation
should be based on facts and data, which can come from our class
information and resources, your independent research, or data collection
from interviews with local companies.
You may be seeing some commonalities in rigorous work. In this case,

students are developing an argument on the topic of data tracking, which
is to be based on material from class, their own research, and, if applicable,
interviews with personnel at local companies as to their policies. Notice how
students are pushed beyond writing a simple summary.
Tool 50: Career Technology

Saving the Environment From Old Technology
Your goal is to research and develop at least one practical use for older
computers that will help eliminate the practice of disposing of used
computers or landfills. Your use does not necessarily need to relate to a
new consumer computer. For example, you may find a purpose for data
warehouses. Develop a detailed proposal, address practical issues, such as
cost, and any disadvantages, and explain how this will solve technology
problems now and in the future.
In this career-technology example, students are proposing a solution to a

problem, which is a rigorous task. In addition to the solution, however, they
must create a detailed plan that addresses a variety of issues, which requires
more thought.
In physical education, rigor can undergird activities; it simply looks a bit
different from other subjects. In this case, students are using what they know
about squats to diagnose strengths and weaknesses of another student based
on their knowledge and the data from the workout. Finally, they diagnose a
plan for improvement and teach it to the class. Notice the analysis that takes
place throughout the task.
A Final Note
Ensuring depth of instruction is a critical part of instructional
rigor. By using frameworks such as Webb’s Depth of Knowledge
and the Cognitive Rigor Matrix, you can create in-depth tasks
that are challenging for students.

in your classroom?
4
Increasing Depth of Instruction
In this chapter, we’ll look at options to increase the depth of your instruc-
tion. We’ll start with three that blend well together: academic discourse, proj-
ect- and problem-based learning, and looking at various perspectives. Then,
we’ll explore some engaging, deeper ways to start and end your lessons.
Academic Discourse
Project- and Problem-Based Learning
Multiple Perspectives and Points of View
Lesson Starters
Lesson Enders
Rigorous Conversations: Academic Discourse

When we think about traditional student talk, whether it is in response to
a teacher’s question, discussion with other students, or generating questions,
there are common problems.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-4
Tool 51: Problems With Student Talk

Problems With Student Talk in the Classroom
• Controlled by teacher
• Too little student talk
• Too focused on simply answering teacher’s questions
• Surface level rather than in depth
• Dominated by a few students, typically excluding struggling students
In recent years, the conversation has shifted from classroom talk and dis-
cussion to student discourse, which is also called accountable talk or aca-
demic discourse. What exactly is the difference? Student discourse is focused
on “on-task” talk, as well as the use of academic vocabulary. In other words,
not only is discourse more rigorous, it is more purposeful.
Tool 52: PURPOSEful Discourse

PURPOSEful Discourse
Promotes critical thinking
Understanding at a deep level is desired result
Reflection is encouraged
Partners, groups, and individuals use academic vocabulary
Ownership by students
Specific classroom norms enable discourse
Each student participates
Fully implemented as a natural part of the classroom
User-friendly environment facilitates participation by all
Leadership shared with students
Jackie Acree Walsh and Beth Dankert Sattes, in Questioning for Classroom
Discussion, describe five organizers students use during academic discus-
sions. These are essential tools students need in order to be successful.
Tool 53: Organizers for Academic Discussion
1. Developing accountability to speak

2. Learning to listen through silence.
3. Learning to appreciate multiple points of view and deepen understanding of text.
4. Learning to agree and disagree respectfully.
5. Learning to question.
Increasing Depth of Instruction ◆ 55
It isn’t enough to tell students they need to use these tools. Instead, we
need to teach students how to do each of these, as well as giving them guided
practice.
Accountability to Speak
You can develop accountability to speak by using chips. Each student
is given a certain number of chips, each one used when a student makes a
comment. All chips should be used by the end of the conversation. Another
option is to use a checklist to track comments.
Listening Through Silence

Silence can be intimidating and uncomfortable for students. One way
to encourage listening through silence is to allow students a few minutes to
talk about the task. Then, explain that the goal is to listen to a group mem-
ber’s comment, and count to 10 before you respond. Over time, they can take
appropriate silent times throughout the conversation.
Learning to Appreciate Multiple Points of View and Deepen Understanding

of Text
For students to appreciate perspectives, they need practice working with
varying points of view. After we conclude our discussion on academic dis-
course, you’ll find instructional strategies on perspectives.
Good academic discourse also focuses on a deeper understanding of con-
tent. This requires an intentional shift to higher-order tasks.
Tool 54: Examples of Discourse

Examples of Discourse That Lead to Deeper Understanding
English/Language Arts Social Studies
Discussion of character motives Discussion of possible research questions
Discussion of why an author made Developing a hypothesis or

certain decisions in his/her writing speculating about a solution
Discussion of use of conventions in Thorough discussion of the

writing impact of a historical event or
invention
Analysis of a text
Examples of Discourse That Lead to Deeper Understanding
Math Science
Offering possible solutions to a problem Discussion of possible research questions
Discussion of other applications of a Developing a hypothesis or

concept speculating as to a solution
Discussion of relationship of a Thorough discussion of results and

concept to other concepts implications of an investigation
Learning to Agree and Disagree Respectfully

In Chapter 7, “Reinvigorating the Environment,” we’ll discuss the issue
of students’ respecting each other. For now, let’s just note that it is a criti-
cal aspect of academic discourse for students to be respectful of each other,
whether they are agreeing or disagreeing with each other. There are class-
room norms that can support your goals.
Tool 55: Sample Classroom Norms

Sample Classroom Norms for Discourse
• We are all a team, so we work together rather than competing.
• We respect each other and act appropriately.
• We actively listen to each other, which allows us to authentically contrib-
ute our perspectives.
• If you don’t agree with someone, find a positive way to respond without
embarrassing the other person.
• Everyone should be able to participate. If one person is talking too much,
the other group members should give them a signal and move on.
• The process is just as important as the result. We want to think deeply
about our work, elaborate, justify our points, and pose additional ques-
tions to promote more thinking.
• Making mistakes is normal; it helps us learn.
• If you need help, check out the Resource Board for questioning prompts
and/or sample vocabulary.
Learning to Question
In addition to providing the opportunity for students to ask questions,
they may need assistance in crafting questions. In addition to modeling ques-
tioning for them, you may want to provide sample prompts.
Tool 56: Sample Questioning Prompts

Sample Questioning Prompts
• Why do you think . . . ?
• How did you decide . . . ?
• What is the evidence . . . ?
• Why did you choose to . . . ?
• What would happen if . . . ?
• Have you considered . . . ?
• What would you suggest for . . . ?
• How might a mathematician/scientist/author/historian . . . ?
• What was your intention when . . . ?
• What is the connection between _________ and _________?
• What criteria did you use to . . . ?
You may also want prompts students can use for follow-up.
Tool 57: Starter Questions

Starter Questions
To Prompt More Thinking:
• You are on the right track. Tell us more.
• You are onto something. Keep going.
• The teacher said there is not a right answer, so what would be your best
answer?
To Fortify or Justify a Response
• What is your opinion about . . . ?
• Why is what you said important?
• Explain how you got that answer.
To See Others’ Points of View
• How is your process different from mine?
• Do you see another way we could come up with a solution?
To Consider Consequences
• How can we apply this to real life?
• What did you learn in another lesson that we can connect this to?
• How else can we use this?
Source: Adapted From: http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/9780205627585/downloads/
Echevarria_ math_Ch1_TheAcademicLanguageofMathematics.pdf
Types of Objectives
Douglas Fisher, Nancy Frey, and Carol Rothenberg, in their book
Content-Area Conversations, point out there should be three types of objectives:
content, language, and social. As you consider the skills we just looked at,
you’ll notice the three types of objectives encompass those skills. The objec-
tives are helpful as you craft your tasks and discussions.
Tool 58: Objectives
Description Example
Content objectives include criteria Construct a map (specific details

for successful task completion provided)
Language objectives teach and Correctly use teacher-provided words
provide practice in the academic
language needed
Social objectives define the nature of Be sure every member of the group
the interaction participates in the discussion, is
involved in the task, and uses
accountable talk
I’d like to finish this section with a look at academic vocabulary, the sec-
ond of the three objectives. Academic vocabulary, rather than conversational
language, is a key indicator of discourse. You’ve probably listened to a discus-
sion from a group of students and thought: “This is not what I expect.” I cer-
tainly felt that way. Encouraging the use of academic vocabulary is critical.
Tool 59: Tiers of Vocabulary

Tiers of vocabulary were introduced by Isabel Beck and Margaret McKe-
own in 1987, but they have gained renewed interest recently. As the authors
describe them, Tier One words are acquired through everyday speech.
These words are common and are typically taught at early grades or learned
through everyday use around them. Tier Two includes academic words that
appear across all texts. They may change meaning due to use, and they pres-
ent a challenge if experienced in text initially. Vocabulary instruction for these
words typically adds to students’ understanding of the meaning. Tier Three
vocabulary is domain- or content-area specific. They are critical for build-
ing conceptual understanding in content, but they need explicit instruction.
These words are best taught when they are needed in the context of the lesson.
Tool 60: Tier Two Vocabulary

Sample Tier Two Vocabulary
Decide
Explore
Discover
Extend
Support
Evidence
Persuade
Concur
Consecutive
Obvious
Bias
Enhance
Conclude
Tool 61: Tier Three Vocabulary

Sample Tier Three Academic Vocabulary
Math Science
Add Acid
Balance Atom
Cube Base
Dividend Convection
Divisor Environment
Estimate Gas
Equation Humidity
Factor Mass
Pattern Predict
Volume Thermometer
Adjacent angles Aerobic
Binomial Atomic number
Conic sections Carnivore
Dilation Carbon cycle
Intercept Heterozygous
Quadrant Isotopes
Reciprocal Magnetic field
Substitute Velocity
Translation Solvent
Variance Work
Textual evidence Latitude/longitude
Word choice Goods/services
Fact/opinion Culture
Biography/autobiography Artifact
Character Historical
Conflict Continent
Plot Issue
Setting Locate
Narrative Primary vs. secondary
Plot Latitude/longitude
Hyperbole Per capita
Diction Democracy
Connotation Gross domestic product
Metaphor Topography
Theme Nationalism
Rhyme scheme Secession
Characterization Legislature
Internal conflict Industrialization
Logos/pathos/ethos Democracy
Project-Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning

Do you remember doing projects when you were a student? We do. Our
teachers typically assigned everyone a standard project; we completed them
and turned them in and then received a grade. Today, teachers have shifted to
project-based learning and problem-based learning for more rigorous work.
Let’s compare the two.
Tool 62: Project-Based and Problem-Based Learning
Project-Based Learning Problem-Based Learning
• Student involvement is the focus. • Student inquiry is the focus.

• Teacher works mainly before the proj- • Are based on driving
ect starts, although some support is questions developed by
provided to students who need it. students.
• Are relevant to students’ lives or • Are open ended; students
future lives. make choices that
• Are based on driving questions devel- determine the outcome and
oped by the teacher that encompass path of the research.
the learning and establish the need to • Project is student directed,
know. with the teacher providing
• Are open ended; students make choic- support as needed but
es that determine the outcome and typically in a guidance role.
path of the research (such as designing
a fortification that would take your
community through a bioattack).
Source: Adapted from a blog entry by Terry Heick at teachthought.com.
I regularly talk with teachers who share examples of project-based learn-

ing and problem-based learning. For our purposes in this chapter, we’ll look
at a variety of examples from both categories. Each can be adapted to project
or problem based. The main difference is that in project-based learning, the
teacher directs the questions and assigns the final product. In problem-based
learning, the students are more self directed and come up with many of their
own questions.
Tool 63: Examples of Project-Based Learning

A teacher in one of my workshops shared an example of project-based
learning for teaching health in a secondary school. She asked students to cre-
ate a “How to Be Healthy” campaign. First, they were to gather data about
student absenteeism, including the reasons students were absent. They
could use surveys, interview students, or ask teachers for overall numbers
of absences.
Next, they chose a specific focus area of health. They researched informa-
tion about the health of their city, state, or region. They looked at national or
county health rankings, published data about numbers of measles cases, or
any other information they could find. The Centers for Disease Control and
the local health department were excellent sources of information.
Finally, each group created a campaign to teach healthy habits to stu-
dents. After choosing their targeted age group (such as elementary school
or intermediate grades), they chose a medium (web-based, multimedia, etc.)
and developed a campaign. The groups presented their finished projects at
the end of the semester.
Does that intrigue you? Let’s look at a variety of examples.
Tool 64: Elementary Reading
Elementary Reading
Roald Dahl used well-developed characters in his story, Charlie and the
Chocolate Factory. Think about each of the other four children, the way they
misbehaved, and how their behavior caused them to exit the factory earlier
than they anticipated (in very odd ways). Create a new character with a
different behavior problem and write him/her into the story. How would
this character treat his/her parent and others? What would he/she look like
and what would his/her mannerisms be? What would get him/her into
trouble during his tour of the chocolate factory that would lead to him/her
getting “thrown out”? How would the existing characters react/respond to
this new character?
Finally, become this new character, introducing yourself to our class in
the way the character would act in the book and tell us of your experience
in the chocolate factory. Use details from the setting and plot to weave your
own story in and step into character!
Tool 65: Elementary/Middle School Social Studies
Elementary or Middle School Social Studies
The city is in danger. The mayor has moved and everything has shut
down! We have been asked to design a plan to get the city up and running!
Think about all of the critical roles we’ve discussed in creating an effective
community. In your small groups, complete research and determine how
you would propose we help out as efficiently as possible! Justify your ideas
with textual evidence and logical reasoning. Your final product will be a
persuasive visual presentation using chart paper, PowerPoint, poster board,
handout, etc. that outlines your proposal with information about the trip(s)
and pictures, graphs, maps, etc.
Tool 66: Middle School Science
Middle School Science
“Don’t Trash the Earth.” Due to the increasing garbage people produce, the
local community landfill is running out of space. Students are presented with
a scenario in which they are hired to evaluate their school and community
recycling and waste management practices. After researching and analyzing
past and current methods, teams develop a new recycling plan, complete
with cost analysis and supporting data. Teams propose recommendations to
a committee, supported by brochures that inform and persuade the public
to take action. Source: https://ronaldreaganms.pwcs.edu/common/pages/
DisplayFile.aspx?itemId=645115.
Tool 67: Middle School Math
Middle School Math
Students choose an issue with theme parks that may need to be addressed
using mathematical concepts. This may include having a friend in a wheelchair,
ensuring safety for younger children, creating a special space for grandparents,
or accommodating service animals. Keep in mind if these changes are already in
place, students should evaluate their effectiveness and suggest any changes.
Tool 68: High School English
High School English
In our class novel, the protagonist sets out to civilize people from a remote
tribe in the Amazon. Do your own research on uncontacted tribes in the world
today. Do they exist? Where are they? Do they want to be contacted? Do you
think they should be left alone or assimilated into civilization? Put together
a presentation or mini-lesson to teach us more about what’s happening in
Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia that is creating an ethical dilemma for these
peoples and the governments. Justify and/or critique the decisions being
made concerning these isolated tribes. Your presentation will need some type
of visual and a creative way to present the interesting facts you uncover.
Tool 69: High School Social Studies
High School Social Studies
After researching the original justification of the amendment and initial

implications, conduct your own research on how this amendment is currently
being contested in modern society to learn about the various viewpoints.
Prepare a presentation (format of your choice) to propose your own solution
to this issue. How would you substantiate your proposal and in what way
would you carry out your plan to ratify or enforce this amendment?
Tool 70: Other Topics

Other Sample Topics
Design a new social media platform for teenagers (language arts)

Develop a solution to a dystopian society from one of our novels (English)
Create a functional community park (social studies)
Create a virtual field trip for your community (social studies)
Design a solar power system that will sustain six people on Mars (science)
Create a zoo/aquarium for a new animal (science)
Design an improved container for a current product (math)
Create a plan for relocating the school office (math)
Design an eco-friendly home (STEM)

Create a civilization that can withstand time (interdisciplinary)
Determine how $50 can make the most impact in your community (interdisciplinary)
Developing PBL
Brian Pete and Robin Fogarty, in their book Everyday Problem-Based Learn-
ing, focus on seven key areas to consider in problem-based learning.
Tool 71: PBL Key Areas

PBL Key Areas
1. Develop Questions
2. Launch Scenario
3. Gather Information
4. Organize Information
5. Create Evidence
6. Present Findings
7. Assess Learning
If you are using problem-based learning, students will follow the seven
areas. If you are focusing on project-based learning, you and your students
will share the areas. For example, you may develop the questions launch the
scenario; students will follow areas 3–6, and you may assess the learning.
Tool 72: Assessing Project- and Problem-Based Learning

Designing effective assessments for your project- and problem-based
learning experiences is critical for successful student learning. Generally,
the principles of quality assessment (see Chapter 6, “Options for Assess-
ment”) apply, but there are a few specific concepts that are particularly
important.
First, you should incorporate both formative and summative assessment
in your instruction. Second, self-assessment and peer assessment should be a
part of the experience. Since much of the learning occurs in groups, self- and
peer assessment provide you a fuller picture of a student’s learning.
Tool 73: Sample Peer Assessment

Peer Assessment Excerpt
Yes No Comments
The group member contributed positively to

the project.
The group member worked cooperatively and
helped other members.
The group member completed work on time.
Finally, provide rubrics so that students have a clear understanding of

your expectations. Ideally, the rubric can be used throughout the process. I’d
also recommend you consider allowing students who have not achieved a
standard level be afforded the opportunity to rework part of the assignment.
Tool 74: Science Rubric Excerpt

(Please note the rubric is an excerpt only.)
Science Project Rubric
Exemplary Acceptable Not Yet (Do Over)
Problem and Problem is • Problem is • Problem is

Hypothesis new, meaningful, meaningful and addressed
well-researched. researched. vaguely with
Hypothesis is • Hypothesis is little research
clearly stated in stated. support.
the “If . . . then” • Hypothesis is
format. unclear or not
stated.
Research • Research is • Research has • Research
Support thorough, some specifics has little
specific, and and examples. specifics
includes many and few
examples. examples.
• Most ideas are • Two or fewer
explained. ideas are
explained.
Science Project Rubric
Exemplary Acceptable Not Yet (Do Over)
• All ideas • Student • Student

are clearly mostly doesn’t
explained. addresses address all
• History, the history, or any areas:
biology, biology, and history,
and pros pros and biology, pros
and cons cons. and cons.
are fully
addressed.
Variables • Variables • Variables • Missing

have been have been variables or
identified; somewhat controls.
controls are identified; • Sample
appropriate, controls are size is not
in place, and appropriate appropriate
explained. and in place. or is not
• Sample • Sample considered.
size is size is
appropriate appropriate.
and
explained.
Perspectives and Points of View

Another way to increase the rigor of your instruction is by requiring students
to look at concepts from multiple perspectives and points of view. This allows
students to achieve a deeper level of learning. Let’s look at four strategies.
Cubing
Thinking Hats
RAFT
Debates
Tool 75: Cubing to Look at Perspectives

Cubing allows students to look at a topic or issue from six perspectives.
At a basic level, the sides of the cube are labeled who, what, when, where,
why, and how. Students would then write about or answer the questions for
each side of the block.
Tool 76: Story Cubing Pattern

When I was teaching, I used more sophisticated prompts for writing.

They required my students to move beyond a basic answer to more complex
responses.
Tool 77: Cubing Prompts
One of the benefits of cubing is

Cubing Prompts
that you can use a variety of prompts,
depending on your specific grade level Describe It (the topic or issue)
and/or subject area. A caution, however: Compare It
be sure your prompts are appropriate Associate It
for the topic and encourage higher-level Analyze It
thinking rather than just being a cute
Apply It
worksheet.
Argue For or Against It
Tool 78: Additional Cubing Prompts
A final way to use cubes

is to write different assign- Other Possible Cubing Prompts
ments on each side of the cube. Defne It
Students can “roll the cube” Explain It
physically or electronically
Locate It
(random.org) to determine
their activity, or you can assign Solve It
specific sides to them. It’s a Illustrate It
great option for differentiating Diagram It
instruction. Research It
Write a Sentence (or Paragraph) With It
Tool 79: Thinking Hats

Still another way to help students think about a topic from a variety of
perspectives is through the use of Thinking Hats (DeBono, 1999). The pro-
cess provides six different ways of viewing or discussing information and is
helpful anytime you want students to look at something through different
lenses.
Thinking Hats
The White Hat calls for information known or needed. “The facts, just the facts.”
The Yellow Hat symbolizes brightness and optimism. Under this hat, you
explore the positives and probe for value and beneft.
The Black Hat is judgment—the devil’s advocate or why something may
not work. Spot the diffculties and dangers—where things might go
wrong. Probably the most powerful and useful of the hats but a problem
if overused.
The Red Hat signifes feelings, hunches, and intuition. When using this hat,
you can express emotions and feelings and share fears, likes, dislikes,
loves, and hates.
The Green Hat focuses on creativity—the possibilities, alternatives, and new
ideas. It’s an opportunity to express new concepts and new perceptions.
The Blue Hat is used to manage the thinking process. It’s the control
mechanism that ensures the Six Thinking Hats guidelines are observed.
Source: www.debonogroup.com/6hats.htm
As a side note, I have spoken with many teachers who have pointed out
that the color of the black hat may be perceived as negative by some students.
I prefer to change this to a purple hat to avoid any issues.
Tool 80: RAFT

Perhaps you would like your students to write a paragraph about the topic
you have been teaching in class, such as the solar system. That is a standard,
low-level assignment that requires students to restate or summarize the infor-
mation covered. Even if you ask students to elaborate in greater detail, it’s
likely that the responses will be fairly basic. Instead, let’s ratchet up the rigor
using the RAFT strategy (Santa, Havens, & Macumber, 1996), which, although
developed years ago, has continued to be a strong strategy to deepen student
learning. RAFT stands for Role/Audience/Format/Topic. Using this strategy,
students would assume a role (such as an astronaut in this case) and write
from that perspective to a more authentic audience, such as people reading
his/her online blog. With a slight shift in the assignment details, students are
required to understand the topic at a higher level in order to complete the
task. Additionally, when students are asked to write for a genuine purpose
and audience, they tend to complete the assignment more effectively. As you
can see from the examples, you can tailor this task to your specific needs. For
younger students, they can draw rather than write their RAFTs. Also, you
might allow them to choose roles and formats that interest them.
Tool 81: Sample RAFTs
Role Audience Format Topic
Colon Students Song I Wish You Knew

Where I Belonged
Rain Forest People of the Ransom Note Before It’s Too
Country Late
Fitness Specialist Runner Fitness Plan How to Recover
From Your Injury
Prime Number Rational Job Application How to Join My
Number Group
Banker Detective Wanted Poster Missing Decimal
Point
Eyewitness Local News 2 Minute Video Current Event
Carbon Atom Other Types of Blog From a The Advantages
Atoms Social Media of Being Me
Influencer
Mrs. Weera Parvana’s Two Public The Importance
(Novel The Family Service of Education
Breadwinner by Announcements for Girls and
Deborah Ellis) the Taliban’s
Oppression in
Afghanistan
Tool 82: Debates

Finally, in order to help students analyze an issue from two or more sides,
use debates as a teaching tool. Lindsay, a teacher in South Carolina, uses
debates to teach her students to see different perspectives on an issue. She
begins with a handout that includes a statement: “I am for/against (insert
your topic here).” Next, she assigns each student a position (for or against).
The students circle their position on a handout and then research three rea-
sons to support their position. She says:
They get into their groups and come up with what they think the oth-
er group would say. What do you think their points are going to be?
Then, they write down at least three points their opposition might
have and they research comebacks to the opposition’s points. So, they
have to think ahead and research not only their position, but the oth-
er side as well. Then, when we hold our debate, each student had to
speak at least once.
Tool 83: Sample Debate Topics
Sample Debate Topics

Should students be required to wear school uniforms?
Should you be allowed to go anywhere you want with your friends?
Should you be given an allowance or an increase in your allowance?
Should you be permitted to have a pet?
Should you be allowed to have your ears or other body parts pierced?
Should you be required to wear mandatory bicycle helmets?
Should you have homework every night?
Should skateboards be allowed on sidewalks?
Computers should replace teachers.
Girls have it better than boys.
Should the frst amendment protect violent speech in social media?
Should we reduce carbon emissions to combat global warming?
Should Great Britain rejoin the EU?
If you would like exemplars for debate positions, you can use editori-
als and opposing columns. For example, USA Today regularly publishes an
opposing view to their editorial.
Tool 84: Process for Debates

In my classroom, I used a five-step process for debates.
1. Introduce the topic.

2. Create debate teams or groups.
3. Provide time for the preparation process, which includes researching the
topic, considering other viewpoints, and gathering evidence to support
the position.
4. Build in time for small group conferencing with you for feedback.
5. DEBATE!!
Since the preparation part was key, I also used a graphic organizer to help
students organize their points, as well as possible counterpoints.
Tool 85: Graphic Organizer for Debates
Position
Evidence to My Opponents' How I Can

Support Arguments Counter
With younger students, you may want to adjust the language. For exam-
ple, instead of My Opponent’s Arguments, you may want to use “The Other
Group’s Opinion.” As always, you know your students; make any adjust-
ments that are best for them.
Other Forms of Debates

There are also other forms of debates that are less formal. Here are three
from Debbie Newman, in The Noisy Classroom.
Tool 86: Informal Debates
Balloon Debate Imagine various people are on a hot-air balloon that

is starting to sink. The only way to save any is to start
flinging others over the side. Students deliver a speech
to their classmates as to why they should remain on the
balloon. Classmates vote.
Boxing Matches These short debates help build confidence. Divide class
into two groups; one student from each side comes to
the center, and they do a quick back and forth. After a
short time, they go back for coaching and discussion.
Then they can “return to the ring,” or another student
can do so.
Rebuttal Tennis Students are grouped with a partner. The first partner
is given a statement and “serves” it; then the second
student responds by “returning the serve.”
Finally, let’s look at quick ideas for starting and finishing lessons.
Lesson Starters
A critical part of every lesson is the starting point. Without a strong kick-
off to the lesson, prior knowledge may not be activated, and learning may not
be focused. Let’s look at several tools for introducing a lesson.
Tool 87: Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

One decision to make as you begin a lesson is whether you would like
students to use deductive or inductive reasoning. In deductive learning, stu-
dents are given a standard, topic, or concept at the start of the class, and the
lesson about it follows. In inductive learning, students are given examples of
the topic or concept and, through the lesson, they are guided to learn the con-
cept. Both methods are appropriate and require students to think at higher
levels.
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning
Top Down (state learning objective Bottom Up (students generate the

first) specified objective from examples)
Beginning With Authentic Learning

We often talk about the importance of real-life learning in the classroom.
However, many times we have students complete application activities at
the end of a lesson. In a rigorous classroom, we can flip this to apply the
inductive model. Jessica, one of my former students, designed an ecology
unit for her science classroom that applies this principle. Her students were
introduced to the unit with the following task.
Tool 88: Sample Task
You are an ecologist from Rock Hill, South Carolina. Recently, members
of the United Nations have come together and decided that they must
eliminate one biome to make room for the world’s growing human
population. You and a group of your peers have decided to take a stand.
You will each choose one biome to present to the United Nations in New
York City this April. It is very important that you persuade the members
of the UN to keep your chosen biome alive! The UN has asked that you
write a persuasive essay to present to the audience. They also asked that
you bring visuals and information about your references. You must be sure
that you include how your biome benefits the world population. You need
to include information about the habitats, populations, animals, plants, and
food chains of your biome.
Throughout the unit, she integrated a variety of other open-ended proj-

ects, such as creating a flip book on their biome, participating in a debate, and
creating food chains/webs in addition to the regular mix of lecture, guided
discussion, and laboratory activities. However, since she began with the
open-ended, authentic situation, her students were more engaged and chal-
lenged throughout the lessons.
Tool 89: Standards

Many teachers write the standard for the day on the board. Students are
then expected to either read or write the standard, or the teacher reads the
standard aloud. Too often, this becomes a rote activity that carries no real
meaning for students. In order to activate learning, turn the statement into a
question. Explain to students that the focus of the day is for them to be able
to answer the question at the end of the lesson. Then, as a final activity for the
day, ask them to write the answer and turn it in.
Tool 90: Uncovering Pictures

Building on the notion of inductive teaching, while introducing a concept
or topic for the day, use a picture. Rather than showing the entire picture to
students, cut the picture into multiple pieces and show them one at a time,
requiring them to discern elements and infer the topic. You can also use tech-
nology to either show or uncover pieces of the picture. I was in a primary
classroom where the teacher used a simple folder to complete this activity.
On the front of the folder, a face with a smile was cut out. The picture was
inserted inside the folder, and students determined the picture with just the
portion seen through the face. It’s a simple way to complete this activity.
Tool 91: Discover the Mistakes

For the topic you will be teaching today, create a webpage or blog entry
that mimics an online encyclopedia entry. Include at least four content errors.
Ask students to compare the webpage to a credible site, such as the National
Geographic Channel. Their task is to correct the mistakes. This is a great way
to build some prior knowledge and hone students’ analysis skills.
Tool 92: Word Sorts

Word Sorts is a simple game with increased complexity. Give students
a variety of words or concepts that can be categorized. You might use two
categories for comparison and contrast or three or more for more complex
analysis. Students work in small groups to sort the words into the determined
number of categories. Their completed word sorts are then used to spring-
board a discussion of the concepts.
Tool 93: Entrance Slips

Entrance slips can be used in a variety of ways. First, you can hand stu-
dents a Post-It note or index card as they enter the room or start a lesson.
Ask them to write down one thing they learned from yesterday’s lesson and
one question they have. Take these up and use them as a lesson kickoff or
a discussion starter. Another option is to simply give students three to five
minutes at the beginning of class to write down what they learned from the
prior day’s lesson and any homework. Students can then share from their
reflections in a class discussion.
Ending the Day
Tool 94: Pizza Wheel

I also use a pizza wheel during class to review chunks of material stu-
dents are assigned to read prior to or during class. Each student writes a
fact he or she learned in one of the pizza slices. Then, working in small
groups, students rotate their papers to the next group member, who also
writes a fact. This continues around the circle until each pizza is full. As
an alternative, students can write examples of evidence that supports an
opinion or perspective. Students then discuss the material, using the pizza
wheels as a prompt. Although you can measure students’ understanding
in an oral discussion, asking each student to write ensures that all students
are involved in the lesson and provides an opportunity for every student
to respond.
Exit Slips
Another easy way to review student learning and also assess student
understanding is through the use of exit slips (see Chapter 6, “Options for
Assessment,” for more on assessing student understanding). As students are
leaving your class, they complete a paper or index cards responding to three
statements
Tool 95: Sample Exit Slip
Exit Slip
What I learned today: ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
How this connects to something else I know: ____________________________
____________________________________________________________________
A question I still have: ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Not only does this allow students to reflect of their knowledge from the
day, it also encourages critical thinking to narrow down their answers to one
for each question. If you’d prefer, you can collect the exit slips through tech-
nology, such as online surveys, email, or responses on a class blog/wiki/
Facebook page.
Tool 96: Read the Room

Applicable to many of the strategies suggested, Read the Room allows
students to review materials from other students’ perspectives. For any small
group summaries, charts, diagrams, and so on that students complete, post
them around the room. Either at the end of the lesson or at the beginning
of the next day, students rotate through the posted material, “reading the
room.” This can spur discussion, or, if you’d like, you can have students do
an exit slip analyzing and synthesizing what they’ve read.
A Final Note
There are a limitless number of strategies you can use to
enhance your instruction and make it more rigorous. Increasing
student engagement during all parts of the lesson, ensuring all
students participate through academic discourse, and encourag-
ing higher-order thinking through PBL and looking at different
perspectives will make a difference in student learning.

in your classroom?
5
Giving Scafolding and Support
As you increase rigor for your students, you must also increase the level
of support they receive. Consider a time when you tried to accomplish some-
thing new. For example, think about your first year of teaching. Did you need
help or guidance? That’s exactly how our students are as they move to higher
levels of rigor. However, you don’t want to provide the same level of support
all the time.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-5
Tool 97: Gradual Release
One way to think about scaffolding is with a diamond or rhombus. As you

can see from the figure, it starts with me (meaning the teacher). You begin by
modeling a lesson. This might happen during a live lesson, or you might record
something students may refer to regularly. Next, we go to us. There are two
parts of this. First is the teacher and the students (us) following guided practice.
The second part of guided practice is “us,” meaning students working
with partners or in small groups. Finally, the student (you) does the work
independently, which can happen in a variety of formats.
Giving Scafolding and Support ◆ 83
How do you decide when to move a student through the various stages
of gradual release? I wish I could give you a set formula, but there isn’t one.
Sometimes students need to see you model something once; other students
may need multiple explanations and models.
Using gradual release as our overall guide, let’s look at eight specific
strategies to support struggling learners.
Activating Prior Knowledge

Activating Prior Knowledge
Modeling for Students
Think Alouds
Graphic Organizers
Diferentiated Instruction
Students With Special Needs
English Language Learners
Other Specialized Needs
Extra Help
Tool 98: K-W-L

Probably the most common method of identifying students’ prior knowl-
edge that I see in classrooms today is a K-W-L chart. During a K-W-L activity,
you ask the students what they already know about a topic (K) or what they
think they know about it. Next, you ask what they want to know (W). Then,
you teach the lesson and ask them what they learned (L). You can also add an
H—“How Can We Learn This” to create a K-W-H-L organizer.
K-W-H-L Chart
K (what I know or W (what I want H (how I can L (what I learned)
think I know) to learn) learn this)
One alternative is an adaptation Sarah Lalonde makes in her online guide.

She expands to model for science classrooms to a KLEWS. K and L stay the
same, then she adds Evidence, what a student Wonders, and any Science
vocabulary.
Tool 99: LINK Strategy

Kendra, one of my former graduate students and a former teacher, adjusts
the K-W-L strategy into a LINK for her students.
LINK Chart
L (list everything I (inquire about N (now we are K (what do you
you know) what you want to going to take know now?)
know) notes)
After they complete the L column individually, her students turn to a part-
ner and share their answers. Then she leads a short class discussion, charting
out what everyone in the class knows about the topic. As she works through
the lesson, students finish by writing what they now know (K), and they tear
that part off to turn in as they leave her class. This provides her immediate
feedback as to what her students learned or didn’t learn in class.
It’s important to share students’ responses with everyone, albeit in a safe
way that doesn’t embarrass anyone. That’s why I like her method. She starts
by allowing each student to write an individual response, so everyone has
an opportunity to think about what they know. As Kendra points out, if I’m
a student:
[B]y sharing with a partner, I can feel “safer” in case I’m not right.
In the whole class discussion, I’m sharing “our” answers (mine and
my partner’s), so I don’t feel like I’m out on a limb by myself. You
could even add another option of sharing with two groups of partners
before you share with everyone. However, don’t sacrifice the whole
class discussion. We all learn more together, and it’s a safe guess that
someone in my class knows something I don’t know. Listening to all
responses and charting them out for everyone to see helps me build
prior knowledge when I don’t have much.
Tool 100: IIQEE

Eric Jensen and LeAnn Nickelsen, in their book 7 Powerful Strategies for
In-Depth and Longer-Lasting Learning, share the IIQEE strategy. It is similar to
a K-W-L, but it goes much deeper.
IIQEE Strategy
I think I know the following about the topic . . .
I am sure that I know the following . . .
Questions that I have about the topic (I want to learn) . . .
Experiences that I have had with this topic . . .
Experiences that my friend_________has had with the topic . . .
They also recommend using an “Activating Prior Knowledge Spinner.”
Tool 101: Spinner
What I like about this is that, although they provide some questions for
each number, such as facts you know if you spin a 1, you can create your own
questions and numbers on the spinner.
Tool 102: Sample Prompts

Sample Spinner Prompts
What I know or think I know
What I’m not sure about
Where I have read about this before
How it connects to one of my other classes
How it connects to my life
Anticipation Guides
Another way to assess and build prior knowledge is to provide an antici-
pation guide. You can use ones that are general or that are more specific.
Tool 103: Sample Reading Anticipation Guide

Topic or Chapter/Text
My Thought or Prediction Author’s Point Evidence or Page Number
Source: Adapted from www.readingrockets.org/strategies/anticipation_guide/
Tool 104: Topic Anticipation Guide

Name: _____________________ Block: _____________ Date:___________
Hero Anticipation Guide
Directions: Please complete the following chart according to your opin-
ions. You will not be graded on your opinions. There is not necessarily
one right answer, so answer honestly.
Agree Disagree Statement
_______ _______ 1. Heroes are always courageous.

_______ _______ 2. Courage always involves sacrifice.
_______ _______ 3. There are many acts of courage in a war.
_______ _______ 4. A hero is born that way and shows
heroism through his or her actions.
_______ _______ 5. A hero is always honest and law-abiding.
_______ _______ 6. Someone can be considered a hero only if
they win.
Agree Disagree Statement
_______ _______ 7. If a person does something heroic but

gets something out of doing it, then she
or he is not a hero.
_______ _______ 8. A hero is someone who is different than
the rest of society.
_______ _______ 9. A hero’s actions result in the greater good.
Source: Adapted from SpringBoard Curriculum
Anticipatory Guides can be used in any subject area.
Tool 105: Math Anticipation Guide

Anticipation guides can be used to activate prior knowledge of your students,
but they also allow insight into student thinking prior to a new text or topic.
Mathematics Example
Agree/Disagree Agree/Disagree
Content
Before the Lesson After the Lesson
A Right triangle can be

an isosceles triangle.
A Right triangle includes
one right angle.
A scalene triangle is one
with no equal sides.
Tool 106: Characteristics of Efective Anticipation Guides

Anticipation guides have been used in classrooms for over 40 years,
mainly because they are so effective. Ausubel, Novak, and Hanesian (1978)
originally described how to create a structured anticipatory guide. As you
plan the guide, keep in mind the following steps. Additionally, students must
be taught how to use the guide throughout their task.
Efective Anticipation Guides

• Inform the students of the use of an advance organizer.
• Identify the major topics and tasks.
• Provide an organizational framework.
• Clarify the action to be taken/completed.
• Provide background information.
• State concepts to be learned.
• Clarify concepts to be learned.
• Motivate students to learn through establishing relevance. Introduce
and identify new vocabulary.
• State general outcomes and objectives to be mastered.
Strategic Prior Knowledge

A specific type of prior knowledge is strategic knowledge. This is the
knowledge students have about learning strategies, such as listening or
working together. It’s important to teach this type of knowledge so students
can be successful in your class.
Tool 107: Paying Attention With the SLANT Model

For example, if your students are not paying attention, you can teach your stu-
dents the SLANT model. By learning the SLANT model, students learn how to
appear like they are paying attention, and, in turn, may improve their actual aca-
demic engaged time.
SLANT
Sit up
Lean forward
Act attentive using varied facial expressions
Nod when the person pauses, and
Track the speaker maintaining intermittent eye contact.
Source: Ellis, 1991

Tool 108: Teaching Students a Process

Student understanding is also needed when you expect students to com-
plete a process, a higher-order task, or a project. This often occurs when you
ask students to answer questions or complete a project that requires more
than just reciting facts, such as describing the causes of an event in history,
persuading the reader of a position, or explaining how to solve a math prob-
lem. Each type of question requires thinking related to specific strategies and
applying all those facts they memorized.
Chances are, your at-risk students don’t do well with these types of ques-
tions or similar assignments such as reports or projects. Again, don’t assume
that it’s because they don’t want to or just aren’t doing it. Many students sim-
ply don’t know how to do this correctly. As teachers, it is our job to activate or
provide background knowledge with content, as well as process. Let’s look at
a framework for making performance expectations explicit with higher-level
assignments. In our case, we’ll look at asking students to write an extended
response, or essay-type answer.
Start by discussing the assignment with students: “One task you’ll
need to complete to be successful in my class is to answer essay questions
appropriately. How many of you have written answers to essay questions
before?” “What did you have to do to make a good grade on them?” Discuss
the answers, clarifying misconceptions. Most of the time, you don’t grade
based on the number of sentences; that may reflect depth, but many times
it doesn’t.
Second, show a sample of a good or acceptable answer to a question. Be sure
to tell students this is an example you would consider good. Have students
read the sample or read it with them. Discuss what you are looking for in an
answer. It’s important that your expectations be clear. Before this class, decide
on your key criteria for what makes a good answer, and state those in terms
that are understandable to students.
Discuss what you are looking for: “Just as there are discipline rules in a
school to ensure order and acceptable behavior, there are basic procedures
to follow to be successful with learning. First, you need to answer the ques-
tion. Sometimes students will put in extra information that doesn’t answer
the question, because they think they need more words or sentences. That
can actually make your answer worse.” Continue to describe other rules.
“Just as a reminder, for the first few weeks of school, I will post the pro-
cedures.” Show the poster on your wall that lists the criteria and provides
visual reinforcement.
Third, gently discuss the differences between your procedures and
their experiences. Don’t tell your students they are wrong; explain that you
want them to understand what they need to do to be successful in your

class: “You’ll notice that my rules are a little different from what you told
me you did last year. Although you can’t really answer my questions with
just a sentence or two, I don’t just count the number of words or sentences.
I look at whether you actually answered the question, whether or not you
gave at least three examples to support your answer, and so on. I know this
may be a little different, so let’s see what that actually looks like.” Show a
sample answer on the board, the overhead, or in a handout and point out
exactly how the sample meets your expectations. Be sure to give specific
examples.
Fourth, give students another sample answer, preferably on a handout.
Pair students and have them read the answer and decide whether it follows
the rules. You might even have them guess the grade, but I usually start just
with satisfactory or not satisfactory rather than A, B, or C. Lead a whole-class
discussion, going to each of your rules and asking students whether the sam-
ple meets the rule and why or why not: “Let’s talk about how this answer
matches the criteria. The first guideline is that a question should answer the
question. The question was [insert sample here]. Does this answer actually
answer that?” Students respond. “Can you tell me where exactly in the essay
it answers the question?” Again, allow students to respond.
Fifth, using the same process, provide a second example to give students
another chance to practice looking for good responses. As they write their
own answers, explain that they need to do the same things. If students are
hung up on particular misconceptions such as always needing three para-
graphs, give them a model that does so but is bad in other ways so they can
see the difference in criteria.
Sixth, give them a question to answer, reminding them that they should
complete the answer using your rules. Pick a simple question; your focus in
this lesson is on the process of writing a good answer rather than demonstrat-
ing they understand new content. That is ultimately your desired result, but
let’s do the basics first. Remember, if students don’t know where they want
to go (a good response), they also don’t know how to walk (how to get there).
Finally, have them either write down the guidelines from your poster
or give them a writer’s checklist to use as they complete their short essay.
During the next lesson or the next day, review the rules with your students
through an interactive discussion. As you go through each rule, ask them to
look at their own essays to check if they followed the rule. Have them phys-
ically check each rule on the paper or the checklist. Then pair them up again
to check each other’s papers, again rule by rule, while you move around the
room monitoring their work. Give them the chance to rewrite their answers
before they turn them in for a grade.
Working through this process with your students takes several days and
may need to be revisited throughout the year. Also, the use of rubrics sup-
ports this process. Providing students with a clear set of clarifying statements
for each criterion on your procedures chart can help them improve their writ-
ing throughout the year.
Tool 109: Think Alouds

A useful scaffolding technique is a think-aloud. A think-aloud is a teacher
verbalizing his or her thoughts and reasoning when solving a problem, mak-
ing sense of text, or completing a task. In math, it may be explaining stepwise
reasoning. (See the following example from Brad Witzel—Blackburn & Wit-
zel, 2021.) In reading, it may be stopping during reading and checking com-
prehension, asking questions, or making predictions.
A think-aloud is one of the most positive scaffolding strategies you can

use. Struggling students need to understand the thought process used in
solving problems or reading a text. Without a think-aloud, it’s simply a code
they don’t know how to unlock.
Tool 110: Guide-o-Ramas With Text

Whether you are asking students to read a type of test or view multimedia,
you will also want to model your thinking. It’s important to provide a guide.
Otherwise, students won’t know what to look for. These can be detailed or
more general. If you blend a think-aloud with study guide notes, it is very
effective for students to use in group, partner, or individual work. Guide-o-
Ramas combine a study guide with your modeling.
Using Guide-O-Ramas
Europe: War and Change—Chapter 12 (Sections 12.1–12.2)
Page Reading Tip
326 Look at the map. This gives you an idea of where Europe is in
relation to the United States.
327 Read the introduction in the yellow box. Can you believe that
most Europeans can speak at least three languages? Can you
speak any languages other than English?
329–332 Read section 12.1. Pay close attention to the terms nationalism,
colonialism, and dual monarchy. They are related and can be
confusing!
334–338 As you read this section carefully, make a timeline of which
countries joined the war and record the dates when each joined.
335 I found it interesting that dogs were used in the war to detect
mines and guard ammunition! Do you think this is humane?
336 Pay close attention to the term fascism. How does this compare
to what you know about communism and democracy?
Tool 111: Guide-o-Rama for Videos

In addition to using a guide-o-rama with text, you can use it with videos,
especially if you want students to view it outside of your classroom.
Guide-o-Rama
Ratios (https://youtu.be/UxWsY59NVgc)
Time # Reading Tip
0 seconds What do you already know about ratios? Before I watch a

video, I also write down what I’m confused about or what
I want to learn.
15 seconds How does the tutor define ratios? How does it compare
to your thoughts? For me, sometimes it doesn’t match, so
I know I need to pay extra attention to the video.
51 seconds The first time I watched this, I was a little confused because
writing a ratio looks exactly like writing a fraction. Did this
confuse you?
1:40 Stop and think for a minute. Is this making sense? If it is
confusing, you might want to back up the video now and
re-watch it. I’ve found that it helps me to stop when I don’t
understand a step rather than waiting until the end.
Tool 112: Building a Guide-o-Rama

There are several key principles to developing a guide-o-rama.
How to Build a Guide-o-Rama
1. Identify a chunk of content you need students to read or view. Guide-o-

Ramas should be used with challenging texts that you anticipate students
will struggle with or with videos that may need structure.
2. Determine guiding questions that will help them process key portions
of the text or video, similar to what you would use in a traditional study
guide.
3. Add “think-aloud” comments, such as, “Notice that on page 56, there is a
key that explains what the map symbols represent. When I see a box of text
in the margin of the text, I pay special attention since it usually contains
important information.” These are typically statements and/or questions
that you would verbally use to model your thinking for students.
4. Use visuals that will help students remember the content. For example, if
students are learning about the characteristics of two countries, give them
a graphic organizer that has outlines of the two countries rather than a
simple chart.
5. Keep in mind that your goal is twofold: help students process and
understand the complex text and move toward independence in learning.
You may choose to use a guide that is less structured, which requires stu-
dents to narrow down the information from the source.
Tool 113: Broader Viewing Guide
Viewing Guide for______________________________

What are the key points What examples are What questions do you
in the video? given for each of the have?
main points?
What is the most

important thing you
learned from the video?
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are simply a visual way for students to organize their
learning. They are particularly effective when students are working inde-
pendently and need a way to chunk information, whether that is in a physical
or remote classroom. One of the things I like about graphic organizers is that
you can find a wide variety to meet a range of needs, and you can adapt them
for your own needs.
Tool 114: Vocabulary Graphic Organizer

A high school foreign language teacher shared a word wheel, which
allows her guide her students through the process of understanding a vocab-
ulary word.
Tool 115: Word Cards

Marilee Sprenger, in The Essential 25: Teaching the Vocabulary That Makes or
Breaks Student Understanding, shares a way to assess a student’s vocabulary
knowledge. She gives students a set of word cards, and they are to place them
in the appropriate category: I don’t know it yet; I’ve seen it or heard it, but
I don’t know what it means; I know what it means; or I’ve used it before in
speaking or writing. With a simple glance, the teacher can assess individual
students, as well as determining the needs of the whole class.
Tool 116: Using Evidence to Support Your Thoughts

A critical aspect of rigor is providing evidence for your thoughts and
comments, and then moving beyond the text for analysis.
Statement or Claim
Evidence Evidence Evidence
Analysis
So What? (Connections to Real Life)
Tool 117: Elementary Graphic Organizer

You can also use a graphic organizer to encourage justifying thoughts and
responses with evidence that is appropriate for elementary students.
What I Said Why I Said It What It Means
Tool 118: Social Studies Graphic Organizer

This graphic organizer, from an upper elementary school teacher, helps
students organize basic information they can better use with higher-order
thinking activities.
Time Period
People Places Events
Most Important Thing I Learned

Tool 119: PERSIA Graphic

In my book, Rigor in the 6–12 English/Language Arts and Social Studies
Classroom, Melissa Miles and I provided a PERSIA graphic for high school
students. It was designed to look at the political, economic, religious, social,
intellectual, and area (geographic) aspects of an event.
Infuence
Political
Ge Ar
In gra /
no ce
f
o ea
Event
c
ue phic
mi
Ec fuen
nc al
e
o
In
Int fue
ue us
In
ell nc
e
Inf ligio
nc
ec e
tua
Re
l
Social
Infuence
Alan Hosley, the Georgia academic coach I mentioned in Chapter 2, rede-

signed the graphic using circles so his students could see the connections in
a different way.
Political Infuence
Ge
e
og
nc
ra Ar
ue
p
nf
hic ea /
I
al
ic
Event
om
Inf
ue
on
nc
Ec
e
ce
Int
uen
elle
Inf
ctu
al I
ous
nfu
ligi
en
Re
ce
Social Infuence
You might also consider using something similar to overlapping Olympic

circles if your content lends itself to that.
Math
Tool 120: Math Word Problems

Many students struggle with math word problems. There are a variety of
organizers that can help students process word problems. Let’s look at one
that focuses students’ attentions on the key aspects of the problem-solving
process.
What is the answer?
What is missing?
What is the question?
What do you know?

Tool 121: Pythagorean Theorem

At the upper grades, it is equally important to help students organize
critical information. In the Pythagorean Theorem sample, students classify
and categorize key facts. Additionally, the use of right triangles in the graphic
reinforces the theorem.
Sample Pythagorean Theorem

a2+b2+c2
a=
b=
c=
Use the Pythagorean
Theorem
to
When solving for When solving for When solving for

“a” “c” “b”
To find the missing leg or hypotenuse...................

Science
Tool 122: Science Experiment Steps

Oftentimes, we ask students to follow steps and complete an experiment.
The beaker organizer guides them through this process.
My Question
Materials I Need
Steps to Follow
What I Observed/Learned
Tool 123: High School Science

Moving to older students, you can use the beaker as a guide for a more
rigorous assignment.
Why This Is
Important/Rationale
Design Experiment
Develop Research
Question
Other Subject Areas

You can customize graphic organizers to your specific subject area.
Tool 124: Music Graphic Organizer
Reworking Tests
Many students struggle with tests. If our purpose is for students to demon-
strate their understanding of content, we can provide support by allowing
them to retake tests or rework incorrect problems.
Kendra also uses mini-assessments after each test. If you look at Kend-
ra’s assessment, she immediately goes over the answers, and students must
identify what items they missed and why. This shifts the focus from what
they did wrong to what they are learning. It also requires they actually learn
the material rather than simply moving on without revisiting their mistakes.
Tool 125: Mini-Assessment
Christy, another of my former graduate students from South Carolina,

adapted the form for a math classroom.
Tool 126: Math Mini-Assessment
Reworking Tests
Why I missed the question on the original test: (circle one)
I didn’t understand the question.
I thought I had it right.
I skipped a step.
I studied it, but I forgot it.
I had no clue about this.
I ran out of time or guessed.
I made a careless mistake.
Why I know I have the right answer now: (write your response below)
Diferentiated Instruction
Another critical scaffolding tool is the use of differentiated instruction. As
you provide different ways of learning the content for different groups of stu-
dents, whether they are grouped by readiness or interest, they are more likely
to be successful. For your reference, I am providing instruction for three lev-
els of students: struggling students, students working on level, and advanced
students. Let’s start with an elementary reading lesson excerpt.
Tool 127: Sample Elementary Diferentiated Lesson

Elementary School Reading Excerpt: Reading a Story
Teacher previews a picture book for all students, pointing out key elements
and any new vocabulary. Then, he or she reads the book aloud, stopping to
ask questions as appropriate. You will need copies for all students.
Struggling Students Standard Advanced Students
Teacher meets with Students work as book Students can choose

students in small buddies to re-read the to work individually
group. Teacher re- book. They can read or with a partner to
reads the book aloud, silently, use choral re-read the book. Then,
stopping to ask reading, or they write a paragraph
Teacher previews a picture book for all students, pointing out key elements
and any new vocabulary. Then, he or she reads the book aloud, stopping to
ask questions as appropriate. You will need copies for all students.
Struggling Students Standard Advanced Students
additional focused take turns. Next, they that summarizes the

questions to ensure work together using book. Finally, they
comprehension. a reading guide to describe how the book
Together, the group answer questions and applies to a real-life
writes a short summary summarize the book. situation (they can
of the book. change the ending; put
themselves in the story,
etc.).
Source: Typically, other application activities would follow, including writing activities.
Next, let’s look at a more detailed lesson for the math classroom.
Tool 128: Fractions Diferentiated Lesson

Differentiated Lesson Incorporating Rigor
The teacher starts with activating prior knowledge and a review of proper
fractions, such as 2/3, then continues with a discussion of mixed numbers
(1 1/3) with examples of each type of fraction. Next, students briefly practice
identifying the two types by circling mixed given a list of fractions. Some
students work alone, others work with a partner, and the teacher may pull
a small group for extra instruction. After they have completed this activity,
students generate a T-chart of proper fractions and mixed numbers. Some
students are given a list of fractions to categorize on the chart; others generate
their own. Although these are Level One activities, they are likely necessary
for students to move forward. Minimal tiering was used in this part of the
lesson.
The teacher then shifts to solving problems using both proper fractions
and mixed numbers. He or she follows a process similar to the one described
previously. Next, students are provided structured tiered tasks, building to
rigorous tasks in the second activity.
Small Group Activity One
Struggling Students Standard Students Advanced Students
Teacher works with Students work in Students create word

small group to review pairs to apply the problems using proper
whole class instruction; information by creating fractions and mixed
then they are guided new algorithms using numbers. Problems
through the process proper fractions and must include multiple
of generating their mixed numbers. They steps and require
own mixed numbers switch problems with a solving at least two
and solving simple second pair and solve algorithms.
algorithms. the problems.
They switch problems
With guidance, Next, each pair chooses with another person
students solve one an algorithm and uses or pair and solve the
simple word problem it to create a word problem.
that uses proper problem.
fractions and mixed
numbers.
Small Group Activity Two
With guidance, Students are provided Students are provided

students are given two a set of three word a set of four word
simple word problems problems that include problems that include
that include proper proper fractions and proper fractions and
fractions and mixed mixed numbers which mixed numbers which
numbers. The problems have been solved. They have been solved.
include the solution. are told that one of the They are told that
They identify which of problems is incorrect. some of the problems
the two word problems They are asked to is incorrect, but the
is not solved correctly identify which of the number is not specified.
and why. word problems is not They are asked to
solved correctly, solve identify which of the
the problem correctly, word problems is not
and explain why the solved correctly, solve
original problem was the problem correctly,
not correct, as well and explain why the
The small group is as describing their original problem was

divided into two solution and why it is not correct, as well as
groups. With guidance accurate. providing a written
from the teacher, each description of their
group creates their own Next, students create solution and why it is
set of two problems, their own set of two accurate.
one of which is not problems, one of which
correct. They swap sets is not correct. They Next, students create
with the other group, swap sets with another their own set of four
who must follow student, who must problems, two of which
the same process as follow the same process are not correct. They
previously. as previously. swap sets with another
student, who must
follow the same process
as previously.
Third, let’s view a content literacy example for science that can also be
used across other content areas.
Tool 129: Content Literacy Diferentiated Lesson
Small Group Activity One

Students are given an Students read the Students read an article

article on the same grade-level article. on the same topic that
topics that is written A standard “Thinking is written at a higher
at a lower reading Notes” is provided that level than the standard
level than the standard students can choose to text.
text. Using a detailed use.
“Thinking Notes” (see Next, they answer
subsequently), they Next, they answer comprehension
read the text, with the comprehension questions.
teacher’s assistance as questions.
needed.
Next, they answer

comprehension
questions, which are
provided in advance.
Students read the Students read a second Students read a

grade-level article. article, one that is complementary article
While reading the written at a higher on the same topic that
lower-level text, level. A standard is written at a higher
students have “Thinking Notes” is level than the standard
built vocabulary provided if they need it. text.
and background
knowledge, ensuring Next, they answer Next, they answer
they are more comprehension comprehension
successful with the questions, which questions, which
grade-level text. Using include opportunities include opportunities
a detailed “Thinking to compare and to compare and
Notes,” they read the contrast information. contrast information.
text, with the teacher’s
assistance as needed.
Next, they answer

comprehension
questions, which
include opportunities
to compare and
contrast information.
Class Discussion
Students choose one Students may work Students choose an issue,

of the identified issues individually or in pairs. either one identified
related to oceans. After choosing an in class or another one
Appropriate resources issue related to oceans, based on their research
are provided. With the students research the (a minimum of three
teacher’s guidance, they topic in more depth. appropriate sources).
create a three-column They find at least two Individually, students
chart with the headings sources, one of which is create a research
of: issue, how changes an editorial, website or question, describe an
have affected people, promotional materials appropriate
Class Discussion
and how they would for an advocacy group, investigation approach,

address the situation. or some other type of and justify why their
opinion about the issue. investigation needs to
Students write a occur and how it will
narrative explaining Next, they evaluate impact society.
how the issue is the credibility of
impacting oceans, their opinion piece,
including justification comparing it to the
for their points. factual information
found in other sources.
They may also propose
a solution for the issue, Finally, they write a
with details. critique of the editorial,
website or promotional
materials, or other type
of opinion. The critique
should include their
opinion as well as a
justification of their
points, which includes
factual information.
They conclude with
their own opinion as to
a solution as well as an
explanation of it.
Tool 130: Diferentiated Learning Through Learning Centers

Learning centers are popular in primary classrooms, but they are appro-
priate at all levels. In addition to providing differentiation for students, the
independent nature of the work helps them take responsibility for their own
learning. If your classroom has an appropriate setup, provide learning sta-
tions around the room with different activities all related to the same topic.
Christy also chooses to use folders for learning centers to enhance the
small-group activities she utilizes in her classroom:
At each center there are four different folders, with a number (one
through four). When it is center time, if a child sits at a one in his or
her group, then he or she may choose a center and complete the activ-
ity in folder number one at that center. If a child sits at the three spot in
his or her group, then during center time, he or she may choose a cen-
ter and complete the activity in the folder number three at that center.
When preparing activities for each center, I make sure that the concept
for all four folders is the same. For example, at center number one, ev-
eryone may be working on concepts that involve order of operations.
However, the level of difficulty varies based on the folder number.
Folders one and two are basic activities, and folders three and four
are enrichment activities. This arrangement allows me to challenge
the higher-level students and do some remediation for the lower level
students. Some centers are set up so that ones and fours work together
and twos and threes work together. Although my ones and twos are
low, I still want to challenge them. Therefore, on challenging activi-
ties, I pair them with the higher-performing students so that they can
help and support each other.
Working With Students With Special Needs

Working with students with special needs can present a variety of chal-
lenges. However, just because a student is labeled learning disabled or at risk,
it does not mean he or she is incapable of learning. Students with learning
disabilities have average to above-average intelligence. Therefore, ensuring
their success in school is a matter of finding the appropriate teaching strate-
gies and motivation tools, all of which we can control as teachers.
Dealing With Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is a process of conditioning in which students seek
help from others even when they have mastered information. See if this
example sounds familiar:
A student is asked to solve a direct reading-comprehension problem,

but he immediately raises his hand. When the teacher comes over, the
student says he needs help. So the teacher reads the paragraph to the
student and re-explains the question. The student still doesn’t answer
the question. Next, the teacher re-explains a regularly used compre-
hension strategy with the student. Finally, the teacher walks through
the strategy and may even solve the problem for the student.
While this teacher’s approach sounds justifiable, and maybe even familiar,
the teacher is reinforcing the student’s learned helplessness. This exchange
undermines the student’s independent ability to solve the problem. Other
behaviors that continue a student’s learned helplessness include an increased
time of completion, lack of academic perseverance, refusal to initiate an
attempt, and general off-task behavior. Thus, once a student has begun a run
of learned helplessness, expect to see the behaviors repeatedly. In the previ-
ous scenario, the student must learn to attend to the teacher’s group instruc-
tion and attempt to solve problems.
Instead of running to the rescue of students who can succeed without us
or even refusing to help such students, it is important to find ways to teach
students to gain independence in their problem solving. In other words, find
out why the student is behaving in a certain way and plan a response that
best builds academic success and independence. One way to help is to teach
students how to learn and succeed without instantly making excuses and
asking for help by following seven steps.
Tool 131: Steps for Working With Learned Helplessness
Steps for Working With Learned Helplessness

Determine if learned helplessness exists.
Explicitly model the preferred academic behavior.
Teach the student a strategy for displaying the preferred academic behavior.
Provide practice for the strategy.
Set a cue to remind the student to initiate the strategy.
Allow the student to succeed.
Facilitate the student’s problem-solving strategy.
Source: Blackburn and Witzel, 2021
Tool 132: Modifcations and Accommodations

Many times we use the term modification interchangeably with accommo-
dation. However, they are very different. A modification is a change in the
content of curricular standards; an accommodation is a tool to help one reach
the standard. Here are samples of each to help with understanding.
Potential Accommodations and Modifcations
Potential Accommodations Potential Modifcations
Extra wait time Altered grading procedures

Procedure clarification Alternative (but related) standard
Minimize classroom distractions during lesson
Homework reminders and planners Different reading assignments
Weekly progress report and home Different questions
checks Alternative assessment content and/
Increased 1:1 assistance or expectations
Classroom signals for attention Elimination of parts of assignments
Guided notes if they remove a standard
Break lengthy assignments into Calculator during math fluency
smaller, more manageable pieces assignment
with intermediate deadlines Altered grading procedures
Alternative but related standard
during lesson
Different reading assignments if
reading is being assessed
Source: Blackburn and Witzel (2021)
Tool 133: Schema-Based Problem Solving

In the last few years, math research has concentrated on word problem
solving for good reason. Many of the questions asked on statewide exams
are word problems, and far too many students struggle with such exams and
problem solving in general. To help students through word problem solv-
ing, it is important to first set up a problem solving approach. Brad Witzel,
my co-author on two special education books, recommends the three-step
cognitive strategy (Say, Ask, Check) which aids self-regulation through the
problem-solving process (Montague, 2007), which has proven effective over
the years. Using this process, the student reasons through each problem to
determine the type of problem, sets up an attack approach to the problem,
then solves the problem.
Tool 134: Say-Ask-Check
Say-Ask-Check
Say The student reads the problem while asking herself if she
understands the information being presented.
Ask The student builds an internal dialogue through questioning
herself about the information, such as “What is the question
asking?” and “How do I use the information in the problem to
answer the question?” The student may even paraphrase the
word problem to see if the information is presented in a manner
she understands.
Check The student compares her answer to the question that was posed.
This cognitive strategy will help students with self-regulation as they

tackle problems systematically (Blackburn and Witzel, 2021).
Tool 135: Technology for Specifc Support

Technology can also support students with special needs. For students
with a learning disability, they can use Screencasting, Nearpod, or FlipGrid
in a writing lesson. Each allows students to record themselves on any device,
explaining their answer to a prompt or understanding of a text. Remember, the
answers don’t always have to come in the form of writing. Students who strug-
gle with reading could use Microsoft Learning tools as a platform to break
texts apart or have them read aloud to build fluency, confidence, and compre-
hension, or Newsela and Freckle offer reading platforms that provide options
for teachers to assign the same text with the same content but at various Lexile
levels. Finally, Google extensions such as Read and Write for Google or read-
ability, voice typing tools, or the text-to-speech Chrome extension can assist
you as you are creating ways to meet students’ individual education plans.
Working With English Language Learners

English Language Learners (ELLs) also have specific needs. Although all
of the learning supports in this chapter can help you address any issues, there
are two other tools that are particularly helpful.
Tool 136: Use of Visuals

The use of visuals, which can be helpful for all struggling learners, is espe-
cially important with English Language Learners. Many teachers use Word
Walls, where they post important vocabulary on a wall or bulletin board.
I was in an ELL classroom that capitalized on this strategy but took it to
another level. A piece of paper was folded in half, and the word was written
on the outside. Lift up the paper, and you would find a graphic representing
the word. Just this little change made a huge difference for the ELL students.
Tool 137: Use of Language

It is important to note that our language as teachers is also important.
Whenever possible, simplify your instructions and streamline your questions
so that a student’s native language does not interfere as much. Additionally,
especially for those ELLs who are struggling with English, ask questions that
require them to complete a thought rather than generate a new idea. Begin-
ning with this type of question helps them build confidence and a strong base
for future learning. Many teachers use frames, such as the following one, to
provide structure for ELL students.
Tool 138: Sentence Frame
If I did this in the science experiment . . . I think this would happen . . . and
that would mean . . .
It’s also important to use appropriate wait time, since our non-native lan-
guage speakers may need more time to process their answer.
Tool 139: Technology for ELL Students

Technology can help students who are struggling to learn at higher lev-
els. For example, English learners are often given simplified activities due to
the language barrier. However, their lack of knowledge in speaking or writ-
ing English does not mean their growth in math, science, or other subjects
should be stifled. Technology offers a wide array of constantly evolving tools
to support students who learn differently. Discovery Education online allows
students the opportunity to read, watch, and learn in their native language
while they are learning English. Google Translate can take any text and con-
vert it to one of 300 languages so that students can still access the content and
learn at a high level.
Other Groups With Specifc Needs

Although I cannot fully address each group of students for whom there
are special concerns, before we finish the chapter, let’s quickly look at four
groups I am often asked about.
Gifted Students
Underachievers
Autistic Students
Students With ADD/ADHD
Gifted Students
You may be thinking, “This is a chapter about struggling students. Why is
she writing about gifted learners?” I find that gifted students can also strug-
gle, particularly when they are bored or uninterested or they perceive that the
teacher or their peers are less than competent. Here are some tips for working
with gifted students to keep them from struggling.
Tool 140: Tips for Teaching Gifted Students
Ten Tips for Teaching Gifted Students

1. Get to know their interests.
2. Let them talk about current events.
3. Don’t force them to listen to something they already know.
4. Get them involved in groupwork.
5. Connect them with other gifted students.
Source: https://classful.com/16-tips-for-teaching-gifted-students/
Underachievers
Do you teach any underachievers? These are students who have the
potential to achieve at high levels, but they never reach that potential. Their
parents are often highly successful and are very involved in their children’s
lives. Students who are underachievers use elaborate defense mechanisms
to protect themselves from the anxiety of failing. It’s often easier to give up,
or not try at all, than it is to try and fail. Once again, Thompson provides us
some tips for working with this group of students.
Tool 141: Working With Underachievers
Working With Underachievers

1. Accept that these students’ shortcomings are not
the result of laziness, even though they may see
themselves as lazy and worthless.
2. Work with parents, but be aware that
overinvolvement can sometimes increase a
student’s anxiety.
3. Strive to make assignments so appealing that all
students will want to do them. Underachievers
need extra motivation. They seldom find the work
intrinsically interesting.
4. Don’t expect your underachieving students to be
more than briefly motivated by their own success.
5. Work out a plan to guarantee that work will be
turned in on time. Underachievers often do not turn
in work even when they have completed it.
6. Use a checklist of steps to accomplish the assignment.
7. Teach study skills, time management, and
organization strategies.
8. Be matter of fact about assignments. Don’t show
emotion or frustration.
9. Be positive and supportive.
10. Be aware that underachievers seldom ask for help.
Be proactive in offering assistance.
11. Offer frequent and unobtrusive encouragement to
help them move past their perfectionist approach
12. Don’t accept excuses such as, “I’m just lazy” or
“I never do well in math.”
Students With Autism

Who exactly are students with autism? There are stereotypes that abound,
but autism is a part of many teachers’ lives through the students they teach.
In many cases, students with high-functioning autism are in the regular class-
room. What is autism? WebMD provides the medical definition.
Autism is a brain disorder in which communication and interaction

with others are difficult. The symptoms of autism may range from to-
tal lack of communication with others to difficulty in understanding
others’ feelings. Because of the range of symptoms, this condition is
now called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). High-functioning autism
(HFA) is at one end of the ASD spectrum. Signs and symptoms are less
severe than with other forms of autism. In fact, a person with high-
functioning autism usually has average or above-average intelligence.
Then, how do we work with students who have autism, particularly if

they are high functioning? The Georgia Department of Education provides
guidelines.
Tool 142: Tips for Working With Students With Autism
17 Tips for Teaching High Functioning Students With Autism

1. People with autism have trouble with organizational skills, regardless
of their intelligence and/or age. Always praise the student when he
remembers something he has previously forgotten. Never denigrate or
“harp” at him when he fails. Attempt to train him in organizational skills
using small, specific steps.
2. People with autism have problems with abstract and conceptual thinking.
Be as concrete as possible in all your interactions with these students.
3. An increase in unusual or difficult behaviors probably indicates an
increase in stress. Sometimes stress is caused by feeling a loss of control.
Many times the stress will only be alleviated when the student physically
removes himself from the stressful event or situation
4. Do not take misbehavior personally. The high-functioning person with
autism is not a manipulative, scheming person who is trying to make like
difficult. They are seldom, if ever, capable of being manipulative. Usually
misbehavior is the result of efforts to survive experiences which may be
confusing, disorienting, or frightening.
5. Use and interpret speech literally. Until you know the capabilities of the
individual, you should avoid:
*Idioms * Double meanings * Sarcasm * Nicknames * “Cute” names (pal,
buddy)
6. Remember that facial expressions and other social cues may not work.
Most individuals with autism have difficulty reading facial expressions
and interpreting “body language.”
7. If the student doesn’t seem to be learning a task, break it down into
smaller steps, or present the task in several ways (e.g., visually, verbally,
physically).
8. Avoid verbal overload. Be clear. Use shorter sentences.
9. Prepare the student for all environmental changes and/or changes in
routine. Use a visual or written schedule to prepare him for change.
10. Behavior management works, but if incorrectly used, it can encourage
robot-like behavior, provide only short term behavior change, or result
in some form of aggression. Use positive and chronologically age-
appropriate behavior procedures.
11. Consistent treatment and expectations from everyone are vital.
12. Normal levels of auditory and visual input can be perceived by the
student as too much or too little. For example, the hum of florescent
lighting is extremely distracting for some people with autism. Consider
environmental changes such as removing “visual clutter” from the
room or seating changes if the student seems distracted or upset by his
classroom environment.
13. If your high-functioning student with autism uses repetitive verbal
arguments and/or repetitive verbal questions, you need to interrupt
what can become a continuing, repetitive litany. Continually responding
in a logical manner or arguing back seldom stops this behavior.
14. Try requesting that he write down the question or argumentative
statement. This usually begins to calm him down and stops the repetitive
activity. Then write down your reply.
15. If your class involves pairing off or choosing partners, either draw
numbers or use some other arbitrary means of pairing. These students
could benefit most from having a partner.
16. Assume nothing when assessing skills. For example, the individual with
autism may be a “math whiz” in algebra but not able to make simple
change at a cash register. Or he may have an incredible memory about
books he has read, speeches he has heard, or sports statistics but still
may not be able to remember to bring a pencil to class. Uneven skills
development is a hallmark of autism.
Students With Attention Defcit Disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that appears
in young children. You may know it by the name attention deficit disorder, or
ADD. ADD/ADHD makes it difficult for people to inhibit their spontaneous
responses, whether that is verbally or physically. Not every child has ADD/
ADHD, but if they show symptoms across all environments, it is important

to consider. You likely have a student with ADD/ADHD in your classroom.
What specific strategies are helpful for them?
Tool 143: Strategies for Working With ADD/ADHD Students

Strategies for Working With ADD/ADHD Students
Teach school success skills (such as taking notes or
following directions).
Clearly defne classroom procedures.
Monitor them unobtrusively by placing them near
you.
Give them extra assistance during transition times.
Give directions one step at a time.
Give students copies of particularly difcult text with
key parts highlighted.
Ofer alternative auditory modes of learning.
Encourage computer use.
Review frequently.
Source: Thompson, J. G. (2013). The first-year teacher’s survival guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tool 144: Extra Help

No matter how much scaffolding you provide before, during, and after a
lesson, some students still need more support. They either need more time,
or they need one-on-one instruction. Most teachers I know provide this extra
help for students, possibly before or after school. However, there’s a small
problem with extra help. Too often, the students who need it the most don’t
take advantage of your offer. This may be due to logistical issues, but far
more often, students don’t ask for extra help because they don’t know they
need it.
For example, Ronnie, one of my students, would leave my class at the end
of the day sure he understood our lesson. The next day, he came in, home-
work incomplete, unable to explain anything we had done the day before.
No matter how often I offered to provide help, he turned me down. He said,
“I understand it,” even when he didn’t. He truly didn’t know that he didn’t
understand—and that is a typical problem.
For our neediest students, we need to require extra help—not make it a

volunteer experience. I find this needs to be coordinated school-wide during
the school day or it simply isn’t manageable. In my case, we used our lunch-
time for extra help. A teacher could identify a student who needed assistance,
and he or she would bring his or her lunch to a study room and work with
a teacher. That may not be your best option, but I would encourage you to
work with your administration and other teachers to find a way to provide
mandatory extra help for struggling learners.
A Final Note
Providing a wide range of support for your students is a nec-
essary part of helping students achieve rigorous learning. This
includes general support for all students, as well as specific sup-
port for students with special needs and other specific needs.

in your classroom?
6
Options for Assessment
In this chapter, we’ll discuss facets of assessment in a rigorous classroom.

Although summative assessments in the form of standardized testing are
important, we’ll focus on areas that are more within your control. We’ll look
at five main topics.
Formative Assessment
Quality Assignments
Feedback
Homework
Grading
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is one of the hottest buzzwords in education today.
A Google search nets over a quarter of a million hits! I strongly believe that if
we are going to truly support our students to higher levels, we must continu-
ally assess their learning and use that information to plan our future instruc-
tion. In 2004, Black, Wiliam, and other researchers provided an in-depth
explanation of formative assessment in Working Inside the Black Box: Assess-
ment for Learning in the Classroom. This work has been cited in thousands of
other articles and books.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-6
Assessment for learning is any assessment for which the first priority
in its design and practice is to serve the purpose of promoting pupils’
learning. It thus differs from assessment designed primarily to serve the
purposes of accountability or of ranking or of certifying competence. An
assessment activity can help learning if it provides information to be used
as feedback, by teachers, and by their pupils, in assessing themselves and
each other, to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they
are engaged.
What does that mean to you as you consider your current assessments,
whether they are tests, projects, homework, or a mix of items? Let’s back up
for a minute. Many assessments used in classrooms are summative. In other
words, they are used to evaluate a student. We will discuss that more in terms
of grading later in this chapter. However, formative assessments are used to
help a student and teacher adjust to improve learning.
Tool 145: Characteristics of Formative Assessment

In Advancing Formative Assessment in Every Classroom: A Guide For Instruc-
tional Leaders (2nd Edition), Brookhart and Moss describe the characteristics of
formative assessment.
Characteristics of Formative Assessment
Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning)
Purpose: To improve learning and achievement

Carried out while learning is in progress.
Focused on the learning process and progress.
Viewed as an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
Collaborative—Teachers and students know where they are headed,
understand the learning needs, and use assessment information as feedback
to guide and adapt what they do to meet those needs.
Fluid—An ongoing process influenced by student need and teacher feedback.
Teachers and students adopt the role of intentional learners.
Teachers and students use the evidence they gather to make adjustments for
continuous improvement.
Options for Assessment ◆ 125
Tool 146: Transformative Assessment

In another classic book, James Popham (2008) notes that true formative assess-
ment is actually transformative. He describes four levels of implementation.
Let’s take a look at Level 3 of Popham’s transformative assessment,

which represents a complete change in the culture of a classroom,
shifting the overriding role of classroom assessment from the means
to compare students with one another for grade assignments to the
means to generate evidence from which teachers and students can, if
warranted, adjust what they’re doing.
(p. ix)
Level Three of Popham’s Transformative Assessment
Area From To
Learning Expectations Substantial learning Substantial learning will

will occur for occur for all students,
motivated students irrespective of their
who possess adequate academic aptitude.
academic aptitude.
Responsibility for The teacher, as prime Students assume
Learning instructional mover, meaningful responsibility
is chiefly responsible for their own learning
for students’ learning. and the learning of their
classmates.
Role of Classroom Formal tests generate Formal and informal
Assessment data for comparing assessments generate data
students and for informing adjustments
assigning grades. to the teacher’s instruction
and the students’ learning
tactics.
Source: Popham, 2008, p. 95
Teacher-Directed Formative Assessment

There are a variety of ways you can direct formative assessment through-
out the lesson. In fact, many of the activities throughout this book can be used
as formative assessment if you pay attention to how students are learning

and make adjustments based on what you see. But there are several other
methods you can use.
Tool 147: Demonstrating Understanding Through Four Corners

Four Corners is an excellent way to work through multiple-choice ques-
tions. After discussing the question, students choose their answer by going to
one of the corners of your room. Then, ask students to discuss their answers
in the small groups. Next, share out to the large group and give students
an opportunity to change their selection. It’s a visible way to see students’
understanding and allow for immediate feedback on learning.
Tool 148: Demonstrating Understanding Through Pair/Shares

Another way to use formative assessment is through pair/share or
think/pair/share. Periodically, ask students to stop, turn to a partner, and
answer a question. This allows each student to think about the content and
to discuss an answer. Then, you can ask a couple of pairs to share their
response. Additionally, a simple way to make this more rigorous is to ask
a student to share their partner’s response with the whole group rather
than sharing their own. This requires students to listen at a higher level
during the pair/share, as well as understanding the partner’s answer well
enough to share it with the group. Pair/share allows you to monitor stu-
dents’ understanding of the lesson at points throughout the lesson, ensur-
ing comprehension.
Students’ Refections
A different type of formative assessment is student reflections. In this case,
students think about their own learning and provide feedback to the teacher
about what they think they know and don’t know. We discussed entrance and
exit slips in Chapter 4, “Increasing Complexity,” and they are an excellent
example of this concept. However, students may also reflect on how they are
learning or their confidence level about understanding the content. Let’s look
at examples of both.
Tool 149: Refecting on What I Know

There are many informal ways to have students reflect on what they
have learned. You can do this orally by simply asking questions, or you
can ask students to create an internet ad, selling what they learned today
in your class. The reflections don’t have to be long, nor do they need to be
extensive.
Tool 150: 1–2–3 Times Two

In this activity, students make observations, draw conclusions, and create
questions, but they must back each one up with support from the discussion
or text.
One Two Three
One observation One conclusion One question

Two examples or Two specific text Two prompting phrases
supporting comments statements to support
Tool 151: “I” Responses

You can use these prompts throughout the lesson. Students are asked to
finish the following prompts to discuss their learning.
“I” Response Prompts

I learned . . .
I think . . .
I was surprised when . . .
I didn’t understand . . .
I discovered . . .
I told my partner that . . .
I fgured out . . .
Tool 152: CROWN

A more formal form of an exit slip, students respond to a variety of items
to show they understand the content.
CROWN
Communicate what you learned
React to what you learned
One-sentence summary
Way(s) to use what you learned
Note how well you did today
Tool 153: Learning Logs

I’ve also seen teachers use journals effectively. Students write entries
explaining the main idea they learned in the lesson and a question they still
have. These serve as a springboard for review or discussion during the next
class. Or the journal can be used as a learning log. Every day at the end of
class, students write down at least one thing they learned. By the end of the
week, they have a list of at least 5 things they have learned, by the end of the
month they have 20, and so on. This is more authentic than a test and allows
students to see and personalize what they are learning.
Refecting on How I’m Learning

You also may want students to think about how they learn. In other
words, you want them to develop metacognitive skills—thinking about their
own thinking.
Tool 154: Laundry Day

In laundry day, students group themselves into four categories. With the
groupings, you can then determine how much reteaching needs to occur.
Laundry Day
Category Student’s Perspective
Tide I’m drowning in information.

Gain I understand the basics, but I’m
missing a few parts.
Bold I’m confident, but I’m missing some
details.
Cheer I’m sure I understand, so I’m looking
for something new.
Tool 155: Other Options for Formative Assessment
Other Formative Assessment Options

Individual White Boards
Clickers for Computer Summary of Data
Apps Such as Show Me for the iPad
Graphic Organizers
Monitoring of Conversations
Observations
Short Quizzes
Quality Assignments
There are three aspects of quality assignments: whether the assignment is
appropriate, whether it is purposeful, and whether it is results oriented.
Tool 156: Ensuring Assignment Is Appropriate

First, assignments should be appropriate. What do I mean by that? I mean
they should be at a rigorous level. Too often, we water our assignments down
to make them easier for students. For example, I was in a first grade class-
room where students were working on numbers up to ten. The assignment
was to simply color ten crayons in various groupings, despite the fact that
was too easy, based on the earlier work. In another class, the teacher was
using a much higher assessment that was more rigorous and required stu-
dents to use higher-order thinking.
Solve the problem. Show your work.

I have 10 crayons. Some are red. Some are blue. How many of each could I have?
How many red? How many blue?
Find as many combinations as you can.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Questions

Your questions should also be at an appropriate level of rigor. We dis-
cussed Bloom’s Taxonomy in Chapter 2, “Raising Expectations Through
Questioning and Adult Behaviors,” but let’s look again at some questions
that would be at differing levels. In each of the examples, you would want to
use the questions or prompts at the highest level possible. You may need to
use the lower levels as a base, but it’s important to move up the levels.
Sample Bloom’s Taxonomy Questions
Tool 157: HOTS for Lord of the Flies by William Golding (novel)
Bloom’s Revised Questions for Literature
Creating Imagine that you are one of the survivors

from the island rescued by the British Naval
Officer; upon returning home, you face an
angry mob of parents. You learn that the
survivors will attend a court hearing for
the deaths of Piggy and Simon. Build a case
justifying who is guilty of the murders of
Piggy and Simon.
Evaluating How is Lord of the Flies an allegory for World
War II? Justify your response.
Analyzing Explain who is a better leader, Jack or

Ralph. How would he be a leader in today’s
society? Justify your answers.
Applying What does the conch symbolize? How does
that apply not only to the novel but to your
life?
Understanding What happened in Chapter 2?
Remembering Who is the fair-haired boy?
Tool 158: HOTS for Cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allan Poe (short
story)
Creating Imagine this story told from the point

of view of Fortunato. Create his story
and remember to include his reactions,
feelings, escape, and attempts to try to
understand Montressor. Additionally,
create a scenario in which Fortunato lives
in today’s society. Script an example of his
life today.
Evaluating Why do you think Fortunato becomes
silent at the end except for the bells on his
fool’s hat? Justify your response.
Analyzing Why is Montressor considered an
unreliable narrator? Justify your response.
Applying How is Montressor’s situation similar
to General Zaroff’s from “The Most
Dangerous Game”?
Understanding Write a summary of the story in 20 words
or less.
Remembering What is the Montressor family motto?
Tool 159: HOTS for “Free At Last” by Martin Luther King, Jr.
Creating Create your own speech using “Free

At Last” as inspiration to save the
oppressed from the injustice of big
government. Next, adapt the speech
for today’s society and frame the
speech to address the changes since his
last speech.
Evaluating Why does Martin Luther King use
words that compare the rights of
American citizens to a check? What
word(s) do you think he would use
today? Justify your responses.
Analyzing Analyze Abraham Lincoln’s
“Gettysburg Address” with Martin
Luther King, Jr.’s “Free At Last.” How
did they speak to the times? Imagine
the two switched time periods. How
would the speeches change?
Applying Show how historical events prior
to August 28, 1963, inspired Martin
Luther King’s speech “Free At Last.”
Understanding Paraphrase Martin Luther King’s
speech in your own words.
Remembering What does it mean to be free?
Assignment Is Purposeful
Next, the assignment should be purposeful. Giving work simply to give
work is not appropriate. When I was teaching, a fellow teacher gave home-
work every night—no matter what. Much of the work was busy work, but
she felt that she should give them something to do every night, regardless of
whether the work was needed.
As you think about in-class and out-of-class assignments, consider the stan-
dard(s) you are teaching, the type of thinking you want to see from students,
and the ultimate product you would like. For example, you may want to pre-
pare students for a multiple-choice test. If so, some of your questions should
be multiple choice. However, the questions should include applications and
thinking questions rather than just guessing questions about basic facts.
In Angie’s sixth-grade social studies classroom, she was teaching about
ancient cultures. She also incorporates rigorous work and wanted her stu-
dents to work over time to do research. She designed an assignment that stu-
dents worked on both in class and outside of class. You’ll find the assignment
is easily adaptable to other grade levels.
Tool 160: Culture Assignment
Choose a culture and a topic that you are interested in and that relates to
one of the ancient cultures in the sixth grade social studies curriculum.
Decide on your research questions that are broad and will provide interest-
ing information. Complete your research, using at least three sources. Take
notes during your research. Create a museum exhibit about your culture
and topic. Present your research in a costume that will represent your cul-
ture’s clothing. Bring and serve a food that would have been eaten by the
people of your culture.
Tool 161: Assignment Yields Results

Finally, your assignment should yield quality results. In one of his high
school classes, my son was given a list of 250 words to memorize for a class.
The words would be used throughout the year. Rather than simply memo-
rizing them, it would be more appropriate to introduce the words in context
when they are relevant to the content. Then they could be part of the lesson,
with a focus not only on the definition but also on the related concepts and
possible examples and non-examples. This allows for full comprehension
rather than simple memorization. Which result do you prefer?
In a different class, he was given a far more rigorous project. Notice the
high level of thinking that is required in a social studies assignment on ancient
Greece.
Tool 162: Archaeology Assignment
Study the image in the site. Imagine that you are a member of the Sir
Arthur Evans’ archaeological team excavating the palace of Knossos. Write
an entry in your archaeology notebook for each of the following artifacts:
the fresco of the leaping bull, the fresco of the three women in blue, and the
Queen’s Hall fresco. In your entries, write about what each artifact reveals
about the social, religious, and artistic aspects of the Minoan civilization.
Last, let’s compare two different assignments for third grade math. The first
question was to use a graph to identify data. Although a good starting point, it
needs to lead to more rigorous work. The teacher scaffolded the work, then in
the final problem, students were required to interpret the data and assess three
problems based on the data. They identified the one problem that was incor-
rect, explained why is was incorrect, solved it correctly, and explained why
they knew it was correct then. What a great example of a quality assignment.
Feedback
Feedback is a critical aspect of assessment, whether formal or informal. It
doesn’t matter if you are providing feedback orally or in written form, it is a
crucial part of students improving their work.
Tool 163: Characteristics of Efective Feedback

Douglas Reeves, in Elements of Grading, describes four characteristics of
feedback.
Four Characteristics of Feedback
Characteristic Description
Accuracy Should be accurate in terms of content. Asks for accurate

answer(s). Based on actual work from student.
Fairness Be careful not to let expectations about who the student
is affect grading or assessment. Focus on the work, not
the personality.
Specific If there is flexibility in the criteria, there should be clear
boundaries that students understand.
Timely If you want students to improve, the feedback should
be timely; otherwise, it delays the lesson impact.
Tool 164: Feedback Process

Feedback is a process, one that should become an impetus for growth by
students. John Hattie provides a visual that helps us understand the nature
of feedback.
Hattie Model of Feedback

Tool 165: Teacher Feedback During Questioning

When I taught, one of my challenges was providing feedback during ques-
tioning. During a group discussion, if a student answered correctly, I knew
to say, “That’s exactly on point.” Or “That’s a great response that hits the nail
on the head.” But when a student was incorrect or only partially answered
the question, I was stuck. What do you say then? On page xx, you’ll find a
feedback chart that describes how to handle each of those situations. By the
way, it’s a great handout to leave for a substitute teacher, so they will know
what to do.
Tool 166: 1–2–3

A teacher from one of my online workshops believes students need to
be explicitly taught how to give and receive feedback. She uses a three-step
approach, both for her own feedback and for feedback students give each other.
1. Begin with a genuine, specific compliment.

2. Ask a question to encourage improvement (a question is less threaten-
ing and allows the writer to make a decision about the improvement).
3. End with an encouraging statement: “You can do it.”
A teacher from one of my workshops agrees, explaining, “When grading

papers I write more than ‘great job’ or mark a failing grade. I leave specific
comments that are encouraging, ask a question about their work, or select
something specific they did well, ‘I really like how you shared your logic in
your marginal notes. It is clear that you understand the topic of this article.’ ”
Both teachers provide excellent models that we can follow to provide
feedback to our students.
Homework
Homework is an issue for many students and teachers. In almost every
workshop that I do on classroom motivation, a teacher will ask, “How do you
motivate students to do homework?” Of course, the answer is complicated.
You can make students do homework by increasing rewards or punishment,
but that rarely works in the long term. The real solution is to create homework
assignments that students are most likely to complete and then provide the
support necessary to help them be successful. Effective homework is based
on three key principles.
Tool 167: Principles of Efective Homework
Three Principles of Efective Homework

Purpose-driven
Quality-driven
Student-driven
Three Principles of Efective Homework
Tool 168: Purpose-Driven Homework

Homework should have a clear purpose, and students should understand
the purpose of the assignment or activity. During my first year of teaching,
another teacher told me to assign homework every night. I didn’t realize that
by following her advice, I was teaching my students that homework is an
item to check off a list, not something of authentic value. Homework is an
extension of your instruction, so it should always have a specific purpose, just
like your lessons. As Shannon, a sixth-grade teacher says, “Explaining why
I’m assigning the homework helps to get it done; I don’t give homework just
to give homework.”
Effective homework assignments extend, reinforce, or preview content.
If students have mastered the material, you may choose to assign an inde-
pendent project to enhance their understanding or allow them to apply their
knowledge. After a unit on creating spreadsheets, you might ask students to
build a budget using a spreadsheet. However, if students are just beginning to
understand a skill, you may want them to complete additional practice to rein-
force the knowledge. When I taught parts of speech, for example, I would ask
students to find examples from real life (internet articles, newspapers, etc.) and
bring them to class. At times, my homework previewed upcoming content. For
example, one day, I asked my students to make a list of places that they or their
family had visited. The next day, when we discussed the regions of the state,
we plotted their vacation sites on the map and categorized them by region.
Tool 169: Quality-Driven Homework

Homework is more effective when the focus is on quality as opposed to
quantity. More is not necessarily better, particularly when students are just
beginning to understand a concept. I once heard a speaker say, “Practice
doesn’t make perfect. Perfect practice makes perfect.” That made me think
about homework. If students don’t understand how to do something but
practice it 50 times, they will learn the wrong thing. I would prefer to give my
students small opportunities to show me they understand so that I can build
on that foundation in the future.
In addition to considering quality over quantity, we must consider the
homework itself. Quality includes higher-order thinking, applications, or
pulling together information for use in an advanced activity.
Tool 170: Analysis of Homework Assignment
Imagine you are a TV weatherperson. Forecast the weather for next week
and justify your choices with evidence.
Notice the level of rigor for this assignment. It could have been a basic
task: forecasting next week’s weather. But the assignment also requires justi-
fication for the prediction based on more than opinion. Evidence for the fore-
cast might include last year’s data, this year’s forecast from multiple sources,
and the person’s own knowledge.
Tool 171: Student-Driven Homework

Homework should provide students an opportunity to be successful. On
one occasion, I was in an elementary school classroom watching a lesson
on fractions. I’m not sure who was more frustrated—the teacher or the stu-
dents. As the students became more confused, the teacher finally stopped
and said, “This isn’t working. Do the rest for homework.” The students had
absolutely no idea how to proceed, and their likelihood of success was min-
imal. As Christy, a math teacher, points out, “If the day doesn’t go well, if
students are lost and confused, I just scratch through the lesson and we start
over the next day. If I send home practice after a day like that, they’ll create a
way to do it, then have to unlearn what they did wrong.” Don’t waste your
time or your students’ efforts on work that offers no opportunity for success.
Effective homework can be completed independently with minimal and
appropriate support. If the assignment is too difficult, students are more likely
to ask someone else to complete it for them. When I taught, I tried to create
homework assignments that allowed for family members to be involved, but
in an appropriate way. For example, I would ask students to write a para-
graph and then ask someone else to read it and tell them whether they had
clearly stated the main idea. Or, students would interview a family member
or a friend about a topic, and we used the responses in our lessons to provide
context or build background.
Finally, students should feel ownership about the homework. In some
cases, it’s appropriate to ask students to help develop the homework. I visited
a high school class in which the teacher did exactly that. The students brain-
stormed appropriate options, then agreed upon the one activity they would
all do that night. Another option is to create a BINGO board with choices of
activities. Students choose the activities to create a winning board.
Tool 172: Sample Homework Activities

Let’s look at some other sample homework activities.
In a high school social studies class, after lessons on the Vietnam War,
students might write an essay arguing for or against the Vietnam Memorial
in Washington, DC.
Another option might be for students to take a virtual tour of a specific
place, identifying mathematical elements seen, as well as justification for the
use of that element.
In class, we have read a book about ants and “The Queen Ant’s Birthday.”
What can we learn about living in community with one another from these
two texts? In addition to using evidence from the texts, provide real-life
examples to support your responses. You can write or video your response.
Tool 173: Interactive Homework

My former graduate student Kendra uses interactive homework:
I’ll take a picture of something my students did in school. Then,

I write “Ask me what I learned today” at the top of the page. The
parents have to write what their son or daughter said. This lets me
know if the students even remember what happened. I’m also always
about getting feedback on my own performance and when the parent
writes a reflection on what their child is learning, it gives you insight
on how well you taught. This type of homework requires students to
understand what they did in class well enough to explain it to some-
one else—a high standard. One student told me that she liked this
assignment because “it’s homework for my mom, not me!”
Grading
Grading is one of the most challenging aspects of a rigorous classroom.
Many of the aspects of grading, such as whether to grade homework, are
individual choices for a teacher. A key consideration for grading is your
purpose.
Tool 174: Purposes of Grading

What is your purpose for grading a particular assignment? Are you set-
ting a benchmark to see which of your students have met a standard? Or are
you evaluating their progress, so you can make decisions about your future
instruction? One of my problems the first year of teaching was that I didn’t
have a good answer to that question. In fact, if you asked me why I was grad-
ing something, my answer would have been, “So I can have enough grades
for the report card.”
There are several purposes of evaluation. Schools use evaluation to
make decisions about placements, particularly in ability-leveled classes
or promotion to the next grade level. The process of moving students to
higher levels requires some type of evaluative judgment. Teachers also use
evaluative data to group students and plan for instruction tailored to spe-
cific needs. This is one of the most important uses of evaluation. If you col-
lect information about a student, but don’t use it to plan what to teach next
(or what to reteach), what use is it? Closely linked to this purpose is the
notion of using evaluative data to provide feedback to students so they can
improve. Both purposes require that you plan the type of assessment used
to ensure you gain the specific information you need to make decisions.
A final use of grades is to externally motivate students. Some students
respond well to this form of motivation; grades are just a higher-stakes ver-
sion of receiving a pizza for reading books. You simply can’t get away from
the fact that grades provide external pressure on students. Some thrive in this
situation; others suffer. Parents and/or family members may complicate the
situation if they value the grades differently or more than the student. No
matter your purpose, an overemphasis on grades will undermine learning.
Let’s take a look at key indicators of effective grading.
Tool 175: How to GRADE
How to GRADE
Give Students an Opportunity to Participate in Grading
Remove Efort, Behavior, and Attendance From Grading
Align Grading to Assessment
Don’t Give Zeroes
Extra Credit Undermines Authentic Grading
Give Students an Opportunity to Participate in Grading

Students feel more ownership when they have a part. So, involve them in
the grading process. Be sure they understand what the grade represents, have
them look at samples and grade the items themselves, ask them to self-assess
their work, and let them create rubrics. In one classroom, the students deter-
mined the levels for rubrics.
As the teacher explained, “I didn’t particularly like the names for some of
the levels, but the students chose them, so I stayed with them.”
Tool 176: Student-Created Categories

After students create the levels, guide
them through the process of what would Student-Created Categories
be an “A” or “B,” and so on. Student own- 4 . . . overachiever
ership doesn’t mean you aren’t involved; 3 . . . profcient-got it
it simply means you guide the process 2 . . . stuck in the middle
rather than doing it all yourself. After the 1 . . . at the bottom
rubric is finished, ask students to assess a
sample paper so they see how the rubric
applies to actual work. Then, revise it together, and you can move forward
with its use. It’s an excellent way for students to be invested in grading.
Tool 177: Remove Efort, Behavior, and Attendance from Grading

One of the mistakes I made as a teacher was grading on things that didn’t
involve the actual work. For example, if a student “tried hard,” I gave them
credit for their effort. So as long as they attempted to do the work, the student
received partial credit, whether any of it was correct. I’ve since learned to give
students multiple opportunities to complete the work correctly, along with
coaching the student, but effort alone does not qualify for a high grade.
Next, I unconsciously graded based on behavior. It wasn’t that blatant,
of course, but if I had a student who was well behaved, and there was a
questionable call on the grade, I gave the student the benefit of the doubt.
I should have graded equally, no matter what a student’s behavior was. But
I was young, and didn’t realize I was doing it.
Finally, it’s easy to incorporate attendance into grading. If a stu-
dent was absent, I’d take points off for each day they were late with the
assignment. It didn’t matter why they were absent; my policy demanded

points taken off for late work. In effect, I penalized students because they
weren’t at school. Some had good reasons for missing, some less so. But
the bottom line was that I was choosing to grade not on their work but on
their presence.
If I could return to my classroom and do it again, I would remove these
three factors from grading. A grade should reflect the quality of work, not
anything else.
Tool 178: Align Grading to Assessment

It’s important to align your grading to the actual assessment. That may
sound basic, but I’ve often seen an assignment that called for certain out-
comes, but the grade was based on other criteria. How frustrating for a
student. Rubrics are an excellent tool to help you align grading to the assign-
ment. Start by looking at the assignment, develop categories of the criteria,
then write the qualities for each category for each grade.
Rubric for Civil War Song
Excellent 9–10 Average 7–8 Weak 5–6 points

points points
Song Analysis A typed report The report gives The report

thoroughly basic information presents minimal
analyzes the about the song information
song lyrics but does not about the song.
and provides thoroughly No analysis is
information analyze it (as included (only
about the outlined in one paragraph).
background of the project
the song. (one description). The
page minimum— report may be
size 12 font). It is unorganized and
well organized, difficult to follow.
and spelling/
grammar
mistakes are
minimal.
Excellent 9–10 Average 7–8 Weak 5–6 points

points points
Presentation Your presentation You have You have
is well-rehearsed. neglected to neglected to
The typed lyrics provide either provide either the
to the song the lyrics or the lyrics or the song;
are provided actual song; your your presentation
and shown via presentation was confusing
the document would have and did not
camera, and the benefited from teach your peers
actual song is more rehearsal. anything about
played/sung for Civil War period
classmates. music.
Civil War Song An attractive The chart You have not
Chart chart with an provided is utilized the song
extensive list of lacking in song chart to help
Civil War songs quantity, lyric you learn about
you have listened summary, or Civil War music
to is provided neatness. (very few songs
along with brief and missing
information summaries).
about the lyrics.
Tool 179: Wanted Poster
Sample Project for 10th Grade Honors Course

We have studied individuals who made significant contributions during
the Renaissance and Reformation. You will create a wanted poster about
one of these people. The information on the poster must include:
1. Poster MUST be on an 8½ × 11 sheet of paper. (10 points)
2. Mug shot—We need to know what they look like! (10 points)
3. First and last name of your historical figure. (5 points)
4. Birth date and year of death. (5 points)
5. What country were they born in and where did they do their work?
(10 points)
6. What are they famous (wanted) for? 5–8 complete sentences, in your
own words, for full credit. (30 points)
7. A fact that you found interesting OR a quote by the person.
(10 points)
8. Printout or photocopy of your sources with info highlighted.

(15 points)
9. Your name on the bottom right corner. (5 points)
Tool 180: Revised Grading Guidelines
Percentage of Grade Requirements
20% Connections: narrative includes key life events,

family, possible associates, other locations visited,
or other places the person lived to help with
locating person.
25% Synthesis based on multiple sources (minimum
of 5): information in paper is synthesized and
confirmed from multiple sources, rather than
summarized from an isolated source. It is also cited
appropriately to demonstrate synthesis.
25% Analysis: as a conclusion, narrative includes an
analysis of the individual, including strengths,
weaknesses, and possible other contributions
the person could have made to the movement.
Although your opinion, analysis should be based
on the information gathered.
20% Written narrative: overall flow and quality of
writing, appropriate information included,
extraneous information excluded. Quotes and other
information support key points made throughout
the paper.
10% Basic requirements: completion of all aspects of
assignment, 8”×10” paper, “mug shot,” your name
at bottom right corner, reference list in appropriate
format on reference page, word-processed narrative
with 12-point font and 1-inch margins, minimum
of 5 sources, and photocopy of sources with
information highlighted.
Also, be sure that your grade reflects the quality of the work, not just com-
pletion or the quantity of included items. I received a copy of an assignment
for a tenth-grade honors course. Students had a week to complete the project.
Take a look.
There are several ways to increase the rigor of this assignment. Rather
than earning credit for completion, as it is now, scoring should be based on
quality.
Don’t Give Zeroes

Too often, students don’t complete work that requires a demonstration
of learning. Typically, this results in a low grade. We often think this means
students learn the importance of responsibility, but more often they learn that
if they are willing to “take a lower grade or a zero,” then they do not actu-
ally have to complete their work. For some, that is a preferable alternative
to doing work. Perhaps they don’t fully understand the assignment, or they
may not want to complete it. However, if we truly have high expectations for
students, we don’t let them off the hook for learning.
The use of a “Not Yet” or “Incomplete” policy for projects and assign-
ments shifts the emphasis to learning and allows students to revise and
resubmit work until it is at an acceptable level. Requiring quality work, work
that meets the teacher’s expectations, lets students know that the priority is
learning, not simple completion of an assignment.
I spoke with a representative of the Southern Regional Education Board
(SREB) about this topic. As part of their comprehensive school reform model,
SREB has long been a proponent of holding students to high expectations
for completed work. She describes the model as Instant Credit Recovery or
Instant Content Recovery.
Tool 181: The Instant Credit Recovery Model
Eight Key Elements of the Instant Credit Recovery Model

1. Teachers no longer assign grades below a C.
2. Eliminate the use of zeros.
3. Late work is late, but it must be completed if teachers are to correctly
determine if students know, understand, and are able to do whatever
the verb within the standard called for.
4. Students must be given extra help opportunities (required) to learn
the information, skill, or concept to complete assignments.
5. Students must retake tests that they fail and redo all assignments
they earn less than a C grade on.
6. Consequences change for students not having work ready to turn in
on time.
7. Grading systems change from zeros or failing grades to “I’s” or some
other form of non-grade.
8. A few students will still fail no matter what. The goal is to get MORE
students to complete MORE assignments and assessments to the
proficient level of the standard.
Tool 182: Teaching Responsibility

In one of my recent workshops, a teacher shared with me, “Our school
is one of the best in our area. Parents know we have high expectations, and
if students don’t do the work, they receive a zero. Some of our teachers are
known for the high numbers of failures, but they are also some of the most
requested teachers. Zeroes and failing grades prepare our students for real
life.”
I asked Toni Eubank for her perspective on this issue. Her response?
Life has many do-overs, and when teachers think otherwise, they do
not have a handle on the “real world” as it works today. Quality is
the most important component of any job. Ask BP oil workers, their
supervisors and even their now defunct CEOs. When due dates and
dollars replace high-quality work, or even minimum standards, the
results can be devastating. America was built on quality and inno-
vation, and until and unless we instill these values into our stu-
dents, they leave our schools with notions about “the real world”
that do not actually exist in their lives. When I hear things like,
“they won’t get to redo work when they get on the job. They will
have timelines, and if they don’t do the work, they will get fired.”
Actually, on the job, they will have a set of expectations and respon-
sibilities that require them to do their work at high levels and they
will have to redo that work until they get it right. If they are unable
to do it to begin with, they will get extra help—a lot of extra help. If
the job requires knowledge and skills they do not have, they will get
on-the job training, assistance and even a mentor until they are able
to do the work. Some need longer training than others, but only the
inept or lazy do not make it through. If they are still unable or un-
willing, they will be notified of the need for improvement, usually
more than once. In most jobs, they will get verbal, then written no-
tification of the quality of their work and of what will need to hap-
pen in order to remain on the job. If they still do not meet the work
standard, then and only then will those workers be fired. Few jobs
require workers to do perfect, even high quality, or even minimal
work or be fired on the spot. There are steps in the firing process
that must be followed.
Our current methods and the real values our schools teach stu-
dents is the opposite of almost every real-world job. “If you don’t do
your work, you will get a zero,” tells a student there is an option to
do work or not. They can do the work or they can choose not to do
the work. A zero is something that occurs in their future, and in this
world, this generation works almost solely through instant gratifica-
tion and instant consequences, students do not understand the impact
of zeros, even when teachers try to tell them.
(Eubank, 2011, pp. 2–3)
Tool 183: Sample Reassignment Policy

Robin, another of my former students, shares a pilot grading policy
developed by teachers at a middle school and high school in her district. It
focuses on allowing students to revise summative and formative assignments
for reassessment.
Sample Reassessment Policy

• Students are provided at least one reassessment opportunity per major
task/assessment.
• When reassessment is offered, all students may be reassessed, regard-
less of the grade on the original task/assessment. In other words, all
students may re-take summative or formative assessments, as long as
they re-learn the material first.
• Students who cheat are also allowed to re-take, but they’re docked
20 percent and receive a written administrative referral.
• The reassessment grade should replace the original grade if it is higher
than the original grade. Students are assigned the higher of the two
grades.
Tool 184: Sample Rubric for Not Yet Grading
Unit VI Louisiana’s Musical Landscape Louisiana Voices Folklife in Educaõn Project
Lesson 1 Music Around the State: Sound and Place www.louisianavoices.org
Interpreñg Music Data Rubric
Title/topic: Louisiana’s Musical Landscape Name: ______________________ Date: _______________
Task: Complete the Musical Elements Chart, the Music Genres and Venues Worksheet, and the Music Prove It, and present informaõn you
learned in mural, poster, oral, or wri°en report, ˜meline, map, skit, or game.
Performance Outstanding 15 Great 5 Not Yet Possible Actual
Element 20 pts. 10 pts. O pts.
Discriminaõn Listened a°en˜vely; related the Listened to musical excerpts, but did Not a°en˜ve during listening ac˜vity; 20
musical excerpts to regions of the not relate all of them to regions of relied on others to relate music to
state. the state. regions of the state.
Iden˜fcaõn Iden˜fed all musical elements Iden˜fed some musical elements in Could not iden˜fy musical elements 20
present in the excerpts; iden˜fed excerpts; cultural prac˜ces that or cultural prac˜ces.
cultural prac˜ces that a˝ect music. a˝ect music not defned for all
excerpts.
Interpreñg Categorized musical excerpts using Categorized musical excerpts using Informaõn has not been 20
Informaõn all six music elements; compared most of the musical elements; most interpreted; jumps to conclusions
and contrasted recordings; comparisons and contrast were without carefully categorizing
recognized cultural characteris˜cs relevant; recognized some cultural characteris˜cs.
that determine musical style. characteris˜cs that determine

musical style.
Describing Used appropriate vocabulary to Described most genres and elements’ Used inappropriate descripõns for 20
describe all genres and musical some descripõns not appropriate. genres and elements.
elements heard in musical excerpts.
Disseminañg Designed and created a mural, Designed and created a mural, Mural, poster, oral or wri°en report, 20
Informaõn poster, oral or wri°en report, poster, oral or wri°en report, ˜meline, map, skit, or game not
˜meline, map, skit, or game that ˜meline, map, skit, or game to completed.
e˛ec˜vely interprets the interpret the relaõnship of genres
relaõnship of genres of music to of music to Louisiana regions;
Louisiana regions. presentaõn lacking in clarity.
Bowman, Paddy, Maida Owens, and Sylvia Bienvenu, “Interpreñg Music Data.” Louisiana Voices Educator’s Guide, www.louisianavoices.org, Unit VI Louisiana’s Musical
Landscape, Lesson 1 Music Around the State: Sound and Place, 2003.
Tool 185: Extra Credit Undermines Authentic Grading

When I was teaching, I struggled with the whole concept of extra credit.
It never seemed to accomplish what I thought it would. The students who
usually earned it didn’t really need it, earning an A plus instead of an A or an
A instead of a B. It also seemed to overemphasize points vs. learning.
A few years ago, one of my graduate students was furious because
I wouldn’t give her extra credit. She was on the border between an A and a B,
and she wanted me to increase one low grade because she had done a good
job “the rest of the time.” In effect, she wanted me to give her extra credit on
a very poor assignment because she wanted it.
I considered this request, as well as how a similar situation would con-
clude in real life. If my husband does extra work on a project for his job, he
doesn’t get an extra boost in his salary. It may impact his future salary or any
raises, but he doesn’t get an additional payment for his quality work. On
the other hand, if he did a poor job on the project, he certainly doesn’t get
rewarded for doing something else to make up for it. In other words, extra
credit isn’t a part of the real world.
Tool 186: Grading for Exceptional and Struggling Learners

In their classic book on how to grade for exceptional and struggling learn-
ers, Lee Ann Jung and Thomas R. Guskey (2011) detail characteristics of an
inclusive grading model.
1. Determine if adaptations are needed for each grade-level standard.

2. For each adaptation, determine if an accommodation or modification
is needed.
3. Establish the appropriate expectation for each area requiring modifi-
cation.
4. Apply appropriate and equitable grading practices to the appropri-
ate strategies.
5. Clearly communicate the meaning of the grade (ex. Footnote grade
based on modified expectations).
Tool 187: Ideas for Working With Students With Special Needs
Silva, Munk, and Bursuck (2005) also provide several suggestions when
working with students with special needs:
1. Grading on individualized goals.

2. Grading based on improvement over past performance.
3. Weighting assignments differently.
4. Including indicators of effort or behavior in the grade.
5. Modifying the grading scales.
A Final Note
Assessment in a rigorous classroom can be complicated, but
if you focus your efforts, you will make a difference. Using for-
mative assessment is foundational, but assigning quality work,
whether in-class or as homework, is also critical. Finally, effec-
tive feedback, homework, and grading practices will enhance
the learning in your classroom.
Refection into Action
in your classroom?
7
Reinvigorating the Environment
The classroom environment is basic for the other strategies throughout

this book to be effective. If you think of rigor as a climbing tower, the envi-
ronment is the strong foundation that allows students to climb to higher and
higher levels. There are several considerations with the environment.
Building a Positive Relationship

Creating Respect
Adult Language
Physical Environment
Developing Student Ownership
Building a Positive Relationship

The first step to creating a positive emotional environment is to build a
relationship with your students. Understanding who they are and respond-
ing to that in supportive ways helps you connect with them. This also teaches
students that you respect who they are.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-7
Tool 188: Vision Letters

Vision letters allows students to describe their goals in a different manner.
The task is to imagine it is the last day of school. Ask students to imagine that
it was the best class (such as biology) or year (such as third grade) ever. What
made it great? Why did they like the class so much? By reading their letters,
you’ll understand more about them and probably find some ways you can
adjust your instruction to best meet their needs. Also, be sure to share your
vision letter with them; that way they will connect with you, too!
Tool 189: Autobiographies

To encourage a positive attitude toward one another, you and your stu-
dents need to understand each person. One powerful way to do this is to
have students write about themselves. As a California teacher I spoke with
explains:
My first assignment is [to ask students to write an] autobiography. It

must be three typed pages, anything about themselves. Everyone wants
a chance to tell their story; where they were born, about their family. They
can tell me “I have a bad home situation,” or “I work long hours.” They
write about a sport, extracurricular activities, anything they want. They
are motivated when they think you want to know about them. When
I started my first job, it was because the other teacher quit (it was an
inner-city school teaching the “troubled” kids). They had 15 subs before
I came, and they knew they were “bad kids.” One of the students told
other teachers [they] were so surprised that I cared enough to have them
write 3 pages and that I cared enough to read it. I did not know that
would be a big deal, but it was.
Tool 190: Creating a Timeline

Another option is to ask students to create a timeline of experiences. After
the students write their individual autobiographies, you can add photos (just
take digital pictures and print them) and put them in a notebook to create a
class book. It’s a great way to encourage students to get to know each other
better by reading the book. It’s also a terrific tool for new students, parents,
administrators, and substitute teachers. You can also create these electroni-
cally through a program like iBook.
Reinvigorating the Environment ◆ 155
Tool 191: Where I’m From Poems

An excellent strategy for getting to know students is a “Where I’m From”
poem or rap. It allows students to share their lives with you, which will create
a strong connection.
A great way to start these poems is to first have students organize their
thoughts through simple pre-writing techniques like brainstorming, free-
writes, or completing a graphic organizer. They can use the following
headings to begin to brainstorm ideas: location, favorite foods, memorable
moments, important people, hobbies, and favorite music. Once the students
have come up with a few thoughts per heading, they can begin to put their
poem together. Stress to students that perfection is not the purpose; the pur-
pose to allow others to see you differently from what they may normally see
or to learn more about you.
I Am From
I am sweet dark caramel.
I am from royalty, strong backs and bones.
I am Harriet Tubman, Martin Luther King,
Sojourner Truth, Barack Obama.
I am the creator of a legacy for which my mother and father
laid the foundation.
I am from struggles and despair.
I am love, peace, strength, courage.
I am from a place deep within my soul that makes me smile.
Abbigail Armstrong
Tool 192: Creating Respect

A mentor once said, “A classroom without respect will never be success-
ful.” This couldn’t be more accurate when working with students. If you
want your students to learn at rigorous levels, you must have a classroom
environment in which you respect students, students respect you, and stu-
dents respect each other.
Tool 193: Contract of Norms

In order to establish an atmosphere in which respect reigns, consider ask-
ing the students to help you build classroom norms—an agreed-upon set of
expectations for conduct in the classroom. Ask students how they want to feel
when they are in your room. As they brainstorm a list of words, write them
down. Afterward, ask them what they can do to ensure that each classmate
experiences these feelings while in the room and write down what you will
agree to do as the teacher as well. This is a good starting place for a class
contract.
Sample Contract
When in this class, I want As a member of our As a teacher, I will

to feel . . . community, I can __________ in order to
_________ in order to make this happen.
make this happen.
• safe • encourage my class- • not tolerate teasing

• liked mates • welcome your
• involved • compliment others’ opinions
• smart answers • prepare high-
• productive • pay attention interest, engaging
• avoid laughing at activities
an answer • celebrate your
• try my best successes
• provide clear
objectives
This student-centered and student-created set of “rules” is more like an

evolving, breathing set of guidelines that give life to the learning community
in your room. Shared values and a shared vision will allow your students to
grow together, make mistakes together, and celebrate achievements together
in a mutually respectful atmosphere, where everyone is making the choice to
be a part of something greater.
Respecting Students
The first step to building respect is for you to respect your students. It’s
important to begin with the default perspective that all students deserve
respect. I spoke with a teacher who worked with students at an alterna-
tive school for at-risk middle and high school students. He told me “These
students don’t deserve respect. If they did, they wouldn’t be here.” With
that attitude, his students are doomed to failure. We must give all students
a chance. There are seven strategies you can use to show respect for your
students.
Tool 194: RESPECT

RESPECT
Relationships are crucial.
Establish an environment of encouragement.
Share your vision.
Provide constructive feedback.
Everyone contributes.
Choice is valued and honored.
Trust is built.
Students Respecting You

Next, it’s important that students respect you. Unfortunately, in this case,
respect is not necessarily a default. Some students (and parents) automat-
ically respect teachers, but many are not sure. The parents may have had
a bad experience with a teacher; students may have had the same. Finally,
some students don’t trust or respect anyone due to a negative situation in
their lives.
Tool 195: EARNing Respect

EARN Their Respect
Expect the Best and Provide Enough Support for
Them to Be Successful
Attend to Their Needs; Not Just Academic
Respect Them First
Never Give Up; Be Positive, No Matter What
Students Respecting Each Other

Finally, we want students to respect each other. If you want to build a
community of learners, where everyone works together, respect is critical.
You might use a student credo to show students how to show respect.
Tool 196: Student Credo

Student Credo for Respecting Other Students
I will speak to other students in a positive manner.
I will listen when other students are speaking.
I will not interrupt other students.
I will positively reinforce what another student says.
I will ask questions rather than negatively criticizing a
comment.
I will help another student if appropriate.
Tool 197: Respecting Diversity

When we respect our diverse students, we choose to recognize that hav-
ing children who are different because each one is something to be valued.
My grandmother loved to make quilts. One of my most cherished posses-
sions is a quilt she made before she died. It is a patchwork kaleidoscope of
colors and patterns. I love it because it is one of a kind. There has never been
one like it and there will never be. It reminds me of her, an inimitable, colorful
set of surprises. She would buy scraps of cloth in different stores; she didn’t
go in and pick everything in advance. She picked up odds and ends and then
sewed them together to make this beautiful quilt.
When you celebrate diversity in your classroom, you do exactly the same
thing. You take whatever you find on that first day: Some of your children
are glowing, bright colors ready to learn; others are faded and dulled by
their past experiences. Do you view this as good or bad? If your response is,
“Great, I can mix and match these together to make a beautiful quilt,” you are
already on the road to celebration.
Tool 198: Culture Boxes

A creative way to learn about your students is through the use of Culture
Boxes. At the beginning of the year, ask your students to put 7–10 items that
represent different aspects of who they are into a shoebox. Your students will
love this activity, so visit your local shoe store and get lots of shoeboxes of
varying sizes. You’ll have at least one student who needs the large, boot-sized
box. As Charlesetta, a former colleague explains:
These objects reflect their family heritage, origins, ethnicity, language,

religion, hobbies, and likes (foods, music, literature, movies, sports, etc.).
The outsides of the boxes are decorated with pictures, symbols, and
words/phrases to further explain who they are. Then the students share
their culture boxes with the class. Every semester, my students always
say that creating a culture box was their favorite activity because they
got to be creative, share previously unknown information about them-
selves with their peers and teacher, and develop a better understanding
of the similarities that we all have in common. The sharing might take
more than one class period, but the time spent is well worth it!
It’s also easy to do this electronically.
Tool 199: Creating a Classroom Culture Web

Another option is to look for cultural connections among students in your
class. Students share information about their cultures, whether that is through
culture boxes or video presentations. Next, students work in small groups to
discover commonalities among the group members and create a web of those
similarities. Finally, the whole class uses the small webs to create a larger web
of class commonalities.
Julio
Miya Meteo Ernesto
Sofia Family
Live speaks
with another
grand language Angelique
parents
Amir
India Our
Lives
Adult Language
Our adult language makes a difference to our students. Both the verbal
and non-verbal language we use sends messages to students that reflect our
feelings toward them.
Tool 200: Positive vs. Negative Interactions With Students

Many students have heard a lifetime of negative comments regarding
their academic efforts. The words we use have a powerful impact on students.
Derwin Gray, a former NFL player, says negative words are like hammering
a nail into the other person. Even when we say we are sorry, which pulls the
nail out, it still leaves a hole. It is important for us to respond to appropriate
behaviors from students with a ratio of multiple positive comments for every
negative comment in order to increase student engagement and achievement.
Tool 201: Tracking Positive and Negative Interactions

To better understand this concept, try it for yourself. Choose a half-hour
period of time and count the number of positive vs. negative interactions you
have with your class members. You can do this by using the chart to mark the
number, place marbles in one pocket or another, or anything that works for
you. Remember that smiles, frowns, and body language also count.
Positive vs. Negative Interactions
Positive Interactions Negative Interactions

Turning Negatives Into Positives

Next, consider the comments you have heard others say to students.
What are the most negative statements you can think of? Next, consider some
comments you may have used, perhaps with a less than positive tone. A more
effective tool is to turn those negative comments into more encouraging ones.
Tool 202: Sample Negative and Positive Comments
Sample Negative Comments Sample Positive Comments
I can’t believe you did that! Can we build on what you’ve done?
Are you really that stupid? I know you can do it; let me help you.
You’ll never accomplish anything. You can accomplish anything if you
work hard.
Posting a Wall of Shame. Posting a Wall of Fame.
Source: Note: The negative comments are actual samples from teachers of negative items they have seen,
heard, or experienced.
Body Language
Our body language is also important. One of my fellow teachers during
my first year of teaching told me, “Don’t smile until Christmas.” That isn’t
very good advice. Students respond to our smiles, frowns, whether our
arms are crossed, and so on. Positive body language sends a message to our
students.
Tool 203: Positive and Negative Body Language
Positive Body Language Negative Body Language
Smile Frown
Arms Loose at Your Side Crossed Arms
Standing Close to Student Standing at a Distance
Making Eye Contact Not Making Eye Contact
Praise and Encouragement

Did you know there is a difference between praise and encouragement?
We use praise when a student has accomplished something. Encouragement
is used when a student is attempting to learn, but struggling. Think of it this
way: When a student catches a fish, we praise him or her for success. How-
ever, when a student catches a boot, we encourage her or him to keep trying.
Tool 204: Praise and Encouragement Statements
Praise Statements Encouragement Statements
Congratulations on earning a B. That’s a great start on your project.

You wrote an excellent answer for Let’s take a look at this answer again.
question two. In the question, it asks_______: now
You really did a great job on xxx. how can you answer that particular
You are very smart and it showed on part of the question?
your test. I am very proud of the effort you put
I was proud of how well-behaved forward today.
you were today. I know you are disappointed that
you didn’t make a good grade,
but it’s just a start. Why don’t you
rework the questions you missed for
partial credit?
Certifcates
It’s also effective to use certificates to recognize students’ accomplish-
ments and efforts. Customize them to meet your needs and give them out to
students to recognize their successes.
Tool 205: Sample Certifcates

Physical Environment
The physical environment of a rigorous classroom is positive, welcoming,
safe, and focused on progress. The physical aspects of your room are a critical
part of an environment that supports rigor.
Working Zones
One thing to consider is the physical setup of your room. Is your room
organized to support your rigorous instruction? If you would like opportu-
nities for small group work, do you have the space for that? You may already
have desks or tables organized in that manner, or you may need space to
move those chairs.
In a sixth-grade classroom I visited, teachers Angie and Kelly had dif-
ferent zones in the room. Some of the zones were sections of the classroom;
the success zone was a section of the wall; and some, such as the quiet zone,
could be at the student’s original seat. Throughout the day, students in small
groups moved from the reading zone to the technology zone, and so on.
Tool 206: Possible Zones for an Elementary Classroom
Reading
Writing
Words and Vocabulary
Technology
Success Zone (posting of student work)
Quiet Zone (for independent work)
MakerSpace
Drama/Music/Art
Science
Interest (contains items students choose
based on their interests)
Positive Role Models

Students need to see positive role models. Many of the students you
teach either don’t have a role model for the future, or the one(s) they have do
not value education or long-term goals. Read about, talk about, and visibly
reinforce role models that can be a positive influence on your students. Using
posters and quotes is a great way to keep role models as a focus.
Tool 207: Sample Role Models
Malala Yousafzai
Emma Watson
Nelson Mandela
Demi Lovato
Simone Biles
Lin-Manual Miranda
Tony Hawk
Dwayne Wade
Please note: These are current at the time of publication, but people (and whether
they are appropriate role models) can change. Use an up-to-date list in your classroom.
Student Role Models

As we have already discussed, it’s important to post pictures and stories
of role models. Tool 207 provided a list of famous role models to use in your
classroom. However, another alternative is to use your students as role mod-
els. Create posters following this template and post around your room.
Tool 208: Template for Student Role Model Poster
Name
Picture of Student Interests

Goals Favorite Subject (and why)
Welcome Doors
A simple way to welcome students to your room is to decorate your door. You
can use a theme, or just words, but the message is clear: I want you here to learn!
Tool 209: Ideas for Door Themes
Oh the Places You’ll Go, with students’ faces on tiny balloons with a welcome
message.
Rainbow fish, and student’s faces can make up the scales. The message
should encourage diversity (the rainbow fish has many colors). For
example: We Like Different!!
Olympic medalist, with students’ names on gold medals including a
message about Winners Enter Here or Success in Progress.
Construction Zone: Science Skill Building in Progress (can choose your
topic)
Use a popular song like “Call Me Maybe” by Carly Rae Jepsen, except
change the lyrics to “Read Me Maybe.”
Welcome Notes
At the start of the year, you can tape a welcome note to students’ desks or
tables. When you have multiple classes, use a generic statement; when possi-
ble, use a student’s name.
Tool 210: Sample Phrases for Welcome Messages
Welcome to my class!
We’re going to have a great year!
Thanks for being a positive part of our classroom!
Posting Key Information

Another key aspect of the physical environment is using your walls,
whiteboards, and so on for information. If there is critical reference informa-
tion students will need, post this in a spot that is clearly visible and available
to students.
Tool 211: Examples of Critical Information
Steps in the Scientifc Process

Characteristics of Good Employees
Elements of a Book
Parts of Speech
Types of Government
Posting Strategic Information

In addition to reference information, there is strategic information that
is important to students. These are reminders about learning strategies that
should also be posted. In my classroom, I posted a set of guidelines to follow
when students did not know a particular vocabulary word.
Tool 212: How to Figure Out a Word You Don’t Know
Try to figure it out on your own.

Read the sentence to understand the meaning.
Look for prefixes or suffixes that you know to help you understand the
word.
Check to see whether the word is in the glossary or margin of the book.
Look it up in the dictionary.
Use a thesaurus.
Ask three other students for help.
If nothing else works, ask the teacher.
Another example is critical information related to safety in a science class-

room. Items such as this should be prominently posted throughout the year.
Tool 213: Safety Procedures
1. STUDENTS MAY NOT WORK IN THE LABORATORY WITHOUT

A CERTIFIED SCIENCE INSTRUCTOR PRESENT.
2. Only students registered for the class are allowed in the laboratory.
3. No backpacks or purses are allowed in the laboratory area.
4. Do not handle equipment and supplies set up in the laboratory until
given instruction to do so from the instructor.
5. Clothing and attire should provide protection from hazardous
substances.
6. Eye protection must be worn when required by the lab instructor.
Students must purchase safety goggles approved for use by AASD.
7. Personal protective equipment such as gloves and a laboratory apron
should be used at the direction of the laboratory instructor.
8. No eating or drinking is permitted in any science classroom unless a
consumable is part of a laboratory procedure and the instructor gives
permission to eat the consumable.
9. Never place anything in the mouth while in the laboratory except as
directed by the instructor.
10. Smell chemicals only by wafting a small amount of vapor toward the
nose with the hand.
11. No unauthorized experimentation is allowed. Do not change written
laboratory procedures without the permission of the instructor.
12. Follow laboratory procedures carefully and accurately. Do not pro-
ceed with any experiment if you do not understand the procedure.
13. All chemical names and identities should be carefully
double-checked prior to use.
14. Laboratory fume hoods should be used for all operations which have
the potential to release fumes, gases, or volatile solvent vapors in
excess of recommended exposure levels. Notify the instructor if you
think the fume hood is not functioning properly.
15. Clean up spills promptly. If you have questions on spill clean up, ask
the instructor. Do not attempt to clean up spilled mercury. Notify the
instructor immediately.
16. Clean up broken glass using a broom and dustpan and dispose of in
the proper container, NOT in the wastebasket.
17. Proper disposal of laboratory waste is essential. Do not dispose of
any chemical in the sink without approval from the instructor. Use
appropriate waste containers when provided.
18. Students should clean the work area and wash hands thoroughly
before leaving the room.
19. Report all injuries, no matter how minor, to the instructor. The
instructor will give guidance on the treatment needed and direct the
student to the health room, if needed.
Tool 214: Safety Equipment
1. Students should know the location of and how to operate all avail-
able safety equipment. This includes: eye wash stations; safety show-
ers; fire extinguishers; fire blankets; first aid supplies; and master
shutoffs for gas, electricity, and water.
2. Students should know the location of emergency telephone numbers
and how to use them.
Source: www.aasd.k12.wi.us/staff/Leonardann/safety.htm
Tool 215: Following Directions

An Illinois teacher in one of my workshops shared that he posts a simple
reminder on his wall.
WIDFD
It stands for: When in Doubt, Follow Directions. Following directions is

another strategy that is not a strong point for many students. In this case, the
teacher used a simple acronym to remind his students to follow directions.
Student Ownership
In a rigorous classroom, student ownership is an integral part of the class-
room, and students feel empowered about their own learning. However, in
order for that to happen, teachers need to shift from a managerial role to one
of a facilitator.
Tool 216: Shifting Roles
Teacher as Manager Teacher as Facilitator
Teacher directs instruction. Teacher facilitates instruction.

Teacher is in charge. Teacher shifts leadership to students.
Teacher asks questions. Teacher leads discussion.
Teacher lectures. Ownership is shifted to students.
Teacher controls activities.
As you shift to a facilitative role, you will create an environment that

encourages student ownership and ultimately empowers students. One
of the main ways you can create a sense of ownership is by providing
choice for students or allowing them to select their options. There may
be times you provide them a list of choices; however, over time, you
can develop a higher sense of ownership if you allow students to create
their own choices. Let’s look at ways choices can be integrated into your
classroom.
Choice or Selection
Topics
Tasks
Resources
Scafolding
Self-Refection
Assessments
Portfolios
Tool 217: Choice of Topics

One of the most common ways I see choice in the classroom is through
choice of either topics or instructional tasks. For example, if your overall
lesson is on landforms, students might choose which of the following they
would research in depth.
Landforms
(Middle School)
Mountains
Hills
Plains
Plateaus
Valleys
Canyons
Choosing Tasks Through Choice Boards

Another common way teachers provide choice for students is through
choice boards, which can be used at most grade levels and subject areas.
You’ll want to incorporate a variety of activities that address your standards,
goals, and objectives. Depending on your students, you may want to include
a variety of types of activities, such as drawing, using physical movement, or
using students. Although each activity does not need to be at the highest level
of rigor, it is helpful to keep rigor in mind.
Tool 218: Literature Choice Board (Grade 4)
Think about the main Imagine that you are Think back on the
character and the the narrator. Choose chapters that you have
character traits that a scene from the read. How would you
describe them. Use book and retell this connect an event from
your imagination scene as the narrator, the book to something
to create this main but the narrator at a that has happened
character’s arch different age. Imagine in your own life?
nemesis! This new that the narrator is Be sure to support
character should be now an adult, or that your connection with
your main character’s the narrator is much evidence and examples.
polar opposite. Create a younger than portrayed
short biography about in the book. Be sure that
the new character. your writing shows the
Explain why your new mood, feelings, and
character is a nemesis emotion that would
with examples and be true to this new age
evidence. group. Include evidence
to support your opinion.
Your book’s sequel Think about the main Think about the conflict
hasn’t been released character. How did in the book. Now, think
yet, but you are already the main character about a conflict in your
very excited! The main handle conflict in the life and describe how it
character will be a book? Explain how you is similar and different,
student in your school. could have handled using examples from
Create a list of ideas the same conflict the text and your life.
and scenarios that the differently! Justify your Imagine the main
author should include explanation based on character was dealing
in the next book. In a what happened in the with your situation.
reflection, explain your book and your life. What advice would you
list by using specific give him to handle the
evidence and examples situation?
from the original
book and your own
experiences at school.
Choosing Tasks Through a Contract

Many teachers use learning contracts to provide choice for students. Stu-
dents are able to choose a certain number of assignments to complete for a
particular grade.
Tool 219: High School Biology Contract

Topic: Biological Evolution
I, ________________________, agree to complete four of the following
tasks by the end of the nine weeks.
1. Read three articles outside of classroom resources on natural selection

and write a brief annotated bibliography including how the informa-
tion from the articles supplements classroom learning.
2. Infer the fate of a particular species whom you know to be heading
toward extinction. Create a 5-minute PSA to save this species.
3. Create a compare/contrast chart to compare micro- and macro-
evolution.
4. Create a two-voices poem using micro- and macro-evolution.

5. Create a RAFT explaining how changes in the environment may result
in the appearance of disappearance of particular traits.
6. Create a Twitter account and tweet to your classmates and any other
followers about natural selection. In a reflection essay, not to exceed
two pages, share what you have learned about natural selection.
Choosing Resources for Learning

There are times when it is appropriate to allow students to choose the
resources they use for a task or project. At a minimum, I provide a wide range
of resources students can choose to access, giving options in a range of for-
mats and in a variety of levels.
Tool 220: Sample Resources

Websites (should be credible, accurate,
and reliable)
Books
Videos
Virtual Tours
Magazines/Articles
Advocacy Groups (note possible bias)
Wikipedia (with accuracy double-checked)
Oral Interviews
Library of Congress
National Archives
Museums
Choosing Your Own Source

Many of my students found other resources they wanted to use. When
they did, I supported their choices, as long as I felt it would COUNT.
Tool 221: Does it COUNT?

C—Connected to the topic
O—On an appropriate level (not too easy, not too hard)
U—Understandable to you as the teacher
N—Not a repeat of earlier work
T—Thought-provoking
Judging the Quality of a Source

One tool you may want to provide is a bookmark so that students are able
to choose a valid, helpful source.
Tool 222: Bookmark
Criteria
Who is the author? Check the author’s website, look

at the about me/us section on a
website, or Google the source.
Is there bias with the author? Look for information that is opinion
based, particularly on key issues.
Is the information accurate? Check some information with a
second source.
Is the information current? Check the copyright dates. On
internet sources, it’s usually at the
bottom of the page.
Does the resource provide Look at your research question
information I need for my research? and double-check to see if your
information answers the question.
Choosing Scafolding Support

There are times it is appropriate for students to choose the scaffolding
support they need. In my classroom, I created resources for extra help, such
as a graphic organizer or study guide. I offered them to all students and made
them available so students could pick up a copy unobtrusively. Some of my

students did not want their peers to see them using what I created. I also
subtly gave copies to students I felt absolutely needed the materials. Some of
those students would not choose one on their own. I think that is still a viable
model for choosing scaffolding.
Tool 223: Process for Student Choice in Scafolding
Create scaffolding materials for your lesson.

Offer them to all students.
Place them in a location students can access without embarrassment.
Without causing attention, provide them to students who strongly need them.
Scafolding Tools
I’ve also found it is helpful to have several key scaffolding tools available
in your classroom on a regular basis. One teacher I met had some simple trays
near the pencil sharpener, so it wasn’t noticeable if a student collected some
items. Of course, you can also have tools available online on your teacher
webpage or in a shared document for easy access.
Tool 224: Sample Scafolding Tools Regularly Available (General or

Specifc)
Graphic Organizers
Tip Sheets
Thinking Guides for Videos or Text
Refection Guides
Guiding Questions
List of Key Online Resources for Additional Help
Tool 225: Choice in Self-Refection

In Chapter 6, “Options for Assessment,” we discussed the importance
of self-reflection for students as well as looking at sample tools. I’d like to
revisit the role of self-reflection in the context of student ownership of learn-

ing. When you provide opportunities for students to self-reflect, they can
measure their knowledge against your standard; practice metacognition, or
thinking about their own thinking; and learn to identify their strengths and
weaknesses. Each of these not only builds ownership, it also helps students
develop confidence and independence.
Tool 226: Choice in Assessment

Another way to develop ownership is by providing students the oppor-
tunity to choose how they demonstrate understanding of content. In other
words, allow them choice with assessments.
John Dorroh, in his article “Bringing Student Choice to Assessment in Sci-
ence Classes” (www.edutopia.org/article/bringing-student-choice-assessment-sci-
ence-classes), shares how he shifted from traditional assessments to allowing
choice with his students. He provided a structure but allowed students to
demonstrate their learning with journaling, lab work, oral reports, a writing
cluster (drama, fiction, poetry, and essays), small group work, artwork, and
written tests. The article provides more depth on his process, but overall, his
students developed more ownership in their learning and were more successful.
With younger students, you may want to provide fewer options, as seven
may be overwhelming. For example, you might have them choose how to
demonstrate they understand a book. They could draw, video, audio, write,
or act out their reaction to the book.
Tool 227: Show What You Know Exam

Kendra, the former teacher I mentioned in earlier chapters, shared an
assessment she experienced during a high school social studies class. She
wasn’t excited to study the 1920s and 1930s, but her teacher, Mr. Baldwin,
told them he was giving a show me what you know final exam. “He didn’t care
how you showed it, as long as you showed what you know. Things flashed
before my eyes, but I was into theatre. So I researched the vaudeville circuit
at time and found Bessie Smith in theatre. She was a blues singer who sang
in speakeasies; and I learned about the 20s and 30s through her eyes. On day
of the exam, I came in singing, staying in character. He asked questions and
I answered based on what Bessie Smith would have said.” What a wonderful
way to demonstrate understanding of a topic.
Tool 228: Choice-Based Portfolios

There are a variety of types of student portfolios. Some teachers make all
choices on the content of portfolios, some allow minimal student choice, and
others allow more ownership. The choice is up to you and is usually based
on your comfort level sharing decision-making and your students’ ability to
make decision.
No Choice Minimal Choice Some Choice Full Choice
Tool 229: Portfolio Choices for Students

As you think about how to allow students choices in a portfolio, consider
several options. First, you might allow students to choose a print portfolio, an
electronic portfolio, or a combination. Some students prefer certain formats.
Next, they can choose the products in the portfolio based on the level of
the artifact. For example, students may want to show growth vs. achievement.
Another option is to choose the format of specific artifacts, which may
include a paper task, video, computer-based option, digital or paper exam-
ples of simulations or game-based learning, or a performance, whether that is
artwork or a record of a performance.
Tool 230: Student-Created Rules

Finally, in many democratic classrooms, teachers work with students to
develop rules. In this case, the teacher facilitates a discussion of what it means
to respect each other and the teacher. Then, he or she asks students what
they believe respect looks like in the classroom. From that discussion, the
teacher writes the agreed-upon rules. Involving students in the creation pro-
cess builds student ownership in the learning environment.
A Final Note
Reinvigorating your classroom environment to reinforce
rigor does not mean starting from scratch. You likely have many
of these elements already in place; it’s just a matter of incorpo-
rating new ideas and consistently implementing others.

in your classroom?
8
Common Concerns
Although we have discussed the major concepts of rigor, I want to address

the common concerns I hear most often from teachers.
Common Concerns
Time
Student Motivation
Communicating with Parents
and Families
Social-Emotional Learning
Remote Learning
Time
There is no doubt that time is the number-one concern of teachers considering
rigorous instruction. How can I plan rigorous lessons with appropriate scaffold-
ing every day? I’m often asked what my ideal solution would be. That’s easy. I’d
schedule every Friday as a professional day, providing ample time for teachers
to work together to plan, assess, learn new ideas, and improve teaching. Unfor-
tunately, that is not reality, and I don’t have a magic wand. So, what do we do?
I’ve found there are two answers to this question: adjusting to your cur-
rent situation and advocating for change.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-8
Adjusting to Your Current Situation

I would encourage you to advocate for what you need on an ongoing
basis. However, while you are working to change the situation, there are
strategies that will help you accept your current status.
Tool 231: Strategies for Current Situations
Strategies for Your Current Situation

1. Accept that you will never have as much time or resources as you would
like.
2. Accept that the quest for perfectionism may be your enemy.
3. Work with other teachers.
4. Create a personal learning network.
5. Work smarter, not harder.
6. Remember that small changes lead to bigger ones.
7. Keep balance in your life.
Strategy 1: Accept that you will never have as much time or resources
as you would like. I continue to find that, no matter how much I have to
do, I always need more time. I told a friend of mine once that I wished
I had 48 hours per day. She replied, if that happened, you would end
up with double the work! I find inspiration from Maya Angelou: If you
don’t like something, change it. If you can’t change it, change your atti-
tude. Don’t complain (www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-guest-
room/200902/interview-maya-angelou).
Strategy 2: Accept that the quest for perfectionism may be your enemy.
I have realized that there are times my expectations for myself are too
high and are, at times, unrealistic. I’ve also found that to be true with
many teachers. They spend hours on the internet looking for ideas to
create the perfect lesson plan, when they probably could have accom-
plished just as much if they had stopped much earlier. I’m not rec-
ommending you provide sloppy instruction. What I am saying is that
most of the time, 80% of excellence is still very, very good. If it takes
you double or triple the time to gain that additional 20%, it’s probably
not worth it because of all the other tasks you didn’t accomplish.
Strategy 3: Work with other teachers. Although it takes time to meet with
other teachers to plan together, in the long run, it saves time. Let’s say
that you have an upcoming unit in a history class that includes reading
Common Concerns ◆ 181
a primary source that is likely to be challenging for some students. You

need a support tool for struggling students, and that will be needed
multiple times during the year. Working with the two other teachers who
also teach the same subject and grade level, you divide the work. You
write the interactive study guide that some students will need for this
unit. Your neighbor writes one for Unit 3, and the teacher down the hall
is going on maternity leave but volunteers to create one for Unit 6 when
she returns. Yes, it takes time for you to write one, but you end up with
three when you share, which saves you time in the long run.
Strategy 4: Create a personal learning network. Sometimes you and your
colleagues will need other ideas. I spoke with a teacher who waited
until the last minute to plan lessons, then frantically Googled for ideas.
If you have ever done that, you know that you have to filter through a
lot of mediocre ideas before you find ones you like. Instead, consider
creating your own personal learning network (PLN). It’s a way of using
the Internet and social media to manage your own learning and to orga-
nize the information you receive. PLNs are not new. Often, they are just
networks of professional contacts, but with social media, it’s possible to
add experts and colleagues from around the world to your network.
Tool 232: Sources for Building Your PLNs
Twitter (for a list of hashtags and chat schedules, see http://cybraryman.

com/edhashtags.html)
Facebook Groups
EdWeb (https://home.edweb.net)
Classroom 2.0 (www.classroom20.com)
Strategy 5: Work smarter, not harder. You’ve probably heard this before,
but it is true. Far too often, we spend extra time on our work because
we can’t find something we need, or we don’t remember something we
wanted to change this year. It is absolutely critical to stay organized so
that we streamline what we do. Find or create an organizational system
that will help you manage all your tasks. There are technology-based
options, as well as paper ones. I find it particularly helpful to have
strategies to document changes I want to make when I teach a lesson
next year, collect resources I want to use, and keep up with recurring
tasks, such as a weekly email to parents. My friend, Frank Buck, has
a new book out called Get Organized Digitally. Not only is it practical
for educators, I found multiple options I could use. He also provides
practical ideas and resources on organization and time management,

especially using technology, on his website: www.frankbuck.org.
Strategy 6: Remember that small changes lead to bigger ones. Far too
often, we think that if we are implementing something new, we need
to change everything we are doing. If you remember the old fable, the
turtle finished before the hare in the race. Start slowly, implementing an
idea or two at a time, rather than throwing out everything you are doing
and starting over. Begin with two tiers one day each week, then increase
them over time. Regular progress is the goal.
Tool 233: Quotes to Encourage You
One step forward, two back just means I can take more steps.
If I make a mistake, I can choose to give up, or keep going. Failure is my choice.
If I’m in a tough situation I have two choices: I can make the best of it or be
miserable. I choose to make the best of it.—My Mom
Strategy 7: Keep balance in your life. As you are creating a rigorous, differ-
entiated classroom, you will likely become overwhelmed, tired, and discour-
aged at times. If you want to make a difference with your students, don’t
work so much that you don’t have time for yourself and your family. Set a
time to leave at the end of the day, and stick to it unless there is an emergency.
If you need to take work home at night or on the weekend, set a limit of how
long you will work. Do your job effectively, but make time for yourself.
Tool 234: Websites That Provide Tips for Work-Life Balance
www.weareteachers.com/best-of-teacher-helpline-9-tips-for-balancing-work-
and-family/
https://teachingfromthefarm.com/6-tips-for-work-life-balance-in-teaching/
www.theeducator.com/blog/teacher-work-life-balance-5-tips-for-how-to-
have-a-life/
https://pernillesripp.com/2016/01/18/12-ways-i-got-my-life-back-in-
balance-as-a-teacher/
www.teachervision.com/blog/morning-announcements/achieving-work-
life-balance
www.wgu.edu/heyteach/article/how-to-make-sure-your-teaching-career-
doesnt-ruin-your-relationship2202.html
Advocating for Change

In 2017, I was very excited to write a book, Advocacy from A to Z, with my
father and Ron Williamson from Eastern Michigan University. Since my dad
has always been my inspiration, it was a special experience. I also learned
there are many facets to advocacy. It’s more than just supporting elected offi-
cials through our votes. I have excerpted small portions of the book to help
you consider how you can be an advocate.
Everyone is an advocate, whether you recognize it or not. We advocate
for our favorite teams and political candidates, and, of course, we advocate
for our schools and the resources and programs vital to the success of our
students.
Advocacy is what you do when you are actively supporting a cause such
as expanding the time and resources for teaching in a differentiated class-
room. Advocacy is a way to systematically press for change. It is also the
foundation of our democracy and a process that allows ordinary people to
shape and influence policy at all levels. Identifying priorities, crafting a strat-
egy, taking action, and achieving results are critical steps to finding one’s
voice, making oneself heard, and shaping one’s future.
There are five major reasons to become an advocate.
Tool 235: Reasons to Become an Advocate
1. Decisions will be made whether you are involved or not

2. You have important grass roots knowledge decision-makers need to know
3. Decisions will impact you, whether you are involved or not
4. Advocacy starts with one, and that one is you
5. You are an advocate, either active or passive
Once you decide you are an advocate, you want to be an effective one.
There are eight characteristics of an effective advocate.
Tool 236: Characteristics of an Efective ADVOCATE
Always listens and learns

Deliberate focus on long-term goals
Values support from others
Openness to different ways to share your message
Commitment to partner with different and like-minded individuals

Ability to look at and respond to positions and an issue
Tenacity to bounce back from negative responses
Engages the public and stakeholders
Stakeholders
Next, you will need to identify the stakeholders who are impacted by
your desire for more time and resources. There are three types of local groups
that can impact your activities. First, there are those in elected positions. Next,
you have internal stakeholders who are connected with your school. Finally,
there are external stakeholders. The following chart identifies the contacts
that are essential for you to involve in your local efforts.
Tool 237: Stakeholders
Elected Internal External
Mayor Teachers Families

County/Town Manager Staff Community Movers and
Town Council Students Shakers
County Administrator Administrative Non-Profits
School Superintendent Team Media
School Board Members PTAs/PTOs Business Leaders
Senior Citizens
Local College
Community Colleges
Note: Depending on your local situation, some of those listed under elected officials may
be appointed.
Principles of Efective Communication

Be sure to have a clear and concise message. Although your overall mes-
sage will stay the same (providing teachers additional time to collaborate
to improve instruction and providing additional resources we need to meet
the needs of all students), you may customize points for different audiences.
There are ten principles of effective communication.
Tool 238: Ten Principles of Efective Communication

Conciseness and consistency matter
Open with your key point
Match to your agenda
Make it coherent
Understand your audience
Name your objective/desired action
Courtesy rules
Ask questions
Tell a story
Empathy helps
Communicating With Your School Board

Finally, let’s look at how those tips can play out in a school setting. Fol-
lowing are strategies to communicate with your school board. Consider how
these approaches utilize the information we described earlier in the chapter.
Tool 239: Interacting With Your School Board
• Identify a parent, student, or community spokesperson to help deliver

your message to the board.
• Frame the importance of having the right tools for an effective rig-
orous, differentiated classroom in your opening statement. Link it to
board goals and how students will be successful once they leave your
school.
• Describe your plan in such a way that the board can see the link
between your overall school improvement efforts and their goals.
• Share examples of your work to illustrate the impact. It can be very
helpful to highlight the effect of greater rigor on one or more students.
• Give recognition to the individuals who have contributed to your
success. It is a time for you to be modest and allow others to be recog-
nized.
• Conclude your presentation by aligning your vision with the board’s
vision for the district.
You may have been expecting me to recommend a program that would

manage everything for you or the perfect lesson planning tool. The perfect
tool doesn’t exist; if it did, you would be using it. Continue to advocate to
your leaders for additional time and resources, but consider these strategies
while you accept what you have.
Communicating With Parents and Families

Partnering with the parents and families of your students provides advan-
tages to you, your students, and their families. Families will have a better idea
of what’s happening in school, which also allows them to help support their
son or daughter at home. Students benefit when they receive encouragement
at home. And teachers benefit when learning is reinforced and supported by
parents and families. Let’s discuss how to PAIR with parents and families to
improve student learning. Please note that I’ll be using the word “parents,”
but consider it all inclusive with families.
Tool 240: PAIR With Parents
PAIR
Partnerships Are a Two-Way Street
Accentuate the Positive
Inform and Transform
Relationships Are Shared
Partnerships Are a Two-Way Street

A true partnership is more than communication from school to home.
Although it’s our responsibility to take the initiative to form partnerships,
everyone has a role. I’ve found that most parents are willing to help, but they
need specific ways to help.
Kendra, the former teacher from earlier chapters, sends home an interac-
tive newsletter every two weeks. Besides the information, there is a question
for the parents to answer and send back. She has a high return rate because
students receive points for returning the newsletter. She also uses interactive
homework.
For example, I’ll take a picture of something my students did in

school. Then, I write “Ask me what I learned today” at the top of the
page. The parents have to write what their son or daughter said. This
lets me know if the students even remember what happened. I’m also
always about getting feedback on my own performance and when the
parent writes a reflection on what their child is learning, it gives you
insight on how well you taught.
It’s also helpful to provide parents a list of ways they can help at home.
This should include clear guidelines of what constitutes appropriate help
(doing their science project for them isn’t) and any other simple tips (see
Tool 209, General Tips for Parents). Many elementary schools send home a
monthly calendar to post on the refrigerator. Each day has a simple activity
families can do together.
Tool 241: General Tips for Parents
General Tips for Parents

Encourage your son or daughter to give 100% at all times.
Reinforce concepts and habits the teacher is trying to build. If Jonathan
is learning how to multiply percents at school, have him help you calculate
the tip at a restaurant.
Encourage your son or daughter to set a designated time when home-
work will be completed every day.
Provide a quiet, well-lit environment at home with all of the materials
necessary for completing school tasks (extra paper, scissors, pens, pencils,
pencil sharpener, a dictionary, markers, highlighters, a ruler, calculator,
index cards, etc.).
Prevent brain freeze—allow your son or daughter to take a short break
every 30 minutes or between homework tasks.
Be careful not to give answers to homework questions; instead, offer
advice about where to look for an answer.
Model what productive work looks like. When your son or daughter does
homework, you do yours, too (balance a checkbook, pay the bills, etc.).
Tool 242: Rigor Tip Sheet for Parents

It’s also important to let parents know how they can incorporate rigor at
home.
Rigor Tip Sheet for Parents

1. Rigor is simple to implement in school and at home.
2. Rigor is NOT moving your son or daughter to another grade level.
3. Rigor is being challenged on grade level, but support is provided, like
reading guides to help students navigate through difficult or unfamiliar text.
4. Rigor is helping your son or daughter think for him- or herself. You
can help your son or daughter do this by teaching him or her to think
beyond the text, by asking questions starting with “What if . . . ?”
5. Rigor is helping your son or daughter make connections among the
disciplines. Ask, “How does this topic relate to what you are studying
in your other classes?”
6. Rigor is allowing your son or daughter to explore and discover. It is
okay if he or she takes a while to get the answer and you can see it
clearly. Home is the appropriate place for your son or daughter to take
his or her time and process while solving problems.
7. Rigor is providing guidance not answers. When your son or daughter
asks for help, provide guidance, not answers. Too much help teaches
that someone will do the work for him or her.
8. Rigor is providing a supportive environment at home for your son or
daughter to work. He or she needs to know it is okay if his or her an-
swers are not perfect and that he/she can ask for help as long as he/she
has exhausted other measures such as checking class notes, looking to
the text or other reading material, or doing some light research online.
9. Rigor is using and teaching your son or daughter to use positive
language when confronted with a challenge. “I can’t” are not words
anyone may use in your own home. Instead say, “I am having trouble
getting this done. I am going to try to do it by myself, but I may need
some help.”
10. Rigor is having high expectations for your son or daughter and
cheering them on when they are frustrated or challenged.
Accentuate the Positive

I called every parent during the first month of school to introduce myself
and tell them something positive about their son or daughter. I thought of
parent relationships like a bank; I needed to make a deposit before I made a
withdrawal. I didn’t want my first phone call to be one about a poor grade or
a discipline problem. One time it took 17 calls to reach a parent before I was
finally successful. It took about five minutes to convince her I wasn’t calling
because Marcus was in trouble. She finally said she had never received a call
from a teacher telling her something positive about her son. She thanked me
and immediately offered her help anytime I needed it. Five weeks later when
Marcus was in trouble in class, she supported me 100%. Focusing on the pos-
itive has benefits for you, your students, and their parents.
Ways to Share Positive News Through Social Media

There are many social media tools you can use to communicate with
parents and to share positive news. As a caution, be sure you are protecting
the privacy of your classroom and your students. For example, on Pinterest,
don’t name your boards with your location or your full name. Also, there are
private blogs that require invitations or membership, so you can control who
sees the information.
Tool 243: Social Media Tools
Social Media Tools for Sharing Positive News

Pinterest to share samples of student work (code or remove names for pri-
vacy; do not post grades).
Facebook, NextDoor, or a blog to share descriptions of the positive things
going on in your classroom.
TikTok to share videos of class activities and presentations (remember to
get permission for recording).
Tool 244: Inform and Transform

When I talk to parents, many of them feel as though there is a hidden
code in schools, a code they don’t understand. Margo and her son moved
to a new area when Jared started middle school. She missed the first par-
ent-teacher meeting because she was working. She called the school and left
several messages asking to meet with his teachers, but didn’t receive a return
call. Margo was frustrated when she told me her story. Another teacher at
the school was in one of my classes, so I talked with her. I discovered that the
school had a policy that all appointments with teachers were scheduled with
the attendance secretary, so the entire teaching team could meet with parents
without scheduling conflicts. My graduate student said the principal always
explained the policy at the first meeting. So, of course, Margo didn’t know
because she wasn’t at the meeting, and she thought the teachers were just
ignoring her. One phone call later, she connected with the teachers, and she
and Jared finished the year successfully.
Tool 245: Parent Brochure

Building partnerships with parents is founded on informing parents about
what is going on in your classrooms, which transforms the relationship. You
want parents to feel that they are truly a part of your classroom. And that
can’t happen if they don’t know or understand what you are doing. Kendra
believes that communication is an important part of her job. During the first
two weeks of school, she guides her students as they create a brochure for
parents about their classroom.
The students do all preliminaries, I just put it together. I tell them my

philosophy, then each block gets together and comes up with quote
that describes their class. It also includes a poem I write to parents ev-
ery year that finishes by asking for support from them. I always finish
with the message that I can’t do anything without you.
Kendra also sends a brochure that informs parents of basic information

they need during the year, including her contact information, grading and
homework information, and any other relevant classroom policies (see the
sample brochure text under Tool 246).
Tool 246: Rigor Column

I think it’s important to send home a brochure or other written informa-
tion that provides parents with key information. In your brochure, include a
column on rigor.
This quarter in Education News rigor is our hot topic! Rigor is a positive concept
that should be used in classrooms no matter the ability of the students. When teach-
ers practice the use of rigor, our students are challenged but with adequate support.
A good everyday definition is that rigor is high expectations plus support plus
student demonstration of learning. I’ll use rigor in my classroom by increasing the
level of reading students will do, but also by providing aids such as reading guides
so students can navigate through a piece of text more easily or a graphic organizer
to help them solve a problem in mathematics. You can provide rigor by requiring
your son or daughter to discuss material read in language arts, math, science, or
social studies by giving a summary. You can also require your son or daughter to
explain how they got a solution for a mathematics problem or describe the process
they chose to complete a science experiment. Rigor is really all about learning; help-
ing your son or daughter learn at higher levels. I look forward to our year!
Tool 247: Relationships Are Shared

Many partnerships are destroyed before they start, because the teacher
believes it is someone else’s responsibility to prompt a connection. This was
exactly the attitude of my former colleague. If you believe it’s the parents’
responsibility to communicate and/or follow-up with you, that attitude
comes through when you talk with them. Communicating with parents is not
an extra job; it is part of your job. There is no way you can truly help your
students be successful without the support of their parents. And it’s up to
you to take the first step. Suzanne Okey, a former teacher of students with
special needs, points out that sometimes PTA meetings and phone calls are
not enough.
In terms of families, I’m big on home visits. I feel like it’s always fair
to get off your turf and go into the environment where they are most
comfortable. It says this is a two way street; I’m not expecting you to
make all the accommodations; I’ll meet you where you are. If teachers
truly want to form partnerships, they cannot expect it all to be “come
to me”; you have to be willing to go to them. Sometimes I sent a letter.
It is important to give them options, such as meeting them in neutral
places (the public library or McDonald’s) in order to preserve their
privacy and dignity. Not everyone has transportation or telephones,
and they don’t want to advertise that to world.
It’s our responsibility to connect with parents; and the benefits outweigh
any costs in terms of time.
Parent–Teacher Meetings
You may want to present information about rigor at a parent/family–
teacher meeting. It’s important to tailor your presentation to your audi-
ence. For example, if you have a large number of college-educated and/
or college-oriented parents, then you should incorporate more information

about preparing for college.
Tool 248: Sample Agenda for Parent–Teacher Meeting

Opening Activity: Using stickers, ask parents to choose yes/no for each
of the following thoughts:
• I want my son/daughter to be challenged to learn new things.

• I want teachers to help my son/daughter learn more.
• I want my son/daughter to have chances to show what they
know.
• I want my son/daughter to be ready for <choose appropriate
options> life, college, a job, middle school, high school, the next
grade level.
As you present information, incorporate the responses to the questions.

For example, as you talk about rigor, including challenging activities,
you can say, “100% of you said you want your son/daughter to be
challenged to learn new things.”
Presentation: Use the categories and bulleted points to present
information you’ve learned about in this book. An accompanying
PowerPoint is available for your use at www.routledge.com/books/
details/9780367559236/.
Why is rigor important?
• Prepare students for the future (jobs, college, etc.).

• Help them learn new and challenging material. This is the purpose
of school, not just to repeat what they have already learned.
What is rigor?
• Challenge students with high expectations for learning, help them

learn, and let them show how much they understand.
• Alternative is to use my formal definition: creating an environment
in which each student is expected to learn at high levels, each stu-
dent is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, and each
student demonstrates learning at high levels.
What are some examples that we’ll see in the classrooms?
• Instruction will include questions that require thinking and they

may have more than one answer (give samples appropriate to grade
levels and subjects).
• We’ll be reading more than one book, sometimes at the same time, so
students can compare them to each other.
• When they answer a question, students will be asked to show where
they found the answer in the story/article/text.
• Your sons and daughters will be writing a lot!
• They’ll be using problem-solving in math, not just memorizing facts
• On their homework, they will be asked to explain their answers.
• If something is too easy, we’ll move your son/daughter to more
challenging work. The goal is higher learning.
What about grades?
• We focus on learning more than grades.

• There will still be a grading scale (A, B, C, etc.) or standards-based
grading (choose what you will use).
• If work is challenging, your son/daughter probably won’t make 100
on everything.
• However, they can still make an A.
• If using redo policy (see Chapter 6, “Options for Assessment”): At
times, students will be given the opportunity to redo work to show
understanding and improve grades. In real life, you probably get
more than one chance to be successful. So will our students.
What can I do as a parent/family member?
• Praise for effort and progress.

• Don’t panic over a couple of lower grades; look at overall work.
• Encourage your son/daughter to keep up and do their best work.
• If you son or daughter asks you to look at their homework and tell them
if it’s “right,” ask them to explain their answer before you tell them.
• If a teacher asks students to redo work, that is positive. It gives them
more time to take advantage of extra help and another chance to
show they understand the content and improve their grades.
• Talk to the teacher(s). It always helps to understand what is happening.
• Remember, we want to challenge each student to do his or her best.
• Hand out tip sheet (Tool 210).
Questions and Answers

• Take questions from the group and provide follow-up.
Social-Emotional Learning
We are continuing to learn about the importance of social and emotional
learning related to academic learning. There are five areas of social-emotional
learning.
Tool 249: Characteristics of Social-Emotional Learning

Self-Awareness
Self-Management
Social Awareness
Relationship Skills
Responsible Decision-Making
Understanding students’ social-emotional strengths and weaknesses

helps you make differentiated decisions related to whether students will be
more successful working individually or in groups. You can simply observe
students to identify aspects of students’ social-emotional learning, or you can
use a self-assessment.
Tool 250: Social-Emotional Learning Self-Assessment, Version 1
I’m Working I Am I’m Good My Examples/

on It Making at This Evidence
Progress
I understand my
strengths and
weaknesses.
I can process and
understand my
emotions.
I’m Working I Am I’m Good My Examples/

on It Making at This Evidence
Progress
I do not let my
emotions rule my
behaviors.
I can remain calm
and in control of
myself even when
others around me
cannot.
I understand
that everyone
has different
strengths,
weaknesses, and
perspectives.
I respect others,
even if they are
different than me.
I get along with
others, especially
when working
together. I show
my respect with
my behaviors and
my words.
My decisions
are based on an
understanding of
all aspect of that
decision.
Although
I recognize my
emotions, they
do not drive my
decisions.
Tool 251: Social-Emotional Learning Self-Assessment, Version 2

Self-Awareness
I Don’t Think I’m Working on It I’m Good at It

So
I know what I’m good at

and what I need to work
on.
When I’m upset, I can tell
why.
I believe I can do well as
long as I focus and try hard.
Social Awareness
So
I can understand why
someone else thinks or feels
differently than me.
I understand that people
are different, and I like
to learn about those
differences.
I respect others by being
polite and listening to them.
Responsible Decision-Making
So
I can figure out what
the problem is when I’m
struggling.
I think about all the choices
I can make, and make a
decision based on is the
best choice.
I do the right thing, even
when it’s not easy, or what
I want to do.
Self-Management
So
If I’m mad or upset, I stop
and calm down before I do
anything.
I motivate myself to do
things, even if I don’t want
to.
I set goals and try to
accomplish them.
Relationship Skills
So
When I’m working with
others, I can clearly explain
what I’m thinking.
It’s easy for me to make
new friends.
I work well with others
when I’m working in a
team or group.
Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become even more important in the

aftermath of COVID and with the multitude of stressors students face. But
how do we integrate SEL skills into our already busy days? Sarah Gonser,
in an article for Edutopia (www.edutopia.org/article/developing-emotion-
al-literacy-across-grade-levels), provides some simple steps.
Tool 252: Incorporating SEL in the Classroom

Build Feelings Vocabulary Early
Create Opportunities for Emotional Expression
Teach Kids How to “Shift How They Feel”
Practice Taking Other Perspectives
When I was teaching, I used one very effective tool for SEL: a mind dump.
Oftentimes, my students would come into the classroom full of worries and
concerns. I would start class by asking them to write down everything that
was in their head—good and bad. Younger students can draw their responses.
Once they were finished, I asked them to put their papers away so we could
focus on learning. Their concerns were important—we were just going to
wait to worry about them. This was quite effective, from my upper elemen-
tary students to my graduate students at the university.
Using Literature to Teach SEL

Another way to teach social and emotional learning is to use literature.
Children’s books and young adult novels allow you to model effective SEL
skills incorporated into your lessons.
Tool 253: Children’s Books to Teach SEL

Today I Feel Silly
When I Feel Scared
Jabari Jumps
When Sophie Gets Angry, Really, Really Angry
Emmanuel’s Dream
Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad
Day
Fish in a Tree
Diary of an Awesome Friendly Kid
Out of My Mind
Mustaches for Maddie
Tool 254: Young Adult Novels

The World Needs Who You Were Made to Be
The Name Jar
I Am Malala
Out of My Mind
Nothing but the Truth
Freak the Mighty
The Stars Beneath Our Feet
How to Make Friends with the Dark
Remote Learning
Finally, let’s address remote learning. It became a core of instruction
during COVID, to varying degrees of success. I’ve had many teachers tell me
that rigor is not possible in remote learning; students are so challenged by the
technology that it isn’t fair to also challenge them instructionally. I’ve found
that isn’t true with all teachers. It just takes adjusting your view of rigor and
remote learning. For example, don’t try to create new lessons; simply adapt
the rigorous lessons you are already using. Take a look at my core beliefs
about rigor and remote learning.
Tool 255: Core Beliefs About Rigor and Remote Learning
1. Remote learning use best practices in instruction but adapts them to a

virtual setting
2. Remote learning should provide opportunities for student engagement,
although it may look different from the physical classroom
3. Blending synchronous and asynchronous learning will likely be the best
way to support your instruction
4. Planning ensures you can accomplish your goals with rigorous remote
learning
5. Expectations for learning should be high in terms of content, not just
technology or creativity
6. Scaffolding and support are key to student success. Scaffolding may occur
with the whole class, small groups, or individuals
7. Allowing for different assessment options, including an emphasis on
performance-based assessment, is important, since traditional assessment
methods may not be as effective in a remote learning setting
8. Partnering with parents and families is critical to ensure student success
Technology can provide scaffolding that allows your students to com-

plete rigorous work. For example, you might record your live presentation
and also provide another video or set of directions to help them understand
the learning practice for effective scaffolding. Or, while observing their group
or paired work, use formative assessment strategies to help you know when
they are ready to work on their own. One way is when teaching students how
to complete research, use a platform that allows you to share your screen
and record you looking for credible, relevant sites using various key word
searches and thinking aloud. Another example might be how to take the
research gathered, organize it, and paraphrase the information (or directly
quote it), all while talking through the process with students as you make
decisions to build your paragraph from research. It doesn’t have to be any-
thing fancy; students need to see that rough drafts are messy and that they
take much time and thought. All of these are support strategies, but they all
allow students to achieve tasks at a more rigorous level.
There are also ways to allow students to demonstrate and process their
learning in rigorous ways. Let’s look at four.
Tool 256: Math Example

Math (Multiple Grades)
You may remember from Chapter 2 that we looked at error analysis as a

rigorous strategy in math. How might you do that in a remote setting? After
you have taught error analysis, ask students to write two or three problems
about your lesson concept. One of them should be incorrect. Post these on
a shared drive, and other students are assigned a set of problems. They
determine the one that is incorrect, explain why, correct it, and explain why
they know it is correct now.
Tool 257: Science Example

High School Science
We have been discussing thermodynamics. Choose one of the three systems:

open, closed, or isolated. In your group, identify a research question based on our
discussion, but one that we have not fully explored. Next, design and conduct an
investigation to answer the question. Write a report in which you analyze your data,
draw conclusions, and cite your evidence.
You’ll note that in this assignment, students are asked identify a research
question, but in this case, they also are asked to design and conduct the
investigation. Additionally, they must analyze the data they collected, then
draw appropriate conclusions, citing supporting evidence.
In order to have the project completed remotely, you’ll want to provide
students tools such as shared files, chat options, and group video sessions or
group breakout sessions during a video lesson.
Tool 258: Social Studies Example
Upper Elementary School Social Studies

We’ve been reading books and watching videos about heroes and heroines.
Choose someone who is your hero, heroine, or role model. Next, make a list
of why you chose them. Then, make a list of how they are like either Jackie
Robinson, Allie Murray Smith, Jimmy Carter, or Martin Luther King, Jr.
Create write a script for a short video explaining why your person is a hero,
heroine, or role model using information from our lessons and what you
know about the famous person you chose.
With this lesson, you could use a shared drive to have students make their
lists. You could also ask other students to provide feedback. Finally, students
can use an app like Flipboard to create the video rather than writing a script.
Tool 259: English/Language Arts Example
Middle School English/Language Arts

What is the theme of “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”? Make sure to use
details from the text to support this choice. “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”
was written nearly 200 years ago. Justify whether this theme applies to today.
Provide an example from modern life to validate your answer.
There is a great adaptation in remote learning to make this a more rigorous
activity. As they write and post their essays, they should find multiple
examples from modern life to validate their answer. They are also required to
link to sources for the modern life examples.
A Final Note
There are many concerns you may have about implement-
ing rigor in your classroom, including time, student motiva-
tion, working with families, social and emotional learning, and
remote learning. However, there are strategies you can use to
address these issues.

in your classroom?
9
Leading Rigor in Your School
In this chapter, we’ll turn our attention to those who are in a different
role. Perhaps you are a school-based instructional supervisor, an academic or
instructional coach, or some other type of teacher leader. These roles vary in
terms of responsibilities. I cannot possibly address all the needs of each of the
roles, but, with that caveat, we’ll look at four general areas.
Building Support With Administrators

Building a Relationship With Teachers
Creating Professional Learning
Communities
Refecting on Your Progress
Building Support With Administrators

One of the most important parts of your job is to gain support for your
plans from your administrators. They can provide assistance and resources
you need. In fact, if you do not gain their support, you may not be successful
in your efforts. There are six steps you can follow to gain support.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003095743-9
Six Steps for Gaining Support for Your Plan

As you consider working with your administrators, it’s critical to let them
know what you are doing related to rigor. Of course, if your plan is part of
a school-wide or district-wide initiative, then you may not need to work
through all these steps. But I do encourage you to keep the lines of communi-
cation open. I’ve found that most administrators want to support high expec-
tations, student scaffolding, and student demonstration of learning—in other
words, rigor—but they don’t like surprises! As one principal shared with me,
“My concern is when I hear about something new from a parent before I hear
about it from the coach.”
For you to be successful in increasing rigor, you want administrative sup-
port. This is particularly true if or when you get pushback from teachers.
I recommend you use a six-step process as you collaborate with your princi-
pal and other administrators.
Tool 260: Six Steps
Step 1: Goal
What is your goal? I recommend you be more
specific than to “increase rigor.” Here are three 1. Goal
sample goals you may have for working with your 2. Purpose
teachers: 3. Process
4. Support
1. Increase our expectations by incorporating 5. Successes
Webb’s Depth of Knowledge.
6. Feedback
2. Develop and implement a toolkit of addi-
tional scaffolding strategies.
3. Develop common assessments with teams/
grade levels/departments.
Leading Rigor in Your School ◆ 205
Step 2: Purpose
Your purpose is linked to your goal, but it is a little broader. For example,
our purpose in incorporating Webb’s Depth of Knowledge is to move our stu-
dents into more complex work, such as analyzing multiple texts, synthesizing
information, and creating their own argumentative essays based on the work.
Or, by using additional scaffolding strategies, we hope to increase student
understanding throughout the lesson. Finally, by working with teachers to
develop common assessments, we’ll ensure that students will demonstrate
learning at a higher level.
Step 3: Process
Now you move to the details: what steps will you follow to put your plan
into place? These would be steps teachers would take with your coaching.
Tool 261: Sample Steps
Area Steps
Incorporating Webb’s Depth of • Review materials on DOK.

Knowledge • Google sample lesson plans
using DOK.
• Review current lessons.
• Revise to incorporate DOK.
• Implement lessons.
• Adjust on ongoing basis.
Develop/Implement Additional • Ask other teachers for most
Scaffolding effective scaffolding strategies.
• Review current lessons.
• Revise to incorporate additional
scaffolding.
• Implement lessons.
• Ask instructional coach to
observe/provide informal
feedback.
• Adjust on ongoing basis.
Area Steps
Develop/Implement Common • Contact other teachers to

Assessments agree to work on this project
(completed).
• Schedule meetings or time
within current meetings to
work on project.
• Choose one standard and ask
everyone to develop a rigorous
assessment for that standard.
• During meeting, compare
assessments and combine to
create common one.
• All teachers in the group
implement assessment.
• Meet to provide feedback and
make adjustments.
• Repeat (goal is to create at least
two common assessments this
year).
Step 4: Support
Then, ask for any support you need. In the case of incorporating Webb’s
Depth of Knowledge, you may need to provide training, which would require
time and possible material resources. In the case of the common assessments,
you might need help finding and scheduling additional common time for
your professional learning community to develop the assessments.
Step 5: Share Successes

If you have already implemented aspects of your plan, share the successes
you have experienced, as well as how they have shaped your desire to move
forward. If you are just starting or are continuing, share your successes on a
regular basis. Not only will this encourage you, it will demonstrate the bene-
fits of your plan to your administrator(s).
Step 6: Feedback
Finally, as you begin, and again throughout the process, ask for feedback.
Be open to suggestions that will help you improve. Another view is always
beneficial. Feedback is a valuable tool for your own professional growth and
the success of your plan.
Tool 262: Sample Feedback Questions
What do you see as the strengths of my plan?

Do you have suggestions for improvement? If so, what?
Are there ways I haven’t considered that I should use to communicate more
efectively with teachers about my plan?
Are you willing to provide your support (remember, be specifc about what you
need)?
Collaborating With Teachers

Whether you are called an instructional specialist, content area facilitator,
curriculum specialist, or a number of other titles, your role has one thing in
common: to help teachers improve their practice by serving as a resource,
guide, or mentor. That requires collaboration, which can be helped with the
Three Bs.
Tool 263: Three Bs for Working With Teachers
Build a relationship.
Be clear on roles.
Begin with student learning in mind.
Build a Relationship
This may sound basic, but it’s true. A good relationship is the foundation
for working together. I worked with a school where some teachers resented
the instructional specialist because she had been promoted to the job, and
those teachers wanted the job. For other teachers, her new role was a shift
from being a friend to also being in a more specialized job of being a leader. It
was important for her to adjust and help teachers adjust to her new role. Here
are several ideas for building a relationship with teachers.
Tool 264: Building a Relationship

Keep the lines of communication open.
Listen, listen, and listen more.
Focus on successes whenever possible.
Don’t pretend to know something when you
don’t.
Keep the focus on students.
Be Clear on Roles
Second, be clear on your role. For example, in many situations, the instruc-
tional specialist or coach is not an evaluator; they serve as a facilitator of
teachers’ work and a resource. If so, be sure each of you understands the role
and works within those parameters. If the specialist also observes teachers
as part of formal evaluations, then you need to be aware of that and respond
accordingly. One teacher I spoke with explained, “Since my curriculum facil-
itator evaluates me and that is part of my yearly evaluation, I’m careful that
I don’t ask for too much help. I don’t want it to be seen as a negative.” That’s
unfortunate, but what’s important is that everyone is clear on roles.
Begin With Student Learning in Mind

Finally, begin (and end) with student learning as your focus. I was in one sit-
uation where everything was personal. Feedback was interpreted as a criticism
of the teacher’s performance, and responses to the specialist were negative.
Remember, the goal of an instructional specialist is to help teachers grow and be
more effective. It’s about benefiting students so they learn at higher level. Keep
your focus there, and don’t let it become a personal conflict with a teacher.
Creating Professional Learning Communities

An important part of raising the level of rigor in your classroom and
school is collaborating with other teachers. There are various options and
purposes for working together. Many teachers are members of professional

learning communities (PLCs). The term has become so commonplace that
it can mean any type of collaboration. The original meaning of a profes-
sional community of learners reflected the commitment of teachers and
leaders who continuously seek to grow professionally and act upon their
new learning.
Tool 265: Characteristics of PLCs

There are three defining characteristics of PLCs. First, professional
learning communities are focused on student learning. As DuFour, DuFour,
Eaker, Many, and Mattos (2016) promote, the goal is to improve student
learning by improving what you do in the classroom. Next, there is a cul-
ture of collaboration among the participants. You’ve probably worked in
or seen a team of teachers who were assigned to a task, each performed his
or her part of the task, and then they walked away. That’s not a true PLC.
In a PLC, teachers collaborate to move beyond tasks and learn together.
Finally, professional learning communities focus on results, no matter what
it takes. Although there may be a discussion of challenges, they are not used
as excuses.
Benefts of Professional Learning Communities

There are many ways professional learning communities provide advan-
tages for teachers. Opportunities for collaborative inquiry and the learning
related to it allow teachers to develop and share their learning. The ultimate
benefit of a professional learning community is a positive impact on learning
for everyone—including students. The International Society for Technology
Education shares four benefits of PLCs (2021).
Tool 266: Benefts of PLCs

Direct improvement of teaching and learning.
Stronger relationships for team members.
Awareness of newest research and technology.
Opportunities for refection.
Source: www.iste.org/explore/professional-development/4-benefts-active-professional-learning-community
Types of Professional Learning Communities

There are many different types of groupings that can be used for PLCs.
You might involve the entire school, grade levels, teams, departments, inter-
disciplinary groups, vertical teams, or groups based on interest.
To determine the best grouping for your professional learning commu-
nity, ask yourself three questions.
Tool 267: Three Questions for PLCs
1. What is your purpose?

2. Who are the best people to achieve that
purpose?
3. How will you adjust your group if needed?
Scheduling Time for Professional Learning Communities

Successful professional learning communities provide time for you and
other teachers to work together to meet, talk about rigor in your school, and
identify strategies for making your classroom more rigorous. Although you
may not have control over scheduling in your school, these ideas provide a
starting point for a discussion with school and district leadership.
Tool 268: Providing Collaborative Time

Providing Collaborative Time
Strategy Description
Common Planning When teachers share a common planning

period, they may use some of the time for
collaborative work.
Parallel Scheduling Special teachers (PE, music, art, etc.) are
scheduled so that grade-level or content-area
teachers have common planning.
Shared Classes Teachers in more than one grade or team
combine their students into a single large
class for specific instruction, and the other
teachers can collaborate.
Providing Collaborative Time
Strategy Description
Faculty Meeting Find other ways to communicate the routine

items shared during faculty meetings and
reallocate that time to collaborative activities.
Adjust Start or End of Day Members of a team, grade, or entire school
agree to start their workday early or extend
their workday one day a week to gain
collaborative time.
Late Start or Early Release Adjust the start or end of the school day for
students and use the time for collaborative
activity.
Professional Development Rather than traditional large-group professional
Days development, use the time for teams of teachers
to engage in collaborative work.
Are Your Teachers Ready?

Before we discuss options for PLCs, let’s take a moment to discuss how
teachers can self-assess their willingness to participate in a professional learn-
ing community. A PLC requires a commitment, and it’s important that teachers
participate in the process with a full understanding of what you need to do.
Tool 269: Teachers’ Self-Assessment

Teachers’ Self-Assessment of Willingness to Participate in a PLC
Willingness to Participate in a PLC Yes/No (Why or Why Not)
I want to use my knowledge and skills to help

other teachers.
I want other teachers to share their knowledge
and skills to help me improve my teaching.
I am willing to participate in and promote
open, honest communication.
I will participate in a collaboration that is focused
on improving student learning, building shared
knowledge about best practice, and making a
difference in terms of results, no matter what.
Teachers’ Self-Assessment of Willingness to Participate in a PLC
Willingness to Participate in a PLC Yes/No (Why or Why Not)
I will honor my commitments to members of

my PLC.
I want to analyze student work at a higher
level, set goals based on that data, and
implement effective teaching practices to meet
those goals.
I am willing to try and adapt new instructional
practices, even if they are not successful the
first time.
I will help establish team goals, norms, and
protocols to ensure collaborative work and
participate in adjustments needed to ensure
this focus.
I will encourage others in positive ways rather
than focusing on negative aspects of our work.
I will support not only other teachers but the
leader/facilitator of our group.
I will share the results of our work with other
teachers so they can learn from our activities.
Source: Adapted from Williamson (2009) and DuFour et al. (2016); updated 2022.
Options for PLCs

Since professional learning communities offer the best structure to work
with teachers, let’s look at activities for working with teachers in a PLC. There
are other common options, such as book studies, but I’d like to focus on five
that provide more depth and sustainability.
Lesson Studies
Video Lessons
Looking at Tasks and Assignments
Evaluating Instructional Materials
Sample Professional Development Activities
Tool 270: Lesson Studies

A more formal option than simply working together to craft a lesson, les-
son studies emphasize working in small groups to plan, teach, observe, and
critique a lesson. It’s an excellent reflection of the principles of professional
learning communities, as the goal is to systematically examine your teaching
in order to become more effective.
In a lesson study, teachers work together to develop a detailed plan for
a lesson. One member of the group teaches the lesson to his or her students
while other members of the group observe. Next, the group discusses their
observations about the lesson and student learning.
Teachers revise the lesson based on their observations, then a second
group member teaches the lesson, with other members once again observ-
ing. Then the group meets to discuss the revised lesson. Finally, teachers talk
about what the study lesson taught them and how they can apply the learn-
ing in their own classroom.
Cycle for Lesson Study Activity
Reflect
Plan
Teach/observe
Teach/observe
Revise
Reflect
Tool 271: Video Lessons

With the wide variety of classroom videos available on the internet, this
provides another excellent tool for improving instruction. I like using videos
as a starting point for discussions of videos because it is less personal. I’ve
worked with many good teachers who are nervous about other teachers cri-
tiquing them. We can use videos in two ways.
Tool 272: Refection and Improvement

The first option for using videos is for reflection and improvement. Find
a video that reflects an upcoming lesson for the group’s grade level and sub-
ject. As you start your meeting, ask the group to brainstorm how they would
teach the lesson. Next, watch the lesson and discuss what they saw. Compare
the video with their strategies from the brainstorming portion of the meeting
and determine the best way to teach the lesson. After the teachers teach the
improved lesson, meet again to discuss their instruction and what they learned.
Bra
ins
tor
m
s
us
sc
Di
Watch vide
n,
sso
o
l e
ch
Tea
Discuss
Tool 273: Critiquing for Rigor

A second way to use videos is to critique a lesson for rigor. After discuss-
ing rigor and common rigorous and non-rigorous actions, watch the video.
Afterward, debrief and brainstorm ideas for improvement.
Tool 274: Organizer for Critique
Video: Main Focus:
Rigorous Actions Non-Rigorous Actions
Overall Thoughts:
Tool 275: Sample Non-Rigorous Behaviors
Sample Non-Rigorous Behaviors

• Teacher asks lower-level questions
• Teachers answers his or her own questions
• Teacher asks higher-order questions but accepts lower-level answers
• A few students are allowed to dominate class discussions or small group
work
• Little wait time
Looking at Tasks and Assignments

One of the most common professional development activities I do is
working with schools and districts to determine whether teachers’ tasks and
assignments are rigorous. It requires teachers to reflect on their own prac-
tices and levels of rigor, regardless of whether students think an assignment
is hard. Oftentimes, students struggle with work that is not rigorous. Every
single assignment does not need to be rigorous, but rigorous assignments

should be a regular part of the classroom. Therefore, we should regularly
assess the tasks we use.
Tool 276: Process for Looking at Tasks and Assignments

The process I use follows three steps. First, we review the assignment.
Next, we compare the task to a set of criteria for rigorous work. Then, we
determine if, overall, the assignment is rigorous and, if not, how to improve
it. We also may make changes to specific parts of the task. There are many
frameworks that explain what to look for in a rigorous assignment, such as
Webb’s Depth of Knowledge or Karin Hess’s Cognitive Rigor Matrix. I cre-
ated the Rigor Check, which blends many other frameworks, and that is what
I use with schools and districts.
Tool 277: Rigor Check
Excerpt from Rigor Check by Barbara R. Blackburn, PhD
Level One: Basic

Are students . . .
. . . answering lower-level, fact-based, recall, and/or basic comprehension
questions?
. . . representing a math relationship in words, pictures, or symbols or using a
well-known formula?
Level Two: Developing Level Three: Rigorous
Are students . . . Are students . . .
. . . applying information and/or . . . demonstrating higher-order
interpreting standard information thinking?
from a table, figure, or graphic? . . . proposing and evaluating
. . . classifying, organizing, collecting, solutions or recognizing and
and/or displaying data or other explaining misconceptions?
information? . . . identifying questions and
. . . identifying main ideas or central designing investigations for a
themes? scientific problem and/or designing
an original problem given a
situation?
Level Four: Highly Rigorous

Are students . . .
. . . synthesizing and connecting ideas within and among content areas and
the outside world and/or generalizing information and applying them to a
new problem?
. . . voicing a new perspective, alternate theme, or new knowledge?
Tool 278: Assessing a Sample

Let’s see what this process looks like in action. Take a look at the follow-
ing reading sample.
Literature Circle Roles

Connector
Name: Circle:
Meeting Date: Reading Assignment:
Book:
Connector: Your job is to find connections between the book and you and
between the book and the wider world. Consider the list when you make
your connections.
• Your own past experiences
• Happenings at school or in the community
• Stories in the news
• Similar events at other times and places
• Other people or problems that you are reminded of
• This book vs other writings on the same topic or by the same author
Some connections I made between this reading and my own experiences,
the wider world, and other texts and authors:
At first glance, do you think this is rigorous? Why or why not? Working
with detailed criteria, such as the ones I recommended earlier, cross-check
each part of the task with the criteria. When I use this assignment with teach-
ers, we discuss that one positive is that students must go beyond the text to
make connections, which is an indicator of rigor. However, students are not
required to provide justification or evidence for their connections. Also, stu-
dents do not demonstrate they understand the text at a deep level, although
that may have been a part of another assignment. Our analysis concludes that
this task is Level 2: Developing, but it could be moved to a Level 3: Rigorous
if justification and evidence are required.
Evaluating Rigorous Materials

Instructional resources come in many formats such as textbooks, trade
books, other print resources, and electronic media. No matter what type of
resource you use, it’s important to gauge whether it is rigorous. Oftentimes
when we are investing in a resource for our entire school or district, we con-
duct a thorough evaluation. However, it may not include an emphasis on
rigor.
Tool 279: Adding Rigor to Existing Evaluations for Textbooks or

Other Programs
As a former consultant with two textbook companies, I’ve seen more than
my share of evaluation tools. Many of the questionnaires asked about the
match to objectives, but they didn’t ask for further detail, such as whether
lessons reflected rigorous expectations. I’d recommend adding specific ques-
tions or benchmarks related to rigor, perhaps using some of the criteria for
evaluating tasks. You could also use these criteria as a stand-alone tool.
Additional Criteria Specifc to Rigor Evidence From Resource (Percentage

of Items)
Questions are rigorous.

Assignments throughout program
are rigorous.
Included lesson plans or strategies
provide extensions for additional
rigor.
Additional Criteria Specifc to Rigor Evidence From Resource (Percentage

of Items)
Scaffolding strategies to ensure

students are successful are designed
to lead all students to rigorous work.
Specific Examples of These Indicators
Tool 280: Evaluating Individual Resources

Perhaps you are looking online for a rigorous worksheet or lesson online.
That can be harder than it sounds. For example, I Googled “rigorous lesson
plan,” and the majority were not rigorous. Before you use a tool, assess the
level of rigor and determine if it is the best resource for you. Tool 276: Process
for Looking at Tasks and Assignments can guide you through the process.
The following chart provides criteria that match my definition of rigor.
Assessing a Resource
Name of Resource:
Criteria Evidence
Level of Questioning Overall perspective

Detailed Questioning Levels Based Percentage for each level of the
on Framework for Rigor framework
Scaffolding Leads to Rigorous Work Yes/No
Students Demonstrate Learning at Do/does the final task(s) require students
High Levels to demonstrate higher-order thinking (as
defined by a framework for rigor)?
Professional Development Workshops

A final activity for PLCs is a workshop, I’d like to give you four sugges-
tions for short workshops you can use with your teachers. They are applicable
across all grade levels and subject areas. The outlines are provided here; the
articles referenced are in the appendices.
Tool 281: Professional Development: Understanding Rigor

1. Assess teachers’ current understanding. Ask teachers to answer the
following three questions anonymously. Either have them answer them
in advance and collate them (which you can hand out for discussion) or
use post-it notes.
a. What is rigor?
b. What are students doing in a rigorous classroom?
c. What are teachers doing in a rigorous classroom?
2. After a discussion of teachers’ perceptions of rigor, hand out The
Beginner’s Guide to Rigor (Appendix A). After they read it, allow them
to discuss the content. Lead a discussion, adding information from this
workshop.
3. Next, begin to share activities. Choose one to three activities at the
beginning. Do the activities with teachers, then allow them to discuss
why the activities are rigorous. Ask them to choose one activity to use
in their classroom during a specified time period.
Tool 282: Professional Development: Myths of Rigor

1. Revisit the definition of rigor. Discuss any questions.
2. Ask teachers to share their classroom examples. What did they do?
What worked? What were challenges? Discuss.
3. Ask teachers to read Ten Myths of Rigor (Appendix B). What is their
response? Do they see how the myths are untrue? What are their
concerns? Discuss.
4. Next, share activities. Choose one to three activities. Do the activi-
ties with teachers, then allow them to discuss why the activities are
rigorous. Ask them to choose one activity to use in their classroom
during a specified time period.
Tool 283: Professional Development: Expectations

1. Ask teachers to share a time from their own experiences as a student
when one of their teachers showed low expectations toward them.
2. Read the article Expectations: Beliefs Into Action (Appendix C).
3. Discuss the article. In pairs, share specific examples of how they

have shown high expectations for students and perhaps an example
when their expectations were lower.
Tool 284: Professional Development: Using Technology to Increase

Rigor
1. Review the last session and discuss what teachers learned.
2. Read the article Using Technology to Increase Rigor in the Classroom
(Appendix D).
3. Discuss and determine ways to implement rigorous activities using
technology.
Refecting on Your Progress

Finally, it’s important for you to focus on your own progress. You have a
variety of responsibilities, and it can be difficult to balance everything. I rec-
ommend you reflect on your roles and tasks periodically, perhaps at the end
of every grading period.
Tool 285: Self-Refection
Role/Task Yes/No Comments
I have a vision for my job.

My tasks and responsibilities reflect my vision.
I work collaborative with the administration and
other leaders to support my efforts and ensure
student success.
I seek feedback from the administration and other
leaders to improve my efforts.
I seek input from teachers to ensure I am meeting
their needs.
I work to build ownership from teachers.
Role/Task Yes/No Comments
I build the support options I provide, whether

mentoring, coaching, providing professional
development, teaching model lessons, or other items,
based on teacher feedback, my own perspective, and
that of leaders.
I balance my time with teachers, providing extra
support for those who need it without ignoring others.
My professional development training options are
interactive and based on teachers’ needs.
I seek ongoing feedback from teachers to improve
my performance.
I take time for my own learning to ensure my growth
and effectiveness.
I connect with others in a similar role to share ideas.
I balance my work life and personal life, knowing
that also improves my effectiveness.
A Final Note
If you are an instructional specialist, coach, or other leader
or teacher-leader, you have a special role in terms of increasing
rigor in your school. By working with other leaders and teach-
ers, creating effective PLCs, and reflecting on your own prog-
ress, you can ensure success in your school.

in your classroom?
Appendix A
The Beginner’s Guide to Rigor
The Beginner’s Guide to Understanding Rigor

Rigor is creating an environment in which each student is expected to learn at
high levels, each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, and
each student demonstrates learning at high levels
(Blackburn, 2008).
When I am in schools working with teachers, I’m often asked why I care
about rigor. They are also quick to tell me they care about rigor because they
are told they have to. My response is simple. There are other reasons, such as
the clear research base that shows our students need more rigor, standards
that require more rigor, or the number of students who graduate from high
school ill prepared for college or the workforce.
But my most important reason is this: rigor is not about giving students
more to do or punishing them with more homework. Rigor is about helping
students learn at higher levels, and that’s why I became a teacher.
Defning Rigor
My definition of rigor has a sharp focus on instruction: creating an envi-
ronment in which:
1. each student is expected to learn at high levels,

2. each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, and
3. each student demonstrates learning at high levels.
Notice we are looking at the environment you create. The tri-fold approach
to rigor is not limited to the curriculum students are expected to learn. It is
more than a specific lesson or instructional strategy. It is deeper than what a
student says or does in response to a lesson. True rigor is the result of weav-
ing together all elements of schooling to raise students to higher levels of
learning. Let’s take a deeper look at the three aspects of the definition.
224 ◆ Appendix A: The Beginner’s Guide to Rigor
Expecting Students to Learn at High Levels

Rigor is creating an environment in which each student is expected to learn at
high levels. Having high expectations starts with the decision that every stu-
dent possesses the potential to be his or her best, no matter what.
As you design lessons that incorporate more rigorous opportunities for
learning, you will want to consider the questions that are embedded in the
instruction. Higher-level questioning is an integral part of a rigorous class-
room. Look for open-ended questions, ones that are at the higher levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy (analysis, synthesis).
It is also important to look at how teachers respond to student questions.
When I visit schools, it is not uncommon to see teachers who ask higher-
level questions. But I then see some of the same teachers accept low-level
responses from students. In rigorous classrooms, teachers push students to
respond at high levels. They ask extending questions. If a student does not
know the answer, the teacher continues to probe and guide the student to an
appropriate answer rather than moving on to the next student.
Supporting Students to Learn at High Levels

High expectations are important, but the most rigorous schools ensure
that each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels, which is the sec-
ond part of our definition. It is essential that teachers design lessons that move
students to more challenging work while simultaneously providing ongoing
scaffolding to support students’ learning as they move to those higher levels.
Providing additional scaffolding throughout lessons is one of the most
important ways to support students. This can occur in a variety of ways, but
it requires that teachers ask themselves during every step of their lesson,
“What extra support might my students need?”
Ensuring Students Demonstrate Learning at High Levels

The third component of a rigorous classroom provides each student with
opportunities to demonstrate learning at high levels. What I’ve learned is that if
we want students to show us they understand what they learned at a high
level, we also need to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate they
have truly mastered that learning. One way to accomplish that is through
increased student engagement.
Options include requiring all students to respond either through pair-
share, thumbs up or down, writing an answer on small whiteboards and
sharing their response, or responding on a handheld computer that tallies
responses. Such activities hold each student accountable for demonstrating
their understanding.
Appendix B
Ten Myths of Rigor
Are you interested in rigor? It’s one of the most common concepts in edu-
cation today. However, myths about rigor abound. What are some everyday
beliefs about rigor that are not true?
Myth 1: Lots of Homework Is a Sign of Rigor

For many people, the best indicator of rigor is the amount of homework
required of students. Some teachers pride themselves on the amount of home-
work expected of their students, and there are parents who judge teachers by
homework quantity.
Realistically, all homework is not equally useful. Some of it is just busy-
work, assigned by teachers because principals or parents expect it. For some
students, doing more homework in terms of quantity leads to burnout. When
that occurs, students are less likely to complete homework and may be dis-
couraged about any learning activity.
Myth 2: Rigor Means Doing More

“Doing more” often means doing more low-level activities, frequently
repetitions of things already learned. Such narrow and rigid approaches to
learning do not define a rigorous classroom. Students learn in many differ-
ent ways. Just as instruction must vary to meet the individual needs of stu-
dents, so must homework. Rigorous and challenging learning experiences
will vary with the student. Their design will vary, as will their duration.
Ultimately, it is the quality of the assignment that makes a difference in
terms of rigor.
Myth 3: Rigor Is Not for Struggling Students or Students

With Special Needs
Sometimes we believe our students who are struggling, whether they have
special needs, are English learners, or are challenged with other issues, simply
cannot learn at high levels. At times, they cannot answer even basic questions,
226 ◆ Appendix B: Ten Myths of Rigor
so we accept that there is a limit to what they can do. Realistically, all students
are capable of rigorous work, as long as they have the right support and scaf-
folding. For example, Dr. Brad Witzel, a colleague of mine, reminds me:
Just because a student is labeled learning disabled or at risk, it does not
mean he or she is incapable of learning. Students with learning disabilities
have average to above-average intelligence. Therefore, ensuring their success
in school is a matter of finding the appropriate teaching strategies and moti-
vation tools, all of which we can control as teachers.
Myth 4: When You Increase Rigor, Student Motivation Decreases

Because many students do struggle with challenging work, we assume
their motivation will decrease. After all, many students already appear to be
unmotivated, so what will happen when the work is harder? The truth is that
when we “dumb it down” for students, we lessen motivation. They accu-
rately interpret that easier work means we believe they cannot learn, or they
become bored, or both. The result is decreased motivation. On the other hand,
when we provide challenging work, reflect our belief in their success with
our words and actions, and provide specific support to help them succeed,
they will be motivated to work at rigorous levels.
Myth 5: Providing Support Means Lessening Rigor

In America, we believe in rugged individualism. We are to pull ourselves
up by our bootstraps and do things on our own. Working in teams or accept-
ing help is often seen as a sign of weakness. Supporting students so that they
can learn at high levels is central to the definition of rigor. As teachers design
lessons moving students toward more challenging work, they must provide
differentiated scaffolding to support them as they learn.
Myth 6: Resources Equal Rigor

Recently, I’ve heard a common refrain. “If we buy this program or text-
book or technology, then we will be rigorous.” The right resources can cer-
tainly help increase the rigor in your classroom. However, raising the level
of rigor for your students is not dependent on the resources you have. Think
about the resources you have now. How can you use them more effectively?
Do you use a textbook that includes true-false tests? Often they are not rig-
orous because students can guess the answer. However, add one step for
more rigor. Ask students to rewrite all false answers as true statements, and
Appendix B: Ten Myths of Rigor ◆ 227
it requires students to demonstrate true understanding. It’s not the resources;

it’s how you use them that makes a difference.
Myth 7: Standards Alone Take Care of Rigor

Standards alone, even if they are rigorous, do not guarantee rigor in the
classroom. Most state standards and the Common Core State Standards are
designed to increase the level of rigor in classrooms across the nation. How-
ever, they were not designed to address instruction. In fact, they provide a
framework for what is to be taught and what students are expected to know.
If implemented without high levels of questioning or applications, the stan-
dards themselves are weakened. Your instructional practices, or how you
implement standards, are just as critical as the curriculum.
Myth 8: Rigor Means You Have to Quit Doing Everything You Do Now and
Start Over
Although there may be times you need to create a rigorous lesson from
scratch, in most cases, you can take what you are doing and make adjust-
ments to increase the rigor. For example, if you are teaching math, instead of
asking students to always solve problems, provide examples of problems that
are already solved and ask them to identify the errors. Or, if you want stu-
dents to read and summarize scientific information, also ask them to generate
research questions based on the information.
Myth 9: Rigor Is Just One More Thing to Do

Rigor is not another thing to add to your plate. Instead, rigor is increas-
ing the level of expectation in all aspects of what you are already doing. For
example, if you are working on differentiating instruction, think about how
rigor connects. For your lower tiers, it’s important to continue to provide rig-
orous work, although with more support. Rigor is not separate from other
components of your classroom; it is a part of them.
Myth 10: Rigor Is Not for Younger Students

In many ways, this is one of the most dangerous myths. What I’ve found
is that if we don’t expose children to challenging work as they begin school,
it is far more of a struggle for them later. Rigor in the primary grades can
simply be asking “Why” or “How do you know?” when they answer a basic
228 ◆ Appendix B: Ten Myths of Rigor
question, which requires them to justify their answer and provide evidence.
Those are critical life skills, as well as academic skills.
A Final Note
While many myths are present in our conversations about rigor, the real-
ity is that rigor is about starting with where a student is in learning and help-
ing them grow to new heights.
Sources
Blackburn, B. (2018). Rigor Is NOT a Four-Letter Word (3rd edition). New York:
Routledge. Blackburn, B. (2018). Rigor and Differentiation in the Classroom. New
York: Routledge. Blackburn, B. (2020). Rigor in the Remote Learning Classroom.
New York: Routledge.
Appendix C
Expectations: Beliefs Into Actions
Expectations: Beliefs Into Actions
Holding High Expectations

Do you have high expectations for your students? I’ve never met a teacher
who said, “I have low expectations for my students.” The challenge is that we
sometimes have hidden low expectations of certain students. One year, sev-
eral teachers “warned” me about Daniel, a new student in my class. During
class, he certainly lived up to (really down to) the teachers’ comments. Despite
my efforts, my expectations for him became lower. We have to be on guard to
ensure that we keep high expectations in place for every single student.
Next, we may have high expectations but not translate those expectations
into action. Our actions may inadvertently undermine high expectations, and
students are quick to notice.
High-Expectation vs. Low-Expectation Behaviors

For example, Robert Marzano and others have found that when we have
high expectations, we treat students differently. When questioning students,
we call on them more often, ask more challenging questions, provide more
wait time, and probe for additional information. How often do we use those
strategies with struggling learners?
I know I made that mistake as a new teacher. Quinn struggled in my class, and
nothing I did seemed to work. I ended up putting him in the last row of my class-
room. As long as he behaved, I didn’t call on him or push him to participate. Even
though I said I expected all my students to learn, I didn’t really show that to Quinn.
And he understood my message. One day, we talked about his performance in my
class, and he said, “Why should I try? You don’t think I can do anything.”
That was an eye-opener for me. I was so focused on making sure he
behaved, I didn’t challenge him. I was content to let him be a passive learner.
My actions reflected subconscious low expectations.
Another year, I had a similar situation with Clarissa. She was bright but
lacked confidence. Her lack of self-efficacy caused her tremendous learn-
ing problems. She wasn’t willing to try to learn anything new or challeng-
ing. I wanted to boost her confidence, so I provided easier work for her to
230 ◆ Appendix C: Expectations
complete. Instead of multi-step math problems, I gave her single-step prob-

lems. When we were reading, I allowed her to read easier books, many of
which she had read before. I wanted her to feel successful.
What I didn’t realize was that I wasn’t doing my job. I wasn’t teaching
her to learn and grow—I was content to leave her in her comfort zone. By
doing so, I also showed her I didn’t think she could do any better. Once again,
despite my comments to her that she could learn and that I had high expecta-
tions for her, my actions didn’t reflect that.
We have to be on guard to ensure that we keep high expectations in place
for every single student. But we also have to put those expectations into
action.
Action Characteristics
Many researchers have detailed specific actions we take that are reflec-
tive of low expectations. I’ve used Robert Marzano’s (2010) categories
of our affective tone and our academic content interactions to provide a
summary.
Actions That Refect Low Expectations
Less eye contact Call on less often

Smile less Provide less wait time
Less physical contact Ask less challenging questions
More distance from student’s seat Ask less specific questions
Engage in less playful or light Delve into answers less deeply
dialogue Reward them for less rigorous
Use of comfort talk (“That’s okay, responses
you can be good at other things”) Provide answers for students
Display angry disposition Use simpler modes of presentation
and evaluation
Do not insist that homework be
turned in on time
Use comments such as, “Wow, I’m
surprised you answered correctly”
Use less praise
The opposite is also true. When we have high expectations, we act in cer-
tain converse ways. Which do you use with your struggling students?
Appendix C: Expectations ◆ 231
Actions That Refect High Expectations
More eye contact Call on more often

Smile more Provide more wait time
More physical contact Ask more challenging questions
Less distance from student’s seat Ask more specific questions
Engage in more playful or light Delve into answers more deeply
dialogue Reward them for more rigorous
Little use of comfort talk (“That’s responses
okay, you can be good at other Use more complex modes of
things”) presentation and evaluation
Insist that homework be turned in on
time
Use more praise
Consider your students. Are any of the actions true for you with specific
young adolescents? I’ve found that we sometimes act in these ways subcon-
sciously, not even realizing that we are doing so. It’s important to be aware of
the ways we act on high and low expectations so we can monitor ourselves,
reflect, and make adjustments if needed.
Conclusion
We know that having high expectations is important for our students, par-
ticularly when their expectations for themselves are low. It’s critical that we
examine our beliefs to ensure they represent a view of success for our strug-
gling students. Then we must put our beliefs into action, showing students that
we do believe they can learn at high levels. By changing our actions, we not
only motivate our struggling learners, we help them achieve at higher levels.
Material excerpted from Motivating Struggling Learners: 10 Ways to Build
Student Success by Routledge.
Marzano, R. J. (September, 2010). High expectations for all. Educational
Leadership, 68 1. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Source: https://www.middleweb.com/24030/do-we-really-have-high-
expectations/
Appendix D
Using Technology to Increase Rigor
in the Classroom
Using Technology to Increase Rigor in the Classroom

Instructional rigor is a concept we can agree is important, despite the debate
about the use of the word itself. Rigor is “creating an environment in which
each student is expected to learn at high levels; each student is supported so he
or she can learn at high levels; and each student demonstrates learning at high
levels” (Blackburn, 2008). But how does technology relate to rigor? As with any
instructional tool, educational technology is critical to increasing rigor in the
classroom. There are five ways technology can be used to increase rigor.
Promotes Higher-Order Thinking

Technology that increases rigor promotes higher-order thinking, not rote-
level tasks. There are times it is appropriate to do lower-level tasks, but they
should build to higher levels of thinking. In other words, look for technology
that is more than a basic worksheet on the screen. One tool that can be effec-
tive is using simulations, such as the math ones available at http://mathfo-
rum.org/library/ed_topics/methods_sim/.
Expectations Are High

In a rigorous classroom, expectations are high for everyone, even though
the product may look different for a student with special needs and one who
is an honors student. For example, the teacher in one classroom I visited
wanted to increase expectations by moving students beyond simply summa-
rizing a text. First, some students compared two texts they read rather than
one; others compared and contrasted three texts for an overall analysis of a
theme or author study. In both examples, students then created analysis vlogs
(or video logs) from the perspective of a book reviewer for a TV network
rather than writing simple summaries. The technology perspective enhanced
the expectation level of the assignment.
Appendix D: Using Technology to Increase Rigor in the Classroom ◆ 233
Application Is the Focus

Third, application is the focus. Using an app like Glogster (also available
online), students can apply their knowledge by creating a multimedia, inter-
active poster. This can be used for a variety of application-oriented projects,
from creating their own math word problems with images to creating a new
character in a story or book. I also like having students create an informa-
tional poster that contains three errors, and other students must discover the
mistakes and correct them.
Requires Multiple Steps

According to Webb’s Depth of Knowledge, increasing rigor also requires
multiple steps to accomplish the assignment rather than one single step.
Instead of simply writing an essay about a famous scientist, students can cre-
ate a fake Facebook page. Through their research, they must generate infor-
mation to complete the profile, add friends, “like” pages, and complete status
updates. This process is far more complex than a simple writing assignment
and requires multiple steps for completion.
Support Is Provided Through Technology

Finally, technology tools that provide support for students to process their
learning in different ways also support rigor. In my social studies class, my
students learned better by drawing a mind map or other graphic organizer
rather than listing information. Apps like ShowMe for the iPad allow students
not only to draw their information but to record any accompanying informa-
tion. This is especially helpful for primary students and for those with special
needs. Mindmapping is also a great tool for students to use to demonstrate
their understanding of concepts and to plan for additional assignments. Free
apps for mindmapping are available at http://www.lifehack.org/articles/
technology/11-free-mind-mapping-applications-web-services.html.
Conclusion
Technology is a powerful tool that can help teachers increase rigor in their
classrooms. As you integrate technology in your teaching, consider how its
use reflects the principles we’ve discussed. I’m sure you’ll find that incorpo-
rating these five principles will help you not only best meet your students’
needs but raise the rigor of their learning to new levels.
Source: https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/rigor-in-the-classroom/
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Rigor in Your Classroom

Topics include scaffolding, differentiation, higher-level questions, high

Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, a Top 30 Global Guru in Education, is the bestselling

2 Raising Expectations Through Questioning and Adult Behaviors 9

Tool 16: Connecting What You’ve Learned 20

3 Raising Expectations Through Complex Tasks 29

4 Increasing Depth of Instruction 53

Tool 55: Sample Classroom Norms 56

5 Giving Scaffolding and Support 81

Tool 138: Sentence Frame 115

6 Options for Assessment 123

7 Reinvigorating the Environment 153

Tool 217: Choice of Topics 170

8 Common Concerns 179

Tool 256: Math Example 200

9 Leading Rigor in Your School 203

To my husband Pete, who is always an inspiration.

For my best friend/sister Abbigail, who is my constant support and encour-

To Emma Capel, thank you for a wonderful cover design.

Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, an international speaker and Top 30 Global Guru,

♦ Rigor Is NOT a Four-Letter Word

Tool 2: Planning Tool for Bloom’s Taxonomy

Rigor in Your Classroom: A Toolkit for Teachers is a compilation of over 250

Instructional rigor is a key component of effective instruction. Too often, we

Myths About Rigor

Ten Myths About Rigor

Myth 1: Lots of Homework Is a Sign of Rigor

Myth 2: Rigor Means Doing More

Myth 3: Rigor Is Not for Younger Students

Myth 5: When You Increase Rigor, Student Motivation Decreases

Myth 6: Providing Support Means Lessening Rigor

Myth 7: Resources Equal Rigor

Myth 8: Standards Alone Take Care of Rigor

Myth 9: Rigor Means You Have to Quit Doing Everything

Myth 10: Rigor Is Just One More Thing to Do

• Each student is expected to learn at high levels.

more than a specific lesson or instructional strategy. It is deeper than what a

Expecting Students to Learn at High Levels

Supporting Students to Learn at High Levels

Examples of Scafolding Strategies

Ensuring Students Demonstrate Learning at High Levels

Beliefs That Support Rigor

Beliefs That Support Rigorous Instruction

Structure of the Book

Tool 1: Sample Questions Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy

Tool 2: Planning Tool for Bloom’s Taxonomy

Designed for Rigor or

Tool 3: Essential Questions

Six Characteristics of Essential Questions

Let’s look at a sampling of essential questions from Jay McTighe (2017).

Tool 4: Sample Essential Questions

To what extent can fiction reveal “truth”?

How are science and common sense related?

How does where we live influence how we live?

When is the “correct” answer not the best solution?

Tool 5: Paideia Seminars

Tool 6: Questions for a Socratic Dialogue

Type of Question Samples

Questions of What do you mean by________?

Type of Question Samples

Questions About How could someone settle this question?

Tool 7: The Williams Model

Tool 8: Questioning Types

led to because.

Because the text says , I also know _.