2019-Me-22 (Waheed Ul Hassan Rasheed

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &
LAB REPORTS
TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE
Energy Resources
and Utilization
Department of Mechanical Engineering
LAB REPORTS OF ERU
Session 2019
6th Semester
Submitted To:
Sir. Syed Saqib
Submitted By:
Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed
Registration No: 2019-ME-22(A)

Waheed ul Hassan Rasheed 2019-ME-22 ERU Lab Reports
EXPERIMENT No 1:
Investigate the effect of tilt angle on the performance and electrical
parameters of a Photovoltaic panel in which the plate is in parallel
combination
Apparatus:
 Solar Panels
 Solar Charge Controller
 MultiMate
Theory:
Solar PV:
Solar cells also known as PV, convert sunlight directly into electricity. PV gets its name from the
process of converting light (photons) to electricity. Soon, solar cells were being used to power
space satellites and smaller items like calculators and watches.
Tilt Angle/Slope/Elevation Angle (𝜷):
It is the angle between the plane surface under consideration and the horizontal. It is positive for
the surface sloping or pitching towards south and negative for the surface sloping towards north.
1|Page
Photoelectric Effect:
Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current
result that can be used as electricity. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist,
Edmund Bequerel, in 1839.
The photo electric emission of electrons: If light of certain frequency (wavelength) is allowed to
fall on a metal (emitter) plate, some electrons will receive enough energy to be released from the
plate. The positive bias supplied by the battery in the circuit causes these free electrons to be
attracted to the collector and a current is caused to flow.
Using monochromatic light can be shown that the photo current increases with the intensity of
light. The minimum frequency of light that will cause electrons to be released is called the
threshold frequency (fc). Of the material. When light of a frequency less than the threshold
frequency less than the threshold frequency is applied to the material, regardless of its intensity, no
electrons are released.
Solar panels can work with any kind of light. Most of the panels are manufactured using silicon.
Silicon has a band-gap of 1.1eV. This means to generate electron-hole pair, it will be needing light
of wavelength 400 - 1100 nm. Most of the visible spectrum lies in this range.
Semi-Conductors:
2|Page
Materials, both compounds and elements, can be classified according to how well they conduct
electricity. There are materials such as metals which conduct electricity well and those which
conduct electricity poorly, called insulators. There area few materials which fall in between. They
conduct electricity a little bit. These materials are called semi-conductors.
By applying voltages, semiconductors can function as switches forming the basis of transistors and
by applying light radiation, semi-conductors can function as photovoltaic devices.
Doping:
Controlled quantities of specific impurity ions are added to the very pure (intrinsic) material to
produce doped (extrinsic) semiconductors.
P-N Junction:
3|Page
A p-n junction is formed by joining the dissimilar semiconductors. This sets up an electric
field in the region of the junction. When p n junction is formed a, some of the electrons in
the near vicinity of the junction are attracted from the n side to combine with the holes on
the nearby p side and vice versa.
Solar PV Cells:
These cells essentially consist of a junction between two thin layers of dissimilar semi-conductor
material, known as ‘p-type’ and ‘n-type’ semiconductors. In practice the junction is manufactured
from a single piece of host crystal by varying the doping in different parts of it as the crystal is
grown. This produces a transition region between the p-part and n-part that is typically about 1
micro meter in width.
Working of Solar PV:
4|Page
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels use cells containing a semi-conductor material to capture the sun’s
energy and convert solar radiation into electricity. The most commonly used semi-conductor
material is silicon, which is an abundant natural resource found in sand. When light strikes the cell
a certain amount of energy is absorbed within the semiconductor material, knocking electrons, the
negatively charged particles that form the basis of electricity, loose.
Most PV cells have two layers of semi-conductor material, one positively charged and one
negatively charged. When light shines on the semi-conductor the electric field across the junction
between these two layers causes electricity to flow, generating direct current (DC). By placing
metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off for external use.
Solar PV electric panels do not require bright sunlight in order to operate, meaning that you can
still generate electricity on cloudy days, however in general the greater the intensity of light the
higher the flow of electricity. Although, due to the reflection of sunlight, days with slight cloud can
result in higher energy yields than days with a completely cloudless sky.
5|Page
Types of PV Cells:
PV Materials
 Crystalline Silicon
 Mono-Crystalline
 Poly-Crystalline
 GaAs
 Thin Film
 Amorphous Silicon
 Single Junction
 Double Junction
 Tiple Junction
 CdS/CdTe
 CIS/CIGS
 Organic/Polymer
 Hybrid PV Cells
 Dye-sensitized
PV Panel System in Parallel Combination:

Photovoltaic solar panels are semiconductor devices that covert sunlight into electrical DC energy.
Connecting PV panels together in parallel increases current and therefore power output, as
electrical power in watts equals “volts times amperes” (P = V x I).
Photovoltaic cells produce their power output at about 0.5 to 0.6 volts DC, with current being
directly proportional to the cell’s area and irradiance. But it is the resistance of the connected load
which ultimately determines the amount of amperage supplied by a panel, or pv cell.
While individual solar cells can be interconnected together within a single PV panel, solar
photovoltaic panels can themselves be connected together in parallel strings to form an array of
interconnected panels increasing the total available power output for a particular solar application
compared to a single panel. If there is no-load connected to a solar panel’s terminals, then the
6|Page
panel will generate no current as there is no electrical circuit for it to flow around. But if the
terminals are shorted together, the current demand is very high so the photovoltaic panel generates
its maximum output current, commonly called it short-circuit current, ISC from the available light.
When connecting solar panels together in parallel, the total voltage output remains the same as it
would for a single panel, but the output current becomes the sum of the amperage of each panel.
Thus, the effect of parallel wiring is that the voltage stays the same while the amperage adds up.
When PV panels are wired electrically in parallel, the positive (+) terminals of all the panels are
connected together (positive to positive), and all the negative (-) terminals are connected together
(negative to negative), until all the panels are wired in parallel and you are left with one single
positive terminal and one single negative terminal to attach to your regulator and batteries. Note
that series strings of PV panels can also be connected in parallel (multi-strings) to increase current
and therefore power output.
Procedure:
1. Test the solar panel as close to noon as possible.
2. Clean the solar panel.
3. Tilt the solar plate at 0 degrees towards the sun.
4. Make sure that no part of the solar panel is shaded.
5. Connect your battery and charge controller.
6. Connect your solar panel to the charge controller.
7. Use lux meter to find the light intensity falling on panel.
7|Page
8. Cycle through the screen until you find the operating PV voltage.
9. Repeat cycling through the screen until you find the operating PV current.
10. Repeat the above steps by rotating the solar array clockwise to degrees.
11. Calculate the solar panel wattage using P = I*V.
12. Plot graphs between light intensity vs angle, voltage, and power vs angle.
Observations and Calculations:

No. Perpendicular arm Tilt angle Light Current Voltage Power
of Intensity
obs.
in. degrees 1x mA V W
1 12.5 24.5 745 10.19 20.27 0.20655
2 19.5 40.76 665 11.49 20.27 0.2329
3 23.5 51.97 515 11.81 20.27 0.23939
4 28.5 72.5 404 11.22 20.27 0.22743
5 30.5 90.5 230 9.04 20.18 0.18243
Graphs:
Graph between Tilt Angle and Current

14
12
10
8
Current (mA)
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
8|Page Tilt angle (degrees)
Graph between Power and Tilt Angle

0.3
0.25
0.2
Power (W)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Tilt Angle (degrees)
Results and Discussion:

Current and power grow to some amount before reducing, as shown in the graph above. Because
maximal light intensity and Direct Normal Irradiation occur at an optimum angle, which varies by
roughly 5 degrees with latitude (DNI). As the tilt angle approached 90 degrees, we noted that less
direct sunlight reached the solar panels. As a result, both graphs indicate an increase in power and
current followed by a decrease.
Because the system operates in parallel rather than series, current accumulates while voltage
remains constant.
EXPERIMENT No.2
Investigate the effect of tilt angle on the performance and
electrical parameters of a Photovoltaic panel in which the
plates are in series combination
Apparatus:
 Solar Panels
 Solar Charge Controller
 Current and voltage meter
Theory:
Solar PV:
9|Page
Solar cells also known as PV, convert sunlight directly into electricity. PV gets its name from the
process of converting light (photons) to electricity. Soon, solar cells were being used to power
space satellites and smaller items like calculators and watches.
Tilt Angle/Slope/Elevation Angle (𝜷):
It is the angle between the plane surface under consideration and the horizontal. It is positive for
the surface sloping or pitching towards south and negative for the surface sloping towards north.
Photoelectric Effect:
Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current
10 | P a g e
result that can be used as electricity. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist,
Edmund Bequerel, in 1839.
The photo electric emission of electrons: If light of certain frequency (wavelength) is allowed to
fall on a metal (emitter) plate, some electrons will receive enough energy to be released from the
plate. The positive bias supplied by the battery in the circuit causes these free electrons to be
attracted to the collector and a current is caused to flow.
Using monochromatic light can be shown that the photo current increases with the intensity of
light. The minimum frequency of light that will cause electrons to be released is called the
threshold frequency (fc). Of the material. When light of a frequency less than the threshold
frequency less than the threshold frequency is applied to the material, regardless of its intensity, no
electrons are released.
Solar panels can work with any kind of light. Most of the panels are manufactured using silicon.
Silicon has a band-gap of 1.1eV. This means to generate electron-hole pair, it will be needing light
of wavelength 400 - 1100 nm. Most of the visible spectrum lies in this range.
Semi-Conductors:
Materials, both compounds and elements, can be classified according to how well they conduct
electricity. There are materials such as metals which conduct electricity well and those which
conduct electricity poorly, called insulators. There area few materials which fall in between. They
conduct electricity a little bit. These materials are called semi-conductors.
By applying voltages, semiconductors can function as switches forming the basis of transistors and
by applying light radiation, semi-conductors can function as photovoltaic devices.
Doping:
Controlled quantities of specific impurity ions are added to the very pure (intrinsic) material to
produce doped (extrinsic) semiconductors.
11 | P a g e
P-N Junction:
A p-n junction is formed by joining the dissimilar semiconductors. This sets up an electric
field in the region of the junction. When p n junction is formed a, some of the electrons in
the near vicinity of the junction are attracted from the n side to combine with the holes on
the nearby p side and vice versa.
12 | P a g e
Solar PV Cells:
These cells essentially consist of a junction between two thin layers of dissimilar semi-conductor
material, known as ‘p-type’ and ‘n-type’ semiconductors. In practice the junction is manufactured
from a single piece of host crystal by varying the doping in different parts of it as the crystal is
grown. This produces a transition region between the p-part and n-part that is typically about 1
micro meter in width.
Working of Solar PV:
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels use cells containing a semi-conductor material to capture the sun’s
energy and convert solar radiation into electricity. The most commonly used semi-conductor
material is silicon, which is an abundant natural resource found in sand. When light strikes the cell
a certain amount of energy is absorbed within
the semiconductor material, knocking
electrons, the negatively charged
particles that form the basis of electricity, loose.
13 | P a g e
Most PV cells have two layers of semi-conductor material, one positively charged and one
negatively charged. When light shines on the semi-conductor the electric field across the junction
between these two layers causes electricity to flow, generating direct current (DC). By placing
metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off for external use.
Solar PV electric panels do not require bright sunlight in order to operate, meaning that you can
still generate electricity on cloudy days, however in general the greater the intensity of light the
higher the flow of electricity. Although, due to the reflection of sunlight, days with slight cloud can
result in higher energy yields than days with a completely cloudless sky.
Types of PV Cells:
14 | P a g e
PV Materials
 Crystalline Silicon
 Mono-Crystalline
 Poly-Crystalline
 GaAs
 Thin Film
 Amorphous Silicon
 Single Junction
 Double Junction
 Tiple Junction
 CdS/CdTe
 CIS/CIGS
 Organic/Polymer
 Hybrid PV Cells
 Dye-sensitized
PV Panel System in Series Combination:
Series circuits have only one path for current to travel along. Therefore, all the current in the
circuit must flow through all the loads. A series circuit is a continuous, closed loop - breaking the
circuit at any point stops the entire series from operating. An example of a series circuit is a string
of old Christmas lights - if one bulb breaks, the whole string turns off.
When wiring solar panels in a series, the voltage is additive, but the amperage remains the same.
Example: If you had 4 solar panels in a series and each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire
array would be 48 volts and 5 amps.
Remember: just like batteries, solar panels have a negative terminal (-) and a positive terminal (+).
Current flows from the negative terminal through a load (current consumed by a piece of
equipment) to the positive terminal.
15 | P a g e
Procedure:
1. Test the solar panel as close to noon as possible
2. Clean the solar panel
3. Tilt the solar plate at 0 degrees towards the sun
4. Make sure that no part of the solar panel is shaded
5. Connect your battery and charge controller
6. Connect your solar panel to the charge controller
7. Use lux meter to find the light intensity falling on panel
8. Cycle through the screen until you find the operating PV voltage
9. Repeat cycling through the screen until you find the operating PV current.
16 | P a g e

No. Perpendicular arm Tilt angle Light Current Voltage Power
of Intensity
obs.
in. degrees 1x mA V W
1 16.7 34.54 250 0.27 39 0.0105
2 19.9 42.4 230 0.31 39 0.0121
3 21.2 46 210 0.32 39 0.0125
4 25.2 58.6 190 0.29 39 0.0113
5 28.2 72 240 0.26 39 0.0101
GRAPHS:
Graph between Tilt Angle and Current

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
Current (mA)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Graph betweenTiltTilt
angleAngle
(degrees) and Power
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
Power (W)
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Tilt angle (degrees)
17 | P a g e

Current and power grow until a point, then fall in the graph above. Because the highest light
intensity and Direct Normal Irradiation are found at an optimum angle, which varies by just
around 5 degrees with latitude (DNI). As the tilt angle approached 90 degrees, we noted that less
direct sunlight reached the solar panels. As a result, both graphs indicate an increase in power
and current followed by a decrease.
As you can see, when the system is in series, the voltage is increased while the current remains
constant, and when it is in parallel, the current remains constant.
18 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 3
To find RPM of zero head turbine by RPM
Meter/Tachometer, to find flow rate by flow meter and to find
current produced by multimeter.
Apparatus:
 Tachometer
 Flow Meter
 Zero Head Turbine
 Multimeter
Theory:
Zero head turbine:
The turbine is completely submerged below the flow of water (river). The linear kinetic energy
of the water is used for giving rotation movement to the turbine. The water passing through the
turbine forces the turbine to rotate with low speed but at a high torque. When the linear kinetic
velocity of the water is two meter per minute the turbine starts to rotate with a speed of 20 r.p.m.
A compound gear mechanism is used to convert the rotational speed of the turbine (20 r.p.m) to a
considerable requirement. An armature coil (generator) is used to extract the electrical energy. A
submersible pump is also coupled in the turbine set for irrigation purposes. The rotational speed
of the turbine is given with the help of the driven gear and a flat belt.
The turbine is made up of steel foils with a rim where the blades are welded. A frame is made to
hold the turbine in running condition when the turbine is submerged in the water. A compound
gear mechanism is used to increase the speed of the armature coil shaft. The generating set
(turbine) consists of the following parts namely twelve turbine Blades (flat type), a supporting
frame/ trust, a drive gear with 10 teeth and a driven gear with 140 teeth, a Pulley, a Connecting
belt (Flat type), an Armature coil and a Chain belt.
The blades are welded in a four feet circular rim at an angle of 35°. The upper parts of the 12
blades are fixed in the circular rim that is four inches in width and the lower part of the turbine is
19 | P a g e
fixed in an axle. A chain is fitted to the turbine axle and the drive gear. A lever mechanism is
used to control the generation of the power by disengaging the driven gear where the shaft is
coupled. A pump with guide blade is used for irrigation. The driven gear with the help of a flat
belt gives the required rotation of the pump for pumping water.
Advantages of Zero Head Turbine:
 Portable
 Economical
 Low maintenance cost
 Better Efficiency
 Can be setup everywhere
Tachometer:
A tachometer is an instrument that measures the working speed of an engine, typically in
revolutions per minute (RPM). It is commonly used in cars, boats, planes, and other vehicles.
Most tachometer gauges have either an analog (dial) or digital (LCD or LED screen) display.
Digital tachometers are increasingly common on the market due to their reliability. They include
fewer moving parts, which increases the life of the component. Analog options are generally
more prone to failure, which is further exacerbated by them having moving parts, as the location
of a tachometer is usually close to the engine bay where vibrations are the strongest.
Use of Tachometer:
A tachometer helps gauge how hard your vehicle’s engine is working, regardless of whether that
vehicle is an automatic or manual transmission (road vehicle) or marine gear (boat).
For example, in an automatic transmission vehicle, a tachometer can tell you if the transmission
shift points are in range or if the transmission is slipping. In a manual transmission vehicle, you
can use a tachometer to determine the optimal time to shift gears (but it is not required).
Meanwhile, in marine applications, a tachometer allows you to identify the best operating range
for your engine while ensuring that you don’t exceed your maximum engine speed. It also
may secondarily inform decisions the vessel’s owner makes surrounding performance and fuel
consumption.
20 | P a g e
Types of Tachometer:
Tachometers may be:
 Mechanical (analog)
 Electronic (digital).
In addition, tachometers may be:
 Contact Tachometer:
A contact tachometer touches the rotating part you are measuring and is more precise.
 Non-contact Tachometer:
A non-contact tachometer uses light from a laser to illuminate a mark on the rotating equipment;
this is typical in certain handheld models.
Working of Tachometer:
Mechanical and electronic tachometers operate differently. A flexible cable with a rotating shaft
connects a moving part in the engine or transmission to the gauge. Inside the instrument, the
rotating shaft controls the position of a needle to indicate the engine speed. An electronic
tachometer uses a magnetic pickup positioned near a rotating engine part to produce electrical
pulses at a frequency proportional to the engine speed. Circuitry in the meter converts the pulse
frequency for the display of engine RPM using a digital readout.
Flowmeter:
Flow meter (or flow sensor) is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or
volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas. When choosing flowmeters, one should consider such
intangible factors as familiarity of plant personnel, their experience with calibration and
maintenance, spare parts availability, and mean time between failure history, etc., at the
particular plant site. It is also recommended that the cost of the installation be computed only
after taking these steps.
One of the most common flow measurement mistakes is the reversal of this sequence: instead of
selecting a sensor which will perform properly, an attempt is made to justify the use of a device
because it is less expensive.
21 | P a g e
Multimeter:
A multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical
multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case it is also known as a volt-
ohm-milliammeter (VOM), as the unit is equipped with voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter
functionality. Some feature the measurement of additional properties such as temperature and
volume.
Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital
multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have numeric displays and have made analog multimeters virtually
obsolete as they are cheaper, more precise, and more physically robust than analog multimeters.
Multimeters vary in size, features, and price. They can be portable handheld devices or highly-
precise bench instruments.
Procedure:
1. Zero Head Turbine works as follow; water flows in high speed any canal or pipeline which
strikes the blades of turbine, make it turn while water keep flowing and blades continue to
rotate.
2. Rotation of shaft connected to blades can generate electricity by connecting to a
Dynamometer.
22 | P a g e
3. Measure the rotational speed of the shaft with no torque resistance on the shaft (runaway
condition) with the provided tachometer. Carefully align the tachometer reading line
perpendicular to the phosphorescent tape on the shaft/Dynamometer.
4. Tighten slightly the friction hand-wheels and record the rotational speed of the
shaft/Dynamometer with the tachometer.
5. Repeat this step until approximately 5 different settings are obtained with the last setting
with the turbine stopped.
6. Similarly, we will take values of current by multimeter and value of flow rate by flow meter.
23 | P a g e
Observation and Calculation:
Sr. No. Voltage Current RP Flowrate (cm3)

(V) (A) M
1 0 0 0 0
2 5.5 0.57 1150 0.523
3 6 0.63 1400 0.57
4 10 0.92 2100 0.95
5 12 1.1 2250 1.14
Graphs:
Graph between RPM and flowrate

1.2
0.8
Flowrate (cm3)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Revolutions (RPM)
24 | P a g e
Graph between RPM and Current

1.2
0.8
Current (A)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Revolutions (RPM)

From the above graphs, we concluded that, by increasing revolutions, current increases as well as flow
rate.
25 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 4
To measure the time required to achieve the steady
state condition in given solar water heater.
Apparatus:
 Solar water heater
 Water supply
 Cork/stopper
 Thermostat
 Electricity supply for thermostat
Theory:
Solar water heaters -- sometimes called solar domestic hot water systems -- can be a cost-
effective way to generate hot water for your home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel
they use -- sunshine -- is free.
Working of Solar Water heater:
Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two types of
solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive,
which don't.
26 | P a g e
Active Solar Water Heating Systems:
There are two types of active solar water heating systems:
 Direct circulation systems

Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home. They work well
in climates where it rarely freezes.
 Indirect circulation systems
Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and a heat
exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are popular in climate.
Passive Solar Water Heating Systems:
Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive than active systems, but they're
usually not as efficient. However, passive systems can be more reliable and may last longer.
There are two basic types of passive systems:
 Integral collector-storage passive systems

These consist of a storage tank covered with a transparent material to allow the sun to heat
the water. Water from the tank then flows into the plumbing system. These work best in
areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They also work well in households
with significant daytime and evening hot-water needs.
27 | P a g e
 Thermosyphon systems
Water is heated in a collector on the roof and then flows through the plumbing system when
a hot water faucet is opened. The majority of these systems have a 40-gallon capacity.
Storage Tanks and Solar Collectors:
Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an
additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar
water heater preheats water before it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems,
the back-up heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank.
Three types of solar collectors are used for residential applications:
 Flat-plate collector
Glazed flat-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that contain a dark
absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic (polymer) covers. Unglazed flat-plate
collectors -- typically used for solar pool heating -- have a dark absorber plate, made of
metal or polymer, without a cover or enclosure.
 Integral collector-storage systems
Also known as ICS or batch systems, they feature one or more black tanks or tubes in an
insulated, glazed box. Cold water first passes through the solar collector, which preheats
the water. The water then continues on to the conventional backup water heater,
providing a reliable source of hot water. They should be installed only in mild-freeze
climates because the outdoor pipes could freeze in severe, cold weather.
 Evacuated-tube solar collectors
They feature parallel rows of transparent glass tubes. Each tube contains a glass outer
tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. The fin's coating absorbs solar energy but
inhibits radiative heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently for U.S.
commercial applications.
28 | P a g e
Solar water heating systems almost always require a backup system for cloudy days and times
of increased demand. Conventional storage water heaters usually provide backup and may
already be part of the solar system package. A backup system may also be part of the solar
collector, such as rooftop tanks with thermosyphon systems. Since an integral-collector storage
system already stores hot water in addition to collecting solar heat, it may be packaged with
a tankless or demand-type water heater for backup
Procedure:
1. Make sure the tank is initially empty to avoid any error in the original/experimental
temperature readings.
2. Set up Solar Water Heater assembly in direct sunlight.
3. Insert the thermostat, from the outlet, such that when the tank is filled with water the
indicator should be immersed in the upper most layer of water. Enclose the outlet with
the help of the cork
4. Open the inlet stopper and let Water flow into the tank from the water source.
5. Once the tank is filled, as indicated by the overflow, cut-off the water supply and close.
6. Note the initial temperature reading on the thermostat.
7. Now take the temperature readings after specific intervals say 5 minutes
8. Note the time after which it reaches its steady state i.e. the time after which the outlet
temperature almost remains constant.
9. Repeat the experiment by changing solar heater’s tilt angle and note the difference
between the times to reach steady state.
Observation and calculation:

Tilt angle β= 45 degree
Time (min) Temperature ( Deg. Celsius)

5 33
10 35
15 35.2
20 35.8
25 36.5
30 37.3
35 37.4
29 | P a g e
Graph:
Temperature v/s Time

38
37
36
35
Temperature (oC)
34
33
32
31
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time ( min)
Results and Discussions:

The temperature rises with time, and after half an hour, we obtain a constant temperature since
the temperature difference after 30 minutes is negligible, suggesting that a steady state condition
has been established.
30 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 5
Analyze variation in temperature, humidity and voltage
gain due to solar radiations over a period of day on a Dual
Axis Solar Tracker.
Apparatus:
Dual Axis Solar Tracker
Schematic Diagram:
Theory:
A squares or diagonal distribution of trackers is used in the standard design of photovoltaic
facilities with photovoltaic solar trackers. This is an excellent distribution for gathering the
majority of solar radiation in general. However, ambient items such as buildings and trees might
cast shadows on these facilities.
The best approach to extract the most power out of solar panels (photovoltaic panels) is to
incorporate a tracking device, which ensures that sunlight is always perpendicular to the
photovoltaic cells' surface (photovoltaic cells). Photovoltaic solar trackers can gather up to 40%
more solar radiation than static photovoltaic panels, resulting in more electricity being created.
The performance of solar trackers in terms of energy gain is ranked according to the latitudes of
the area. The percentage difference between single-axis tracking solutions and dual-axis trackers
employed ranges from 0.42 percent to 23.4 percent. Overall, dual-axis trackers enhance energy
gain by 17.72 percent to 31.23 percent above the best fixed panel for each location, emphasizing
the value of solar trackers.
Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, hydro, and geothermal are currently
being marketed as viable and deployable alternatives. Solar power and related technologies, on
31 | P a g e
the other hand, are well established and are likely to contribute significantly to the global power
generating mix in the near future.
The amount of solar energy obtained is mostly controlled by the azimuth of the installation and
the angle of inclination in solar technologies. They are normally positioned towards the equator
with an optimum angle of inclination with regard to the horizon to optimize the energy gathered.
This optimum tilt angle is largely determined by the installation site's latitude and other climatic
factors. A solar tracker, on the other hand, is required to track the sun's course from sunrise to
sunset and from season to season. Single axis and complete axis/dual axis tracking are two
different types of sun trackers available.
The single axis tracking design is straightforward, pivoting to rotate around a single axis. They
are further divided into vertical (azimuth), horizontal, and slant or polar axis trackers based on
their tracking orientation. Dual axis tracking adds a second axis of rotation to the panel, allowing
it to follow the sun's path at all times. because of its capacity to reduce losses caused by the
cosine effect to put it another way, the panels are constantly parallel to the sun ray's irradiation,
enhancing the quantity of energy intercepted by the surface.
Procedure:
1. Take the dual axis solar tracker under the sun.
2. Switch on the button on the left side of the base board.
3. Wait for a moment until the LED shows up the readings.
4. Take out the readings for the temperature and humidity from LED.
5. Also note down the reading for voltage from the small LED.
6. Note the readings after each hour from 9AM to 5PM.
7. Prepare a table for all these observations.
8. Plot graphs showing behavior of temperature, humidity and Voltage with time.
Observation and Calculations:
No. of obs. Time of the day Temperature Humidity Voltage

(summer) (°C) % (V)
1. 9 AM 26 40 10.2
2. 10 AM 29 38 11.1
3. 11 AM 35 30 14.5
4. 12 PM 39 28 17
5. 1 PM 43 25.5 18.2
6. 2 PM 44 23.5 19.7
7. 3 PM 44 24 19.9
8. 4 PM 43 25 18.5
9. 5 PM 35 30 14.2
32 | P a g e
Graphs:
Time VS Temperature Graph

50
45
40
35
30
Temperature (°C)
25
20
15
10
5
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time of the day
Time VS Humidity
45
40
35
30
25
Humidity
20
15
10 Temperature Vs Voltage
25
5
0
20 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time of the day
Voltage (V)
15
10
33 | P a g e 0
20 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature (°C)

The graphs show that temperature and voltage have a direct relationship; as the temperature
rises, the voltage indicated on the dual axis solar tracker rises with it until it reaches its maximum
value. The voltage gain is highest between 2 and 3 PM, indicating that our peak hours are 2 and
3 PM. We also discovered that temperature and humidity have an inverse relationship.
EXPERIMENT NO: 6
To find the relationship between RPM and generated voltage
and current of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine.
Apparatus:
34 | P a g e
 Vertical axis wind turbine

 Tachometer (electronically modulated with black tap to sense rotation) or RPM can be
measured
 Power bank (or any 5v energy source to power tachometer).
 Blower (must have power to rotate wings and RMP can be changed by varying distance of
blower or by changing the angle of throttle air).
 Mobile cameras (to corelate the voltage or current with the RPM).
Theory:
Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT):
A vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) is a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft is set
transverse to the wind (but not necessarily vertically) while the main components are located at
the base of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to be located close to
the ground, facilitating service and repair. VAWTs do not need to be pointed into the wind,
which removes the need for wind-sensing and orientation mechanisms. Major drawbacks for the
early design included the significant torque variation or "ripple" during each revolution, and the
large bending moments on the blades. Later designs addressed the torque ripple issue by
sweeping the blades helically. Savonius vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) are not widespread,
but their simplicity and better performance in disturbed flow-fields, compared to small
horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) make them a good alternative for distributed generation
devices in urban environment.
35 | P a g e
Advantages:
 VAWTs offer a number of advantages over traditional horizontal-axis wind turbines
(HAWTs):
 Omni-directional VAWTs may not need to track the wind. This means they don't require
a complex mechanism and motors to yaw the rotor and pitch the blades.
 Gearbox replacement and maintenance are simpler and more efficient, because the
gearbox is accessible at ground level instead of requiring the operator work hundreds of
feet in the air. Motor and gearbox failures generally are significant operation and
maintenance considerations.
 Some designs can use screw pile foundations, which reduces the road transport of
concrete and the carbon cost of installation. Screw piles can be fully recycled at end of
life.
 VAWTs can be installed on HAWT wind farms below the existing HAWTs,
supplementing power output.
 VAWTs may operate in conditions unsuitable for HAWTs. For example, the Savories
rotor, which can operate in irregular, slow wind ground-level contexts, is often used in
remote or unattended locations although it is the most 'inefficient', drag-type, VAWT.
Disadvantages:
Because the angle of attack fluctuates fast in VAWTs, the blades frequently stall. Due to the
significant variety in applied forces with each rotation, the blades of a VAWT are prone to
fatigue. This can be avoided by using composite materials and improving design [citation
needed], such as using aerodynamic wing tips to create a static load on the spreader wing
connectors. The blades' vertical orientation allows them to twist and flex during each revolution,
reducing their useful life. Apart from drag-types, VAWTs have proven to be less reliable than
HAWTs, despite the fact that newer designs have addressed many of the early difficulties .
36 | P a g e
Procedure:
 Fixed the belt of the turbine over the large wheel and the pulley of the motor.
 Using black tap, mark a reference point from which we can count the number of the
 revolutions of the turbine.
 Fixed the number of revolutions of the turbine and note down the time for the same
 number of revolutions, and their ratio will provide the RPM of the turbine.
 Revolutionary speed of the turbine can be varied by varying the distance of the blower
 from the turbine wings or by changing the angle at which blower is placed.
 Then, connect the multimeter with the output wires of dynamometer.
 Set the measuring devices and cameras.
 The rotor of the turbine starts rotating, it shows the speed on the tachometer in rpms.
 We set the multimeter on the milliampere and it wires must be in series so that it will
 provide current readings with respect to rpms.
 Repeat the procedure by setting the multimeter on the millivolt and take the voltage
 readings with respect to rpms.
 Data was collected from the videos and putdown in to the tables.
 Using the data; graphs were plotted and results have been compared.
Observation and Calculation:

Calculating cut in speed and efficiency of turbine;
37 | P a g e
−1
V =12m s
38 | P a g e
39 | P a g e
Experimental data for voltage generation with respect to the RPM provided to the fins of the
turbine. RPM has been measured by fixing 30 number of revolutions and time was recorded by
stop watch then 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠𝑒𝑐 was converted into 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and the resulting vales of volts and currents
have been measured by using the multimeter.
Revolutions/min Voltage (V)
480 3.7
385 3.1
335 2.4
270 1.9
185 1.4
Revolutions/ Current
min (mA)
480 40
385 35
335 32
270 25
185 12
Graphs:
40 | P a g e
Graph between Voltage and RPM

4
3.5
2.5
Voltage (V)
1.5
0.5
0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
RPM
Graph between Current and RPM

45
40
35
30
Current (mA)
25
20
15
10
0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
RPM
41 | P a g e

The following observation and calculation indicate that voltage and current are directly related to
RPM, and that current and voltage rise with RPM over time. This is because as RPM increases,
torque increases, causing the turbine to rotate faster.
EXPERIMENT No: 7
To find the relationship between RPM and generated voltage
and current of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Apparatus:
 Horizontal axis wind turbine
 Tachometer (electronically modulated with black tap to sense rotation)
 Power bank (or any 5v energy source to power tachometer)
 Blower (must have power to rotate wings)
 Mobile cameras (to corelate the voltage or current with the RPM)
42 | P a g e
43 | P a g e
Theory:
The performance of a horizontal axis wind turbine continuously operating at its maximum power
coefficient was evaluated by a calculation code based on Blade Element Momentum (BEM)
theory. It was then evaluated for performance and Annual Energy Production (AEP) at a constant
standard rotational velocity as well as at a variable velocity but at its maximum power
coefficient.
The mathematical code produced a power co-efficiency curve which showed that
notwithstanding further increases in rotational velocity a constant maximum power value was
reached even as wind velocity increased.
This means that as wind velocity varies there will always be a rotational velocity of the turbine
which maximizes its coefficient. It would be sufficient therefore to formulate the law governing
the variation in rotational velocity as it varied with wind velocity to arrive at a power coefficient
that is always the same and its maximum.
Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine Working Principle:
The horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) is a wind turbine in which the main rotor shaft is
pointed in the direction of the wind to extract power.
Figure: Basic Parts of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
The rotor receives energy from the wind and produces a torque on a low-speed shaft. The low-
speed shaft transfers the energy to a gearbox, high-speed shaft, and generator, which are
enclosed in the nacelle for protection.
Notice how the blades are connected to the rotor and to the shaft. This shaft is called the low-
speed shaft because the wind turns the rotating assembly at a leisurely 10 to 20 revolutions per
44 | P a g e
minute (rpm) typically.

 The low-speed shaft connects to the gearbox, which has a set of gears that increase the
output speed of the shaft to approximately 1,800 rpm for an output frequency of 60 Hz (or a
speed of 1,500 rpm if the frequency is 50 Hz). For this reason, the shaft from the gearbox is
called the high-speed shaft.
 The high-speed shaft is then connected to the generator, which converts the rotational
motion to AC voltage. This speed is critical if it is used to turn the generator directly
because the frequency of the ac from the generator is related directly to the rate at which it
is turned.
Upwind Horizontal Wind Turbine:
Upwind machines have the rotor facing the wind. The basic advantage of upwind designs is that
one avoids the wind shade behind the tower. By far the vast majority of wind turbines have this
design. On the other hand, there is also some wind shade in front of the tower, the wind starts
bending away from the tower before it reaches the tower itself, even if the tower is round and
smooth. Therefore, each time the rotor passes the tower, the power from the wind turbine drops
slightly. The basic drawback of upwind designs is that the rotor needs to be made rather
inflexible and placed at some distance from the tower, as some manufacturers have found out to
their cost. In addition, an upwind machine needs a yaw mechanism to keep the rotor facing the
wind.
Downwind Horizontal Wind Turbine:
Notice that the rotor is "coning" away from the tower. Downwind machines have the rotor placed
on the lee side of the tower. They have the theoretical advantage that they may be built without a
yaw mechanism, if the rotor and nacelle have a suitable design that makes the nacelle follow the
wind passively. For large wind turbines this is a somewhat doubtful advantage, however, since
you do need cables to lead the current away from the generator.
A more important advantage is that the rotor may be made more flexible. This is an advantage
both in regard to weight and the structural dynamics of the machine, that is the blades will bend
at high wind speeds, thus taking part of the load off the tower. Thus, the basic advantage of the
downwind machine is that it may be built somewhat lighter than an upwind machine.

45 | P a g e
Controlling the Output Frequency of Wind Turbine:

Controlling the output frequency and keeping it constant despite varying winds can be done in
one of three ways.
1. One way is to control the speed at which the generator shaft turns, which can be
accomplished by adjusting the pitch and yaw.
 Pitch and yaw can be adjusted so that a high-speed shaft runs at a constant rate to
produce the required output frequency (typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz) from the generator.
 HAWTs may also use a gearbox or set of gears, which changes the slow rotation of the
blades into a faster rotation for the generator.
 The optimum blade rotation is generally between 10 and 20 rpm, and the gear ratio can
be used to make the high-speed shaft rotate at the speed the generator requires.
2. The second method for controlling the frequency is to allow the turbine to run freely at
any speed that is within its ratings and send the voltage to a power electronic frequency
converter. This method is also used with vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs).
 When a frequency converter is used, the rotational speed of the turbine is not controlled
until the maximum speed is reached, at which point speed controls take over.
 The frequency converter consists of the features shown in Figure 2. The inverter accepts
single-phase or three-phase AC to its input circuits within a specified range of frequency
and voltage level.
 The AC is filtered and converted to DC by the rectifier and smoothed with passive filters
to remove any trace of the input frequency.
 The next section has an inverter that converts the DC voltage back to single-phase or
three-phase AC voltage at the precise frequency and phase required by the grid.
46 | P a g e
3. The third way to control the output frequency of the generator is to use a double-feed,
inductive-type generator in which the AC field current is tightly controlled to the required
output frequency by feeding the current through an electronic circuit that produces an
exact frequency.
HAWT Towers:
The tower for a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine maybe 40 to 100 m (approximately 130 to 328 ft)
high so that it is tall enough to position the turbine blade into the strongest wind flow. Most sites
have the strongest winds well above ground level.
Controller:
The blade pitch and the direction the turbine faces have already been described as functions
monitored by the controller.
The controller also uses sensors to measure the generator output (voltage and frequency),
turbine blade speed, vibration, turbine and drive train parameters, and other parameters such as a
number of complete rotations of the vertical axis (yaw control).
The advantage of this type of wind turbine is the lower cost because of the use of only one
turbine blade (and the small weight savings), but single-blade turbines must run at much higher
speeds to convert the same amount of energy from the wind as two-blade or three-blade turbines
with the same size blades.
Procedure:
 Firstly, it is necessary to constrain the rotation of wind turbine axis in one direction.
 Fixed the tachometer on the upper support of the motor by a tape and bind tape (whose
color must be different from the color of the wings) on one wing also.
 Keep in consider that the distance between the tap and the lead of tachometer is not more
than 1cm, this is due to the sensitivity of the tachometer otherwise there will be
fluctuations in the accuracy of the results.
 Then, connect the multimeter with the output wires of dynamometer.
 Set the measuring devices and cameras.
 The rotor of the turbine starts rotating, it shows the speed on the tachometer in rpms.
 We set the multimeter on the milliampere and it wires must be in series so that it will
provide current readings with respect to rpms.
 Repeat the procedure by setting the multimeter on the millivolt and take the voltage
readings with respect to rpms.
 Data was collected from the videos and putdown in to the tables.
 Using the data; graphs were plotted and results have been compared.
47 | P a g e
Observations and calculations:

Calculating Cut in speed and efficiency of turbine:
P=1 2 × ρ × A × v 3
1
v=(2 × P ρ × A) 3
Where v is the speed of wind, 𝞺 is the density of air and A is a cross-section of wind front.
Putting Values:
As,
1
3
v=(2 × P ρ × A)
Where P=400watt, 𝜌=1.20kg/m3 (at 300C), and
2 2
Swept area of blade=A=36 × 5 ×2=360 ¿ =0.2323 m .
Putting values:
1
v=(2 × 400 1.2× 0.2323) 3
v=14 m/ s
Calculating Cut-in speed from RPM:
Since the average rpm of the blower is sum of all given above the table and divided by 6 which is
equal to 148 RPM.
Since,
Radius of the turbine blade=36 inch=0.9144 m
We know about the formula relating linear velocity with the rotational velocity:
v=rw
Converting RPM to rad/sec:
w=148 ×2 π 60=15.4985 rad /sec
Solving for linear velocity:
v=(0.9144 ×15.4985)=14.17 m/sec
Error:
Solid works and Ansys fluent simulations have been performed at 10m/sec to get same power
output and torque on blades.
v=14−14.17 14 ×100=1.214 %
Actual Power Generated by the Turbine:

P=Cp ×1 2 × ρ × A × v 3
Cp= perturbation factor∨efficiency factor=0.59 by betz criterea
Putting values:
P=0.59× 12 ×1.2 ×0.2323 ×14.173=0.59 × 442.74=261.2225 W
Efficiency:
Efficiency, μ, or, as it is more commonly called, the power coefficient, cp, of the wind turbine is
simply defined as the actual power delivered divided by the available power.
μ= Actual Power Ideal Power
μ=Cp×1 2 × ρ × A × v 3 4000
μ=261.2225 400=65.3056 %
Thrust force comparison:
F=1 2× ρ× A ×v 2
48 | P a g e
F=1 2× 1.2× 0.23× 14.172=27 N

And, -27
thrust force by simmulation results=33 N ≈.
Error:
E=33−27 33 ×100
E=18.18 %
Cut in speed by the thrust force:
F=1 2× ρ× A ×v 2
Rearrange:
1
v=(2 × F ρ× A ) 2
1
v=(2 ×33 1.2 ×0.2323) 2
v=15.38 m sec
Error in cut-speed of simulated and experimented results:

E=15.38−14.7 15.38 ×100
E=4.42 %
Experimental data for voltage generation with respect to the RPM provided to the fins of the turbine.
RPM Voltage
(V)
0 0
80 0.52
115 0.58
140 0.91
190 1.05
230 1.23
280 1.65
Experimental data for voltage generation with respect to the RPM provided to the fins of the turbine.
RPM Current (mA)
0 0
80 44
115 57
140 86
190 112
230 125
280 135
Graphs:
49 | P a g e
Graph between RPM and Voltage

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Voltage (V)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
RPM
Graph between RPM and Current

160
140
120
100
Current (mA)
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
RPM

We may deduce from this experiment that as the number of RPMs on a horizontal axis wind
turbine increases, so does the velocity, indicating a direct relationship between the two variables.
When we increase the RPM of a horizontal axis wind turbine, the current also increases,
indicating that these two variables have a direct relationship.
50 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 8
Calculating the Speed, Torque, Power & Efficiency of
Francis Turbine
Apparatus:
 Tachometer
 Francis’s turbine
 Pressure gauge
 Flow Meter
 Digital Multimeter
 Stop Watch
51 | P a g e
Theory:
Francis Turbine:
Francis turbine embraces a radial flow runner in which the water strikes the runner blades
radially and departs axially along its axis through a draft tube. The Francis turbine is a mixed
flow-type turbine in which the water passes through the curved guide vanes and creates a high
curved rotational flow at the outlet. A draft tube is connected at the end of the turbine, and this
draft tube aids to improve the overall efficiency of the reaction turbine by pacifying the excess
kinetic energy of the fluid.
Working of Francis Turbine:
The turbine consists of an outer spiral casing, followed by a set of fixed blades called stay vanes.
Next comes a collection of moving blades called guide vanes, then a bunch of centrally placed
blades called runner and lastly, an outgoing duct called a duct draft tube. Figure shows the
various parts of a Francis turbine.
52 | P a g e
The flow enters the Francis turbine through the spiral casing. Decreasing the cross-sectional area
of the casing ensures that the flow enters the central part of the turbine with uniform velocity
throughout the perimeter. The flow next passes through two sets of blades before entering the
runner, namely:
 Outer stay vanes
 Inner guide vanes.
The stay vanes are fixed and help steer the water towards the runner section. They help in
reducing the swirl at the inlet flow as well. The guide vanes sitting in between the stay vanes and
the runner have a more critical role to play. They manage the flow rate based on the power
demand. But the power demand fluctuates over time. The guide vanes govern the water flow rate
and ensure that power production is in sync with demand. In addition, guide vanes control the
flow angle directed towards the runner blades. They try to ensure that the inlet flow angle is at
the optimal angle of attack to harness maximum water power.
Next, the flow comes in contact with the most crucial part of the Francis turbine – the runner.
Water enters the runner radially and leaves axially. Because of this change in the direction across
the runner, Francis turbines are called mixed flow turbines. The runner blades are highly
contoured and have thin airfoil cross-sections. So, when water flows over it, one side of the blade
experiences low pressure while the opposite side perceives high pressure. This pressure
differential creates lift force.
Also, due to the peculiar shape of the blade at the outlet, the incoming water hits the blade outlet
and produce impulse force before leaving the runner. Thus, the runner blade generates both lift
and impulse forces, which sets it into a rotating motion. So unlike Kaplan turbines, Francis
turbines are not pure reaction turbines, as part of the force comes from impulse action also. In
other words, both the kinetic and pressure energy of the fluid will be reduced as it leaves the
runner. This low-pressure exit from the runner could lead to severe problems of cavitation. So, to
avoid it, the outflow is directed towards a carefully designed tube called the draft tube. These
tubes with increasing cross-sectional area transform the dynamic head of the fluid to static
pressure and thereby reduce the effect of cavitation.
Applications:
 Francis turbine is the most widely used turbine in hydro-power plants to generate
electricity.
 Mixed flow turbine is also used in irrigation water pumping sets to pump water from
ground for irrigation.
 It is efficient over a wide range of water head and flow rate.
 It is most efficient hydro-turbine we have till date.
53 | P a g e
Procedure:
1. First of all, connect the turbine to a water source in which the water
flow rate can be varied.
2. Open the valve of the water source so the fluid start flowing into the turbine
which will turn the blades, which in turn rotates the motor connected to it,
thereby producing electric current.
3. For measuring the RPMs, first of all we will measure the flow rate.
4. For flow rate measurement, we will calculate the time in seconds for the
flow of 5 liters of liquid by using a stopwatch.
5. Now for calculating RPMs, either use digital tachometers or mechanical tachometers.
6. For using digital tachometer, mark a point on the shaft of the turbine and
point the tachometer towards it, the tachometer uses laser or IR rays to
calculate the RPMs at the specific flow rate.
7. For using mechanical tachometer, place the cone shaped knob of the
tachometer on the rotating shaft and measure the RPMs on the gauge.
8. Make a graph for Current vs Voltage and flow rate vs Voltage & Current
for discussing the effects of varying flow rate on these parameters.
54 | P a g e
PROCEDURE for V & I:

1. First of all, connect the turbine to a water source in which the water
flow rate can be varied.
2. Open the valve of the water source so the fluid start flowing into the turbine
which will turn the blades, which in turn rotates the motor connected to it,
thereby producing electric current.
3. For measuring the current and voltage, first of all we will measure the flow rate.
4. For flow rate measurement, we will calculate the time in seconds for the
flow of 5 liters of liquid.
5. Then by dividing the amount of water flowed in m^3 by the time in
seconds, we get the Flow Rate.
Flow Rate
m3
s ( )
=
Volume of Liquid (m3)
Time for the givenVolume of Liquid Flow( s)
6. Now for measuring current at a specific flow rate, attach an ammeter to

the load wires and measure the Current in mA.
55 | P a g e
1. For measuring voltage, attach a voltmeter to the load wires and measure the Voltage in V.
2. After getting both values at same flow rate, we will change the flow rate and
again repeat the procedure for up to 3 times.
3. For Calculating the power produced, use the following formula:
𝑃 = 𝑉. 𝐼
4. Make a graph for Current vs Voltage and flow rate vs Voltage & Current for discussing
the effects of varying flow rate on these parameters.
Observations and calculations:
2 πNT
Mechanical Power=Pm =
60
Here , N =speed ( rads )∧T =Torque (Nm)

Hydraulic Power=Ph=QP × 6894.757
( )
3
m
Here ,Q=flow rate ∧P=Pressure( psi)
s
Pm
Efficiency= ×100
Ph
Sr. No. Head Time for 5L of water Flow Rate Speed Speed Current
P N N I
psi s m3/s rpm rad/s μA
1 10 8.06 0.0006 1665 174.27 7
2 9 8.91 0.0006 1545 161.71 22
3 8.1 9.82 0.0005 1420 148.63 22.3
4 8 11.83 0.0004 1387 145.17 23
Voltage Torque Hydraulic Mechanical Power Ph Pm/Ph Efficiency

T Power Pm
V Nm W W %
4.5 0.0172 18.8239 41.3687 0.4550 45.50
9.8 0.0186 18.8890 37.2319 0.5073 50.73
9.9 0.0202 18.8541 27.9239 0.6751 67.51
10 0.0207 18.8718 22.0633 0.8553 85.53
56 | P a g e
Graphs:
Graph between Voltage and Current

25
20
Current (μA)
15
10
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Voltage (V)
Graph between Flowrate and Voltage

12
10
8
Voltage (V)
0
0.0004 0.00045 0.0005 0.00055 0.0006 0.00065
Flow rate (m3/s)

We can deduce the following from this experiment: The first graph shows that when current
increases, voltage increases according to Ohm's rule.
According to the second graph, as flow rate increases, water turbulence increases, lowering
voltage.
57 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 9
To Measure the extracted current from the Pelton Wheel
Drive.
Apparatus:
 Pelton wheel.
 Vortex meter
 Tachometer
 Pressure washer
Theory:
Pelton Wheel or Pelton Turbine:
A Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel is a type of hydro turbine (specifically an impulse turbine) used
frequently in hydroelectric plants. These turbines are generally used for sites with heads greater
than 300 meters.
This type of turbine was created during the gold rush in 1880 by Lester Pelton. The water in a
Pelton turbine is moving quickly (high velocity head, figure 2) and the turbine extracts energy
from the water by slowing the water down, which makes this an impulse turbine.
When used for generating electricity, there is usually a water reservoir located at some height

above the Pelton turbine. The water then flows through the penstock to specialized nozzles that
introduce pressurized water to the turbine. To prevent irregularities in pressure, the penstock is
fitted with a surge tank that absorbs sudden fluctuations in water that could alter the
pressure. Unlike other types of turbines which are reaction turbines, the Pelton turbine is known
58 | P a g e
as an impulse turbine. This simply means that instead of moving as a result of a reaction force,
water creates some impulse on the turbine to get it to move.
The Pelton turbine has a fairly simplistic design. A large circular disk is mounted on some sort of
rotating shaft known as a rotor. Mounted on this circular disk are cup shaped blades known
as buckets evenly spaced around the entire wheel. Generally, the buckets are arranged in pairs
around the rim. Then nozzles are arranged the wheel and serve the purpose of introducing water
to the turbine. Jets of water emerge from these nozzles, tangential to the wheel of the turbine.
This causes the turbine to spin as a result of the impact of the water jets on the buckets.
Parts of Pelton Turbine:
 Casing
 Bucket
 Runner
 Penstock
 Nozzle
 Hand Wheel
 Spear
 Water Jet
Working of Pelton Turbine:

The operation of a Pelton turbine is fairly simple. In this type of turbine, high speed jets of water
emerge from the nozzles that surround the turbine. These nozzles are arranged so the water jet
will hit the buckets at splitters, the center of the bucket where the water jet is divided into two
streams. The two separate streams then flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave in the
opposite direction that it came in. This change in momentum of the water creates an impulse on
the blades of the turbine, generating torque and rotation in the turbine.
59 | P a g e
The high-speed water jets are created by pushing high pressure water (such as water falling from
high heads) through nozzles at atmospheric pressure. The maximum output is obtained from a
Pelton turbine when the impulse obtained by the blades is maximum, meaning that the water
stream is deflected exactly opposite to the direction at which it strikes the buckets at. As well,
the efficiency of these wheels is highest when the speed of the movement of the cups is half of
the speed of the water jet.
Design parameters:
Following are the aspects to be considered while designing the Pelton wheel turbine.
 Velocity of jet
 Velocity of wheel
 Angle of deflection of jet
 Mean diameter of the wheel
 Jet ratio
 Bucket dimensions
 Number of jets
 Number of buckets
Advantages:
These are some advantages of Pelton Wheel Turbine:
 The Pelton turbine is the most efficient of hydro turbines.

 It operates with a very flat efficiency curve
 Each bucket splits the water jet in half, thus balancing the side-load forces or thrust on
the wheel and thus the bearings.
 It operates on the high head and low discharge.
 It has a tangential flow which means that it can have either axial flow or radial flow.
60 | P a g e
 Pelton wheel turbine is very easy to assemble.

 There is no cavitation because water jet strikes only a specific portion of the runner.
 It has fewer parts as compared to Francis's turbine which has both fixed vanes and guided
vanes.
 The overall efficiency of the Pelton turbine is high.
 Pelton wheel turbines, both first law and the second law of motion are applied.
 The main advantages are that In this turbine, the whole process of water jet
striking and leaving for the runner takes place at atmospheric pressure.
Procedure:
Sr. No. Flow Rate Speed of Head Speed of Output Output power
water motor current Voltage (VI)
m3/sec m/sec Pascal rpm mA V mW

1 0.00037 4.7133758 1.13346 250 250 2.2 550
2 0.000391 4.98089172 1.26578 271 266 2.35 625.1
3 0.000423 5.38853503 1.48144 293 281 2.5 702.5
4 0.000441 5.6178344 1.61021 309 296 2.75 814
5 0.000473 6.02547771 1.85237 330 311 2.9 901.9
6 0.000499 6.3566879 2.06161 347 326 3.15 1026.9
7 0.000503 6.40764331 2.09479 365 341 3.3 1125.3
61 | P a g e
Graphs:
Graph between Flow Rate and Speed of Motor

400
350
Speed of Motor (rpm)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Flow Rate (m3/sec)
Graph between Flow Rate and Current

400
350
300
Current (mA)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Flow Rate (m3/sec)

From this experiment, we can derive the following: According to Ohm's rule, when current
increases, voltage increases.
Water turbulence increases as flow rate increases, lowering voltage, according to the second
graph.
62 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT No: 10
To measure the characteristics of Pelton wheel and draw a
graph between flow rate and power extracted.
Apparatus:
 Pelton wheel.
 Vortex meter
 Tachometer
 Pressure washer
Theory:
Pelton Wheel or Pelton Turbine:
A Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel is a type of hydro turbine (specifically an impulse turbine) used
frequently in hydroelectric plants. These turbines are generally used for sites with heads greater
than 300 meters.
This type of turbine was created during the gold rush in 1880 by Lester Pelton. The water in a
Pelton turbine is moving quickly (high velocity head, figure 2) and the turbine extracts energy
from the water by slowing the water down, which makes this an impulse turbine.
When used for generating electricity, there is usually a water reservoir located at some height

above the Pelton turbine. The water then flows through the penstock to specialized nozzles that
introduce pressurized water to the turbine. To prevent irregularities in pressure, the penstock is
fitted with a surge tank that absorbs sudden fluctuations in water that could alter the
pressure. Unlike other types of turbines which are reaction turbines, the Pelton turbine is known
63 | P a g e
as an impulse turbine. This simply means that instead of moving as a result of a reaction force,
water creates some impulse on the turbine to get it to move.
The Pelton turbine has a fairly simplistic design. A large circular disk is mounted on some sort of
rotating shaft known as a rotor. Mounted on this circular disk are cup shaped blades known
as buckets evenly spaced around the entire wheel. Generally, the buckets are arranged in pairs
around the rim. Then nozzles are arranged the wheel and serve the purpose of introducing water
to the turbine. Jets of water emerge from these nozzles, tangential to the wheel of the turbine.
This causes the turbine to spin as a result of the impact of the water jets on the buckets.
Parts of Pelton Turbine:
 Casing
 Bucket
 Runner
 Penstock
 Nozzle
 Hand Wheel
 Spear
 Water Jet
Working of Pelton Turbine:

The operation of a Pelton turbine is fairly simple. In this type of turbine, high speed jets of water
emerge from the nozzles that surround the turbine. These nozzles are arranged so the water jet
will hit the buckets at splitters, the center of the bucket where the water jet is divided into two
streams. The two separate streams then flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave in the
opposite direction that it came in. This change in momentum of the water creates an impulse on
the blades of the turbine, generating torque and rotation in the turbine.
64 | P a g e
The high-speed water jets are created by pushing high pressure water (such as water falling from
high heads) through nozzles at atmospheric pressure. The maximum output is obtained from a
Pelton turbine when the impulse obtained by the blades is maximum, meaning that the water
stream is deflected exactly opposite to the direction at which it strikes the buckets at. As well,
the efficiency of these wheels is highest when the speed of the movement of the cups is half of
the speed of the water jet.
Design parameters:
Following are the aspects to be considered while designing the Pelton wheel turbine.
1. Velocity of jet
2. Velocity of wheel
3. Angle of deflection of jet
4. Mean diameter of the wheel
5. Jet ratio
6. Bucket dimensions
7. Number of jets
8. Number of buckets
Runner Outer Diameter 340𝑚𝑚

Circumferential Distance 520𝑚𝑚
Diameter of the runner shaft 25𝑚𝑚
Diameter of the motor shaft 8𝑚𝑚
Diameter of Runner Pulley 35𝑚𝑚
65 | P a g e
Diameter of motor pulley 12𝑚𝑚

Water Deflection Angle(𝛽) 180𝑜
Outer diameter of the cup 70𝑚𝑚
curved profile diameter 16𝑚𝑚
Depth of cup 15𝑚𝑚
Tapered Angle for Cup inside Profile 7°
Belt Size 140𝑚𝑚
Center to center dis 133𝑚𝑚
Nozzle Diameter 5𝑚𝑚
Head of water from given diameter of 100𝑚𝑚
Nozzle
Dimensions & Characteristics of Pelton wheel turbine:
We measured all the dimension of our Pelton turbine model. These dimensions and features of
Pelton wheel turbine are given below:
Motor Specifications:
Motor voltage 12𝑉
Rpm of the motor 3000𝑟𝑝𝑚
Power Generation observation table:
Sr. No. Flow Rate Speed (Water) Head
m3/sec m/sec m
1 0.00037 4.713375796 1.13346
2 0.000391 4.98089172 1.26578
3 0.000423 5.388535032 1.48144
4 0.000441 5.617834395 1.61021
5 0.000473 6.025477707 1.85237
6 0.000499 6.356687898 2.06161
7 0.000503 6.407643312 2.09479
Speed (Motor) Output current Output Voltage Power (VI)
rpm mA V mW
250 250 2.2 550
271 266 2.35 625.1
293 281 2.5 702.5
309 296 2.75 814
330 311 2.9 901.9
66 | P a g e
347 326 3.15 1026.9

365 341 3.3 1125.3
Influence of different nozzle diameter on head and input power:
Flow rate Q (V=Q/A) (V=Q/A) (V=Q/A)
Motor Motor Motor

Speed, at d1= 10mm Speed, at d2= 11mm Speed, at d3= 12mm
(m^3/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec)

0.00037 4.7134 3.8947 3.2743
0.000391 4.9809 4.1158 3.4602
0.000423 5.3885 4.4526 3.7434
0.000441 5.6178 4.6421 3.9027
0.000473 6.0255 4.9790 4.1858
0.000499 6.3567 5.2526 4.4159
0.000513 6.5350 5.4000 4.5398
g H= V^2/2g H= V^2/2g H= V^2/2g
Head, at d1=10mm Head, at d2=11mm Head, at d3=12mm
(m/s^2) M M M
9.8 1.1335 0.7739 0.5470
9.8 1.2658 0.8643 0.6108
9.8 1.4814 1.0115 0.7149
9.8 1.6102 1.0994 0.7771
9.8 1.8524 1.2648 0.8939
9.8 2.0616 1.4077 0.9949
9.8 2.1790 1.4877 1.0515
Graphs:
67 | P a g e
Graph between Flow rate and Power

1200
1000
800
Power (mW)
600
400
200
0
0.00036 0.00038 0.0004 0.00042 0.00044 0.00046 0.00048 0.0005 0.00052
Flow Rate (m3/sec)
Graph between Flow rate and Head diameters

2.5
2
Head Diameters (m)
1.5
0.5
0
0.00036 0.00038 0.0004 0.00042 0.00044 0.00046 0.00048 0.0005 0.00052 0.00054
Flow rate (m3/sec)
At d = 10 mm At d = 11 mm At d = 12 mm

When the diameter of the nozzle is kept constant, the flow rate increases gradually as the input
power increases in the first graph. In the second graph, Pin steadily grows as Q increases. This is
reasonable and may be explained using the equation below. Due to the greatest H attained at this
nozzle diameter, d=10mm yields a larger value of Pin. As a result of the given graph, we can
deduce that d has an inverse relationship with Pin:
Pin = p*g*Q*H
Experiment NO: 11
To Produce Bio-Diesel Using Cooking Oil in Bio-
68 | P a g e
diesel plant
Apparatus:
 Cooking oil (4 liter)
 Methanol (1 liter)
 KOH (80 g)
 Beakers
 Weighing Machine
 Thermometer
 Stirrer
 Bio-diesel plant
 Funnel
 Filter paper
 Safety Gloves
 Lab coat
69 | P a g e
Theory:
Bio-Diesel:
Biodiesel refers to any diesel substitute that is derived from any renewable resources. Biodiesel
belongs to a family of products, called alkyl esters of fatty acids, made from vegetable oils or
animal fats in combination with alcohol such as methanol or ethanol. The main purpose of
production of biodiesel is to utilize the renewable sources or waste materials, to fulfill our energy
requirements.
Production of Bio-Diesel:
Biodiesel is produced by transesterification of oils with short-chain alcohols or by the
esterification of fatty acids. The transesterification reaction consists of transforming triglycerides
into fatty acid alkyl esters, in the presence of an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol, and a
catalyst, such as an alkali or acid, with glycerol as a byproduct.
The majority of biodiesel today is produced by alkali-catalyzed transesterification with methanol,
which results in a relatively short reaction time. However, the vegetable oil and alcohol must be
substantially anhydrous and have a low free fatty acid content, because the presence of water or
free fatty acid or both promotes soap formation.
Instead of using virgin vegetable oil, waste cooking oil can be used as raw material for biodiesel
production. Different sources of raw material used for the production of biodiesel are shown in
Figure 1.
Advantages of Using Bio-Diesel over Diesel Fuel:

 Environment Friendly:
Biodiesel is considered more environmentally friendly as it has zero emissions. Diesel fuel,
70 | P a g e
on the other hand, is a major source of air pollution. Its emissions contain harmful
compounds that can cause lung cancer.
 Engine Safety:
Biodiesel fuel is a renewable form of energy. It can act as lubrication for the moving parts of
your engine to improve the performance of your vehicle or equipment.
 Affordability:
Biodiesel is an affordable option compared to diesel due to the easy availability of natural
resources needed for its processing.
 Safety:
Biodiesel is biodegradable, non-toxic, and easy to use. It also doesn’t contain harmful
elements such as sulfur and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Procedure:
 Take 4 litre used cooking oil in the container and filter it with filter paper.
 Take filtered cooking oil in the upper heater of heating plant.
 Adjust the heating temperature (50oC) of heater by using thermo sensor.

 Heat the oil for a time until the oil temperature becomes 50oC.
 Measure the temperature of oil by thermometer.
 Add 1liter methanol with 80g KOH in the heater.
 Stir the mixture very well for 10-15 minutes.
 Turn the plant off and cover the heater head so that methanol will not evaporate.
 Leave the mixture for 1 day and two layers of glycerol and bio-diesel is clearly visible.
 Open the valve 1 for separation of glycerol from the mixture.
 After glycerol is separated, then bio-diesel went to water washing chamber where
remaining methanol residue is removed.
 Open valve 2 for water separation.
 After all impurities removed, the remaining pure bio-diesel is collected in lower heater.

The procedure described above was used to make biodiesel from cooking oil in this experiment.
The biodiesel's attributes, such as kinematic viscosity, density, and calorific value, were
determined to be in close agreement with the biodiesel fuel's criteria. It demonstrates that the
process produces high-quality biodiesel, and that modest changes to the technique can make it
practicable for producing biodiesel from cooking oil.
71 | P a g e
References:
1. http://www.ews-solarpower.co.uk/24-how-does-the-system-work
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666123321000179
3. https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-power/parallel-connected-solar-panels.html
4. https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-power/series-connected-solar-panels.html
5. https://nif.org.in/innovation/zero_head_hydro_turbine/307
6. https://electricalacademia.com/renewable-energy/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-hawt-working-
principle-single-blade-two-blade-three-blade-wind-turbine
7. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148109002869?
casa_token=pzukp8VQrOMAAAAA:9fbx9lr1n6elsQ3yENY6sJhu4DZxe-yJ-
amsLNcwuSvlBs1C1r5CEuK-jo69hgwAJ0iPcUQi#sec6
72 | P a g e

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UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &

Department of Mechanical Engineering

LAB REPORTS OF ERU

Registration No: 2019-ME-22(A)

Tilt Angle/Slope/Elevation Angle (𝜷):

Working of Solar PV:

PV Panel System in Parallel Combination:

Observations and Calculations:

Graph between Tilt Angle and Current

Graph between Power and Tilt Angle

Results and Discussion:

Tilt Angle/Slope/Elevation Angle (𝜷):

Working of Solar PV:

PV Panel System in Series Combination:

2. Clean the solar panel

3. Tilt the solar plate at 0 degrees towards the sun

4. Make sure that no part of the solar panel is shaded

5. Connect your battery and charge controller

6. Connect your solar panel to the charge controller

7. Use lux meter to find the light intensity falling on panel

Observations and Calculations:

Graph between Tilt Angle and Current

Results and Discussion:

Observation and Calculation:

Sr. No. Voltage Current RP Flowrate (cm3)

5 12 1.1 2250 1.14

Graph between RPM and flowrate

Graph between RPM and Current

Results and Discussion:

Working of Solar Water heater:

Active Solar Water Heating Systems:

There are two types of active solar water heating systems:

 Direct circulation systems

Passive Solar Water Heating Systems:

 Integral collector-storage passive systems

Storage Tanks and Solar Collectors:

Three types of solar collectors are used for residential applications:

Observation and calculation:

Time (min) Temperature ( Deg. Celsius)

Temperature v/s Time

Results and Discussions:

Observation and Calculations:

No. of obs. Time of the day Temperature Humidity Voltage

Time VS Temperature Graph

Results and Discussion:

 Vertical axis wind turbine

Observation and Calculation:

Observations and Calculations:

Revolutions/min Voltage (V)

Graph between Voltage and RPM

Graph between Current and RPM

Results and Discussion:

Figure: Basic Parts of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine

minute (rpm) typically.

Controlling the Output Frequency of Wind Turbine:

Observations and calculations:

Actual Power Generated by the Turbine: