www.flacsoandes.edu.

ec
 C H A P T E R 36

TRANSPORTATION IN
AFRICAN CITIES: AN
INSTITUTIONAL
PERSPECTIVE

M A R G A R E T GRIECO

A L egacy of N e g l e c t : T h e M e a su r e d
T r a n s p o r t D é f i c i t s o f A f r ic a

C o n te m p o ra ry “tran sp ort p lan n in g” for A frica takes place in a p o licy environm ent
w here assum ptions ab o u t the transferability o f transp ort p lan n in g concepts and
practices fail to adequately engage w ith the barriers and bou n d aries to such transfer-
ence that exist as a consequence o f the transp ort legacy o f A frica’s colonial past.
A fric a s co lon ial past o f extraction has had the consequence o f in h ib itin g the devel-
o p m en t o f internal m arkets, and the strength o f this constraint and legacy o f neglect
can, in the co n tem p o rary period , be read from the m easured transp ort déficits o f
A frica. As a consequence o f the advent o f new in fo rm atio n co m m u n icatio n tech-
nologies and their use b y international d evelopm en t agencies, governm ents, and
academ ics, the record o f the m easured level o f transp ort déficits o f the A frican con-
tinent as com pared w ith the rest o f the w orld is increasingly apparent and transpar-
ent (A frica U nion 2005). T he consequence o f these déficits is to be fo u n d in a plethora
o f social and eco n o m ic tragedies, n ot least o f w h ich is high er and deteriorating levels
o f m aternal m o rtality in A frica as com pared w ith the rest o f the w o rld .1

1. In sub-Saharan Africa women face a 1 ¡n 13 chance of dying in childbirth, as compared with

a 1 in 4,100 chance in industrialized countries (UNICEF n.d.).
T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN A F R IC A N C I T I E S : AN I N S T I T U T I O N A L P E R SP E C T IV E 835

ln this co n text p o licy visió n co n tin ú es to be blin kered by the “ separation o f

expertise ; tra n sp o rt and “ social p o lic y ” are view ed as d istinct and sepárate areas
o f expertise w ith n o clear in stitu tion al g ro u n d o f in teraction , w ith the con sequen ce
that the lin k in g o t tran sp ort p ro visió n and social p o licy goals becom es far fro m a
routine practice o r co n sid eratio n despite the benefits that co u ld be gained fro m
such an ap p ro ach . Recent d iscussion s aro u n d the role o f transp ort in the achieve-
nient o f the M ille n n iu m D ev elo p m e n t G oals m ake the p o in t very w ell (A frica U nion
2005)— in the establish m en t o f the M ille n n iu m D ev elo p m en t G oals, no explicit
attention vvas given to tra n sp o rt by the experts o f the in tern ation al agencies in the
d iscussion o f m ech an ism s fo r a ch ievin g these goals. Subsequently, co m m en tato rs
in clu d in g the A frica U n io n and a set o f in tern ation al agencies (A frica U n ion 2005)
have o u tlin ed the case for the cen trality o f im p ro ved tran sp ort system s to ach ievin g
the goals in the A frican co n tin en t— a co n tin en t that not o n ly is lagging b eh in d in
the ach ievem en t o f these goals b u t also is seeing a w o rsen in g o f certain critical reg-
isters o f vvelfare— and have sp oken to the u rg en cy o f such consid erations.
T ran sp o rtatio n in A frican cities takes place in a con text w here, w ith the excep-
tion o f South A frica (and South A frica is the exception in the p revailin g patterns o f
A frican tran sp ort d éficits), the overall co n text o f regional, nation al, and con tin en tal
tran sp ort p ro visió n and co n n e ctiv ity is poor, and these p o o r levels o f infrastructure
supply, tra n sp o rt Service p ro visió n , and lo w levels o f co n n ectivity in h ibit the effec-
tive fu n c tio n in g o f m an y aspects o f A frican society. T hese m aterial inadequacies are
accentuated b y the in adequate a p p reciatio n and fo cu s u p o n in stitu tion al factors as
significant in h ib ito rs to im p rovem en t: for exam ple, explicit d iscussions o f the lin k ­
ing o f A frica n cities to their h in terlan d s (on ce again w ith the exception o f South
A frica) rem ain at best u n d evelo p ed in A frican urban tran sp ort plan n in g in line
w ith the h istorical co lo n ia l p a ra d ig m o f a tran sp ort system design ed to su p p o rt the
exp o rt and extractio n o f p rim a ry m aterials. T h e p o licy pressures are tow ard the
furth er fra g m en tatio n o f A fr ic a s tran sp ort system s, w ith cities b ein g regarded as
appropriate recipients o f m o d ern m o to rized tran sp ort projects w h ile the co n text in
w h ich these cities are located is d isregarded— and even w ith in these cities the levels
o f tran sp ort in eq u ity are d isregarded.

K ey I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a l l e n g e s :
A p p r o p r ia t e a n d I n a p p r o p r ia t e
T r a n s p o r t a t io n M o d e l s

A fric a s tran sp ort déficit has been co n structed o u t o f and sustained b y high levels o f
external d eterm in ation o f A frica’s transp ort system s. Patterns o f intended exploita-
tion b y external agencies have been accom p an ied o r follow ed by patterns o f unthink-
ing transfer” (H illing 1996). In thin kin g about A frican cities, their tran sp ortation
characteristics, and w h at constitutes an appropriate transp ortation m od el for these
836 IN T E R N A T IO N A L S E T T IN G S

cities, it is im p o rtan t to appreciate the im p o rtan ce o f the n o n m o to rized sector and

to m ake provisión for n o n m o to rized jo u rn eys as a routin e and significant co m po-
nent o f tran sp ort plann ing. A usefiil su m m ary o f the scale o f the n o n m o to rized
co m p o n e n t o f A frican city tran sp ort activities is p ro vid ed b y the W orld Bank:

The vast majority of urban residents in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are from
low-income households. The urban poor are dependent on non-motorized
transport (NMT) and their urban transport expenditures account for 10 percent (in
the smaller cities) to 20 percent of their household incomes. Average urban mobility
is low: <2.0 in Dar es Salaam (DSM) and Morogoro, <3.0 in Nairobi, Eldoret and
Kinshasa, and <3.5 in Bamako and Dakar. Traffic accident rates are very high, nearly
30-40 times those in the European Union (EU). Pedestrians and public transport
passengers are the largest group among the traffic accident fatalities. Majority of the
daily trips are by walk. In Nairobi, Dar es Salaam (DSM) and Eldoret, 47-48 percent
of all the daily trips were walking trips and 67 percent in Morogoro. In Dar es
Salaam and Morogoro, 40-50 percent of the walking trips were <2 Km and another
40 percent were 2-5 Km in length. Half of these trips took more than 30 minutes. In
the large cities, cycling is negligible. However, in some smaller cities, it is popular,
reaching around 20 percent of all daily trips in Morogoro. Small-scale prívate sector
is the major supplier of public transport, mainly minibuses. Minibus regulatory
system is inadequate and inefifective. (Pendakur 2005,73)

G iven these characteristics o f the tran sp ort en viro n m en t o f the A ffic a n city, we
m igh t expect that p ro visió n fo r the n o n m o to rize d tran sp ort sector features signifi-
can tly in the design o f tran sp ort Systems for the A frican city, b u t this is far ffo m the
case. N o n m o to rized co m p o n en ts o f tran sp ort plans fo r urban A frica are sm all-
scale, ffa g m en ted , and n o t p ro p erly integrated into the design o f the total u rban
tran sp ort system ; th o u g h discussion o f n o n m o to rize d tran sp ort o p tio n s has
increased in the last decade, these are still far fro m adequately integrated into rou ­
tine and nation al tran sp ort p lan n in g (G w ala 2007). T h e su m m a ry o f transp ort
characteristics o f the A frican c ity p ro vid ed b y the W orld B an k and rep ro d u ced ear-
lier om its an im p o rta n t b u t rarely considered- feature o f the A ffic a n c ity and its
lo w -in co m e co m p o sition : that is the prevalence o f p etty trad in g as a key c o m p o ­
nent o f the d istrib u tio n o f go od s and Services (G rieco, A p t, and T urner 1996). Petty
trad in g and the tran sp ort system are in tricately connected: the congested urban
roads o f A frica provid e the trad in g space for Street haw kers o r p etty traders w h o sell
fo o d stu ff to h u n g ry and thirsty co m m u ters en route. T h e narrow , im passable streets
o f A frican urban slum s p ro vid e no space for vehicles to enter, and go od s for the use
o f such co m m u n ities are head loaded into n eig h b o rh o o d s b y p etty traders. T h e
involvem ent o f w o m en carryin g children o n their backs and y o u n g children—
vu ln erable social categories— in p etty trad in g presents the tran sp ort plan n er w ith
issues o f safety. V ery often the so lu tio n is seen sim p ly in erecting barriers to Street
haw ker m o b ility on the highw ay o r en fo rcin g the p ro h ib itio n o n Street haw king
th ro u gh the use o f the pólice cañe.
D esign in g A frican urban tran sp ort system s to better m eet the needs o f the eco-
n o m ically and socially im p o rtan t p etty trad in g sector (O basi, M otshegw a, and
M fu n d isi 2008) w o u ld represent an im p o rtan t advance on present institutional
T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN A F R IC A N C I T I E S : AN I N S T 1 T U T IO N A L P E R S P E C T IV E 837

patterns, b u t p etty tra d in g is not cu rren tly factored in to tran sp ort systern design.
T h e failure to d o so can be readily seen to be a con seq u en ce o f the inadequate iden-
tifica tio n o f local specificities. It is a con seq u en ce o f patterns o f “ u n th in k in g trans-
fer” in an in tern atio n alized tran sp ort p la n n in g and p o licy professional en viro n m en t.
Petty trad in g is n ot a feature o f the social and tran sp ort o rgan izatio n o f the nation s
and societies that shape the d o m in an t patterns o f tran sp ort th in kin g, skill, and
expertise d evelo p m en t. But the benefits o f d esign in g urban circu latio n system s to
a cco m m o d a te the existin g, in d ig en o u s patterns o f p etty trad in g are clear neverthe-
less. Failure to d o so w ill necessarily co n tin u é to p ro d u ce high levels o f accidents as
vehicles and the b u lk o f urban travelers— the n o n m o to rize d — co m p ete for access to
the pathvvays critical to u rb an survival.
T h e urban A frican system requires rethinking w ith explicit consid eration o f
pedestrianized o p tio n s and the interaction o f the pedestrian and m o to rized circu la­
tion infrastructures. T h e perspective on vvalking jo u rn eys has largely been one o f
neglect— vvalking is very often m istakenly vievved as requiring no infrastructure and
co rresp o n d in gly no bu d get to su p p o rt it. But taking o n board the descrip tion o f
A frican cities furnish ed b y the W orld Bank, it is clearly the case that resources are
required to m ake the vvalking jo u rn e y less onerous, and less on erous m ay m ean priv-
ileging the pedestrian pathvvays over m o to rized roadvvays. D esign ing A frican urban
tran sp ort system s to reduce the high levels o f unnecessary severance that frequently
result in the co n te m p o rary p erio d fro m the con stru ctio n o f urban m otorvvays m ay
usefully be evaluated as an appropriate tran sp ortation m odel for urban A frica.
In m o v in g in this d irection , there are tran sp ort pro to cols that can be harnessed
and annexed in p ro d u cin g m ore ben eficen t o u tco m es than curren t procedures.
A first step vvould be to audit the severance consequences o f d evelo p in g n ew u rban
highvvay in frastru ctu re, and vvhere severance con sequen ces are detected, the route
o f the highvvay in frastructure sh o u ld be reconsidered and/or co m p en sa to ry m ea-
sures sh o u ld be p u t in place to alleviate the effects. T h e severance con sequen ces o f
new highw ay in frastru ctu re can be m ore severe in the A frican urban context than in
m any others. First, the ability o f local co m m u n ities to resist the im p o sitio n o f insen-
sitive designs is less— d u e to p olitical factors— and the ability to claim co m pen sa-
tion for d isru p tio n also sign ifican tly weaker. Second, w hereas in the W estern context,
severance m ay be lim ited to the d ifficulties in Crossing the new ly instituted u rban
highvvay, in the urban A frican con text, the b u ild in g o f the highw ay can result in the
d isru p tio n o f precious piped in frastru ctu re such as w ater Services w ith o u t adequate
bu d get b ein g allocated for the repair and restoration o f these Services. A frica ’s cities
are p o o rly served b y piped in frastructure, and the expert o p in ió n is that A frica’s
cities are u n likely to see these inadequacies in w ater and sanitation in frastructure
m et even in the lo n g term (van der G eest and O b irih -O p a re h 2006; H ew ett and
M o n tg o m e ry 2002). T h e fracture o f any existing w ater and sanitation in frastructure
by a highvvay project requires greater co n sid eratio n than presently exists— the
“ separation o f expertise” w o rks to rem ove con sid eratio n o f urban sanitation p la n ­
n in g fro m the rem it o f the tran sp ort planner, yet clearly this con tain s m any dangers
in the A frican u rb an context.
838 IN T E R N A T IO N A L S E T T I N G S

T h e absence o f adequate p ip ed in frastru ctu re in u rb an A fric a results in the

need fo r w ater b ein g m et b y the tran sp ortatio n o f w ater into residential areas b y
vehicles and, o f course, b y p etty traders and co m m u ters w h o purchase their w ater
on the w ay h o m e fro m p etty traders b y the roadside. D esign in g tra n sp o rt system s
that help m eet urban A frica ’s need fo r w ater w o u ld p ro vid e an appropriate m o d el
fo r tra n sp o rt d evelo p m en t, b u t such co n sid eratio n s are largely left o u t o f the equa-
tion and enter the p la n n in g process o n ly in term s o f rem o vin g roadside traders
fro m the m o d ern system as a d an ger to safety.
T h e em ergence o f n ew e co n o m ic and en viro n m en tal p rio rities sh o u ld assist in
arrivin g at n ew and appropriate m od els fo r A frican u rb an tra n sp o rt system s. T h e
W estern con cern w ith red u cin g the presence and the im p act o f prívate m o to r ve h i­
cles sh o u ld feed into reth in kin g the im p o rta n ce o f n o n m o to rize d tran sp ort m od es
and the ben efits o f co m p a ct cities. A frican cities o ffer great o p p o rtu n ities as loca-
tion s for such rethinking. T h e use o f solar tech n o lo gies to replace en viro n m en tally
d a m agin g fossil fuel tech n o lo gies sh o u ld b en efit these cities i f care is taken to create
an in stitu tion al en viro n m en t that nurtures such d evelopm en ts.
In this co n d en sed con sid eratio n o f the A frican urban tra n sp o rt en viro n m en t,
w e have seen that there are m ajo r d eficiencies and déficits in the cu rren t tran sp o rt
p o licy process and that the local specificities o f the A frican u rb an en viro n m en t (see
Sm olka and B id erm an, this vo lu m e) have been in su fficien tly integrated in to inter-
nation al tran sp ort p o licy u n d erstan d in g. W e have also seen that there are advan-
tages co n tain ed w ith in the A frican c ity that fit w ith n ew in tern ation al e co n o m ic
and en viro n m en tal priorities; fu rth erm o re, A frica has lo catio n al advantages in
term s o f solar tra n sp o rt techn ologies. T h e d evelo p m en t o f appropriate tran sp ort
m odels fo r u rb an A frica — m od els that also take a cco u n t o f h in terlan d , región, and
co n tin en t— is lo n g overdue, b u t there is a w in d o w o f o p p o rtu n ity in the co n tem p o -
rary p erio d for a change in this situation. A n in stitu tion al ffa m e w o rk is required
that encou rages A frican tran sp ort professionals to step ou tsid e o f p revio u s tran s­
p o rt m odels and professional practice to focus o n A frica ’s specificities and to design
system s that m eet these w hile sim u ltan eo u sly d evelo p in g the co n fid en ce and co m -
petence to exp o rt these m odels to o th er lo catio n s w here th ey are relevant.

E s t a b l is h m e n t o f M e t r o p o l it a n
T r a n sp o r t A u t h o r it ie s : O p p o r t u n it ie s
AND CONSTRAINTS

Perspectives b o th on social reality and on tran sp ort reality differ. W o rkin g as a pro-
fessor o f so cio lo g y at the U niversity o f G han a, Legón in the 1990S and w ith a tran s­
p o rt b ackgrou n d , h avin g previo u sly been a sénior researcher at the T ran sport
Studies U nit, U niversity o f O xfo rd , I u n d erto o k , w ith colleagues, research into
T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN A F R IC A N C IT IE S I AN I N S T I T U T I O N A L P E R S P E C T IV E 839

lovv-incom e tra n sp o rt o rg an iza tio n for the U K T ran sp o rt and Travel L aboratory.
T h is research b ro u g h t m e to the reco g n itio n o f the im p o rtan ce o f p etty trad in g in
the d istrib u tio n stru ctu re o f A ccra and o th er A frican cities (G rieco, A pt, and T urner
1996). In this o rg a n iza tio n o f lo w -in co m e p etty trad ing, the “ tro-tros,” o r sm all
m in ibuses, playee! a vital role in m o vin g p etty trad ers’ g o od s aro u n d the city. From
a W estern perspective, these m in ibuses vvould be represented as passenger traffic or
p u b lic tra n sp o rt vehicles, but in the co n text o f A ccra th ey p ro vid ed an im p o rtan t
co m m ercia l fu n ctio n in the m o vem en t o f g o od s and passengers as the petty traders
eith er carried their g o o d s vvith th em inside the vehicles or tied them w ith great bal-
an cin g art o n top.
F rom a W estern perspective, these vehicles are readily seen as untidy, ill regu-
lated, and a d an gero u s fo rm o f tran sp ort. In m an y A ffic a n coun tries, there has now
been pressure to regúlate these vehicles, to rem ove the passenger g o od s fro m the
r o o f racks, and to con vert these fleets into standard p u b lic tran sp ort o r dedicated
passenger vehicles. It is not clear that the con sequen ces for the very im p o rtan t in fo r­
m al e m p lo y m en t sector o f A frica have anyw here been calculated into the equ atio n .
T h e pressure is to m o d ern ize the A frican city, to stream line its tran sp ort system ,
and to rem ove this h isto rically h ig h ly flexible tran sp ort m od e. It is a m o d e not pres-
ent in c o n te m p o ra ry W estern tran sp ort o rg an iza tio n and o n e that is in d anger o f
d estru ctio n th ro u gh extern al in tern atio n al influences o n the urban A frican tran s­
p o rt system .
T h e pressure to m o d ern ize the A frican urban tran sp ort system fails to engage
w ith the characteristics o f the m ain stream p o p u latio n recorded by the W orld Bank.
T h e tro -tro s o f G h an a (o th er co u n tries have o th er ñam es for the sam e m od e) p ro ­
vid ed for the o ccasio n al m o to rize d trips for the h eavily en cu m b ered lo w -in co m e
residents— an e n cu m b ra n ce ju stify in g the paym en t o f a fare w h en u n d er norm al
co n d itio n s these in d ivid u áis w o u ld have w alked in m any cases. T h e ir rem oval places
an ad d itio n al tran sp ort b u rd en on the m ainstream lo w -in co m e p o p u latio n .
A n alternative view is p ro vid ed in the m o vem en t to establish m etro p o litan
tran sp ort auth orities in A frica to better m anage and regúlate the urban tran sp ort
experien ce and organ izatio n :

Getting to work is increasingly difficult in Africa’s sprawling commercial capitals,

in large part because of the tidal wave of minibuses and motoreyeles that have
arrived to take the place of faltering public bus Services. The reasons behind the
dysfunctional State of urban transport are not difficult to discern. Weak,
fragmented, and underfunded authorities have been unable to maintain existing
Services or to plan for expansión. Buses fall apart after running overloaded for
years on rutted roads; replacements are soon idled for lack of parts. Fares are too
low, and subsidies too irregular, to permit sustainable operations. Commuters
walk or resort to largely unregulated and informal Services that are dirty, unsafe,
uncomfortable, and unreliable. Everybody loses. The way forward is as clear as the
problem itself: Africa’s cities must move quickly toward the model of the
metropolitan transport authority used in successful cities around the globe to
coordínate planning, regulation, licensing, inspections, monitoring, and
840 IN T E R N A T IO N A L S E T T IN G S

enforcement. A way must be found to bring large buses back. Cities that cannot
move people become choked by growth. (Kumar and Barrett 2008,1)

T h e suggestion that m etro p o litan tra n sp o rt auth orities can o f them selves be the
so lu tio n given the characteristics o f the A frican c ity already presented in this chap-
ter is at best naive. B rin gin g large buses back is n o t a viab le o p tio n fo r m u ch o f the
A frican city: sm all m inibuses o r urvan s are better placed to penétrate lo w -in co m e
areas. R egulating o u t the sm all m in ibu s or u rvan to avoid co n gestió n at c ity centers
can o n ly be u n d ertaken at the expense o f red u cin g the access o f lo w -in co m e area
residents to the c ity center. A t the ve ry least, p o lic y d iscussions that p ro p erly audited
the tran sp ort circum stan ces o f A frica ’s u rb an residents w o u ld have to talk o f lin kin g
urvan s and b ig buses into the o n e u rb an system th ro u gh a refined pattern o f inter-
change. U rvans w o u ld need to be used to take lo w -in co m e area residents to a loca-
tion w h ere th ey co u ld jo in the “ b ig buses.” T ro-tros m ay be fu n ctio n al fo r lo w -in co m e
residents and still be view ed as d ysfu n ctio n al fro m the perspective o f central busi-
ness area traffic, b u t there is a need for tran sp ort plann ers to be clear that there are
processes o f p rivilegin g particu lar segm ents o f the urban p o p u latio n in play; to
d escribe all change as w in -w in situations is p roblem atic.
M etropolitan transport authorities that undertake refined transport audits and
Service the b u lk o f the urban population, ensuring that they do so through high-end
end-user involvem ent and participation, are to be w elcom ed. M etropolitan transport
authorities that are em pow ered so as to be able to stream line out dissent are m ore
difficult institutions to endorse. Here w e m ust also return to o u r earlier concerns w ith
the problem s surround ing the separation o f expertise or expertises: creating transport
authorities sepárate from other local auth ority and governm ental form s o f urban
planning contains the danger that the boundaries betw een the different form s o f
authority w ill exacérbate the segregation o f dom ains, w hich already constitutes a
problem for A frican cities. Ensuring that m etropolitan transport authorities con d uct
the necessary audits to inform the high-end design o f a transport system-and that suf-
ficient netw orks o f institutional coord ination are in place is no easy business.
E n surin g that m etro p o litan tran sp ort authorities un d erstan d the im pact o f
their fu n ctio n in g on o th er sectors is critical: as w ith the co n gestión debate in the
W est, it has to be rem em bered that free-flo w in g traffic in a c ity structure is n o guar-
antee o f the c ity ’s e co n o m ic health. F ree-flow in g traffic can n o t be a goal in itself;
rather, the event o f traffic has to be tied to o th er political, e co n o m ic, and social
goals. F urtherm ore, to sepárate tran sp ort patterns fro m overall land -use design is a
m istaken d irection — lan d -use patterns d eterm in e traffic patterns, and ensuring
co o rd in a tio n takes place betw een the agencies responsible for these distinct activi-
ties is im portan t.
It is not clear that the m o vem en t tow ard m etro p o litan tran sp ort authorities in
A frica has fully grasped or grappled w ith the im pact o f traffic m an agem en t o n the
fu n ctio n in g o f o th er sectors; neither is it clear that a significant institution al evalu-
ation o f curren t p o licy processes has been undertaken. T h e un in ten d ed social and
e co n o m ic costs o f fo cu sin g p rim arily o n the reduction o f con gestió n as the urban
 ■ »te c a
T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN A F R IC A N C I T I E S : AN I N S T I T U T I O Ñ a L ' p ^I^SP 841

tran sp ort goal have not been ad equately calculated. F rom the con d en sed analysis
here, it is clear that o n e p o ten tial cost is a negative im pact on the in fo rm al econom y,
and an o th er is low ered levels o f Service and access to g o od s in lo w -in co m e areas
acco m p an ied b y h igh er prices w h ere these are p rovid ed .

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e A p p r o p r ia t e
P u b l i c T r a n s p o r t F l e e t : T h e S i g n if ic a n c e
o f L o c a l E c o n o m y C o n s id e r a t io n s

F o llo w in g o n from the p reced in g section , it is im p o rta n t w here there is an attem pt

to regúlate vehicle size aw ay fro m the existing urvan fleets and tow ard larger buses
that the lo gic o f such regu latio n be rendered explicit. A s it stands, the p revailin g
lo gic appears to be the p rim a cy o f red u cin g con gestió n as a p o licy goal; how ever,
there m ay be specific routes that w o u ld benefit fro m large buses in an overall struc-
ture o f an u rvan fleet o r urvan feeder vehicles that co u ld be harnessed in a large-bus
key route system . T h e spatial patterns o f the city and its Street netw orks m ust be
con sid ered , and access to the p u b lic tra n sp o rt system sh o u ld be p ro vid ed from all
areas o f the city.
V ehicle size is a critical elem en t in the ability o f the p u b lic tran sp ort n etw o rk to
penétrate all areas o f the A frican city, b u t vehicle size is critical in the servicin g o f
the in fo rm al econom y. Large buses offer traders less n ego tiation space w ith bus
op erators for the tran sp ort o f goods; this is an im p o rtan t co n sid eratio n w h ere petty
trad in g is fo u n d th ro u g h o u t the A frican u rb an econom y. W ith in the ep o ch o f the
O b a m a ad m in istratio n , as O b a m a ’s o w n g ra n d m o th er was a p etty trader and he
assisted her in the task on his visit to A frica as a y o u n g m an, w e m igh t expect to see
a focus o n the im p o rta n ce o f servicin g the p etty tra d in g sector in A frica (m o st par-
ticu larly given the large-scale presence o f w o m en in this sector). G en d er p o licy and
tran sp ort p o lic y for u rb an A frica m ay very w ell be placed in co n flict w ith on e
an o th er in a co n text w h ere large buses are privileged as con gestió n red u cin g as
o p p o sed to urvans, w h ich are gen d er em p lo y m en t friendly. T h ere is no evid en ce
that gen d er audits have been co n d u cted aro u n d the p rivilegin g o f large buses despite
the existence o f a stron g a n th ro p o lo g ical and tran sp ort and gender literature o n the
use o f these vehicles by fem ale p etty traders.
A p a rt fro m issues o f gen d er au d itin g in tran sp ort, au d itin g the in fo rm al e c o n ­
o m y as a p recu rsor to tran sp ort system design in urban A frica appears as a key plan-
n in g p ro to col, w h ich is tra d itio n a lly and typ ica lly o verlooked . Sim p ly m easu rin g
p lan n ed tran sp ort change in term s o f its effect on the form al e co n o m y o f the A frican
city is perverse given o u r kn o w led ge o f the im p o rtan ce o f the in fo rm al sector. T h e
p lan n in g tools and pro to cols d evelo p ed for W estern audits are n ot suffícien t for the
effective design o f u rb an tran sp ort system s in A frica.
842 IN T E R N A T IO N A L S E T T I N G S

D e v e l o p in g T r a n s p o r t I n f r a s t r u c t u r e
IN COORDINATION WITH OTHER ESSENTIAL
I n f r a s t r u c t u r e R e q u ir e m e n t s

T h e scale o f the A frican c ity san itation crisis is w ell d o cu m en ted . T ran sport system s
m ust be d evelo p ed in co o rd in a tio n w ith lan d -use p la n n in g to p erm it the develop-
m ent o f w ater d epots and sanitation d ep o ts i f the A ff ican c ity is to achieve w ell-
bein g. D esign in g tran sp ort system s that d o n o t p erm it w ater and sanitation vehicles
to penétrate n e ig h b o rh o o d s in the absence o f p ip ed in frastru ctu re is h ig h ly detri-
m ental. Id en tifyin g w h at tra n sp o rt m easures can be taken to overeó m e the d ifficul-
ties im p osed o n the A frican c ity b y lack o f sanitation and u rb an in frastructure
b ud gets is a critical step, as is the preven tion o f the d estru ctio n o f sanitation in fra­
structure as a b y-p ro d u ct o f the d e velo p m en t o f tran sp ort in frastructure.
Similarly, ensuring that new d evelopm ents or redevelopm ents o f n eigh borh ood s
m ake use o f rain w ater harnessing technologies as a w ay o f reducing transport require­
m ents is an im portan t and rarely considered plann ing step. A u d itin g neigh borh ood s
to see w here w ater m ust be transported in and w here the transport can be reduced b y
reengineering to harness rain w ater m eets the new international econ o m ic and envi-
ronm ental agenda— to accom plish this transport, planners and transport authorities
m ust coordínate w ith other agencies. Similarly, solar energy can be used to reduce the
transport burden over a range o f activities; auditing A frican cities to see w here solar
pow er can substitute for transport becom es a new and viable w ay forw ard.
R eco gn izin g that piped sanitation infrastructure is n o t an o p tio n fo r m ost new
A frican c ity d evelo p m en ts requires a reth in kin g o f sanitation in the A frican c ity and
w hat part tran sp ort m igh t play in this. I have already suggested that n e ig h b o rh o o d
sanitation d epots m ay have a part to play here, b u t to reduce this tran sp ort b u rd en ,
o th er m eans o f m an agin g the rem oval o f excrem en t sh o u ld also be considered.
T ran sport planners and sanitation engineers m ust coord ín ate to solve this pressing
and critical problem . T h e separation o f expertise has to co m e to an end i f urban
problem s are to be resolved in a m an n er that d oes n ot sim p ly see the m igratio n o f
problem s fro m the territo ry o f on e expertise to an o th er w ith n o im p ro vem en t in
the lives o f lo w -in co m e urban A frican end users.

G o VERNANCE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR THE

D evelo pm ent of E nd U ser Au d it s ?

T h e narrative on A frican tra n sp o rt h isto ry p ro vid ed here is o n e o f the overdeter-

m in a tio n o f A frica n tra n sp o rt stru ctu res b y external agencies and au th orities,
alth o u gh in d ifferen t perio d s this o verd eterm in a tio n to o k d ifferen t form s, from
T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN A F R IC A N C I T I E S : AN I N S T I T U T I O N A L P E R S P E C T IV E 843

d irect g o v e rn m e n t to sig n ifica rá in flu en ce th ro u g h im b alan ced stru ctu res o f part-
nersh ip, and w ith in this narrative the in tern atio n al p ro fessio n a lizatio n o f experts
and exp ertise has w o rk e d against the u tiliza tio n o f lo ca lly sig n ifican t k n o w led ge
bases. C u rre n t trend s share this fo rm w ith the im p o rta tio n o f glo b al “ successful
c id e s” practices: the pressure to tra n sfo rm A frica n tra n sp o rt structures h old s pros-
pects, b u t it also h o ld s pitfalls and dangers. S im p ly a d o p tin g practices and institu-
tion al a rran gem en ts that have been successful elsew here w ill n ot d o the job: unless
local sp ecificities are co n sid ered and factored in, the tra n sp o rt stru ctu re o f A frica
w ill co n tin u é on its dovvnw ard spiral, w ith those resources that co u ld have been
harnessed in im p ro v e m e n t sim p ly sq u an d ered in the im ita tio n o f visio n s and id e­
áis im p o rte d fro m elsew h ere.
A n im p o rta n t startin g p o in t to avoid the pitfalls and dangers o f in ap p rop riate
ad o p tio n s is the use o f en d -u ser audits. N ew in fo rm atio n co m m u n ica tio n techn ol-
o g y m akes the in co rp o ra tio n o f en d -u ser audits an easier business than w o u ld have
been h isto rically the case, and the advent o f the cell p h on e w ith its textin g capabili-
ties p erm its the cali for tran sp aren cy to be readily m et at lo w cost (Porter and A ban e
2008).
T h e cali for m etro p o litan tra n sp o rt auth o rities and sim ilar fo rm s o f new gov-
ernance has largely been led b y the governance agenda o f capital attraction rather
than b y the tran sp ort e q u ity goal o f p ro vid in g an inclusive urban tran sp ort Service.
R eco gn izin g the existen ce o f this ten sión in new governance form s and goals is criti-
cal to resolvin g the eq u atio n in favor o f the m ost progressive tran sp ort o p tio n s
available to urban A frica, its h in terlan d , regions, and co n tin en t. E n su rin g that g o v ­
ernance is from w ith in , albeit in a pattern o f w id e -ra n g in g in tern ation al partner-
ships, and not fro m w ith o u t, th ro u g h the establish m en t o f governance structures
that can result in A frican u rb a n Utilities b ein g extern ally o w n ed , is a key institu-
tion al m easure for the im m ed iate and lo n g -te rm health o f the A frican tran sp ort
system and the c itize n ry it sh o u ld serve.

C o n c l u s ió n : A f r ic a n U r b a n T r a n s p o r t ,
TOWARD AN INTEGRATED INSTITUTIONAL
A ppro ach

T ran sp o rtation in A frican cities has d istinctive features. Som e o f the m ost p ro gres­
sive o f these features— the fleets o f flexible, sm all-scale, lo w -in co m e u rb an tra n s­
p o rt and their servicin g o f the in fo rm al e co n o m y— are u n d er revisión and, it can
reasonably be argued, u n d er threat. T h e pressures to stream line the traffic flo w o f
urban A frica have resulted in the o v e rlo o k in g o f the positive d im en sio n s o f these
characteristics and a m isreadin g o f the route possibilities o f larger vehicles w ith in
the A frican city. Institutional changes are in process that d o not read ily in corp órate
844 IN T E R N A T IO N A L S E T T I N G S

the view s o r best interests o f the m ain stream A fric a n u rb an p o p u latio n . A ltern ative
in stitu tion al patterns are available that w o u ld better m eet these needs. Such pat-
terns w o u ld inelud e better au d itin g o f m ain stream u rb a n tra n sp o rt circum stan ce,
the au to m atic in clu sió n o f end users in tra n sp o rt design, an d a reth in kin g o f the
role o f large fleets o f sm all-scale flexible vehicles to penétrate and give access to all
areas o f the A frican city.

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