SCIENCE REVIEWER

SOUND WAVES

What is Sound?

 longitudinal waves produced by vibrating bodies

 the transfer of energy from a vibrating object in waves that travel through matter

Sound is a Mechanical Wave

- A sound wave is a disturbance which is transported through a medium via the mechanism of
particle-to-particle interaction

Sound as Longitudinal Wave

- Waves in which the motion of the individual particles of the medium is parallel to the direction of
the wave (energy transport) that results to the creation of compressions and rarefactions within
the air medium

How is human voice produced?

- Vibrations of the membranes in the throat called vocal cords.

Factors that Affect the Speed of Sound Transmission

1. Medium

- among the three states of matter, solids are best transmitters of sound
- the molecules of solids are tightly packed that enable sound waves to be transmitted faster and
more efficiently than in liquids and gases
- no sound in vacuum

2. Air Density

- the higher the altitude, the lower the density

- At higher altitude, air is less dense, which means air molecules are farther apart compared to
those at lower altitude. Therefore, speed of sound is slower in high altitude than at sea level

3. Density

- the denser the medium the faster is the sound transmission, the slower the speed of sound
temperature
- Sound travels faster in elastic/denser materials (e.g. iron)
4. Temperature

- Higher temperature, faster speed of sound

- Sounds travel faster in warm air, slower in cool air
- At 0 degree sound travels at 332 m/s and the speed increases by about 0.6 m/s for every 1 degree
rise in temperature

The Human Ear

- sensitive detector of sound

- transform the vibrational sound waves into electrical signals that are carried to the brain
- consists of three divisions (outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear)

Characteristics of Sound Waves

1. Frequency and Pitch

- highness or lowness of sound

Pitch depends on the number of vibrations per second (vps)

The higher the frequency of a vibrating object, the higher the pitch of the sound emitted; the lower the
frequency, the lower the pitch

Range of Audible Frequencies

Audible Range 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz (range within which human ear can hear)

Infrasonic Sound below 20 Hz

Ultrasonic Sound above 20 000 Hz

2. Loudness and Intensity

- Magnitude of the sound perceived by the ear.

- Depends on intensity of the sound wave on the ear of listener.
- The amplitude of a sound wave of a given frequency and wavelength is a measure of its energy.
The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
-

3. Quality and Timbre

- characteristic that distinguishes one sound from another of equal pitch and loudness

How is musical instrument distinguished from noise?

 Noise produces irregular vibrations

 Musical sound produces regular vibrations
LIGHT WAVES

THEORIES & EXPERIMENTS ABOUT LIGHT

1. CORPUSCULAR OR PARTICLE Theory of Light

- Isaac Newton

- Light consists of corpuscles or particles shooting out like tiny bullets from a source and travels in
straight line through space.

2. WAVE THEORY

- Christian Huygens
- WAVE THEORY LIGHT IS A TRAIN OF WAVES similar to those that resulted from dropping an object
into a pool of water.
- Huygen’s principle shows how waves waves moves around corner.

3. The Double Slit Experiment

- Thomas Young
- Double slit experiment showed the interference (interaction) of light
- Revived other scientists’ interest on the wave nature of light

4. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

- James Clerk Maxwell

- Confirmed by Heinrich Hertz, who showed that light and other electrically generated waves were
of the same nature except they differed in wavelength and frequency
- LIGHT IS propagated in space as electromagnetic waves

5. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

- proposed by Max Planck & advanced by Albert Einstein

- When light with a sufficient energy strikes a photosensitive metal surface, electrons are emitted,
and their energies are dependent of the frequency of the incident light ● Light could be emitted
and absorbed in discrete bundles of energy or quanta
- Thus, it was proposed that light propagates as a stream of particles known as photons or quanta
than as electromagnetic wave

6. QUANTUM theory

- Light energy is radiated in discrete packets or bundles called photons.

- Based on scientist investigations, it is now considered that light has DUAL CHARACTERISTICS --
that of a wave and that of a particle

NOTE: Is light a wave or particle?

Based on scientist investigations, it is now considered that light has DUAL CHARACTERISTICS -- that of a
wave and that of a particle.
  It is a wave - if light interacts with another light, such as in interference.
 It is a particle - if light interacts with matter, like in photoelectric effect. Light of higher frequencies
show of more particle behavior

How does light interact with matter?

 Light interacts with matter by being absorbed, transmitted or reflected

Sources of Light

1. LUMINOUS OBJECTS - give off light on their own

a. Natural sources (sun, stars, fireflies)

b. Artificial sources (human-made like light bulb, burning wood, etc.)

2. NONLUMINOUS OBJECTS - reflect the light received

a. Illuminated bodies (moon, tables, trees, etc)

ILLUMINANCE – the amount of illumination received by illuminated bodies

Classification of materials on how they interact with light

 TRANSPARENT - readily transmit light

 TRANSLUCENT - partially absorb and partially transmit light
 OPAQUE - absorb light and do not allow light to pass through them

Measurement of Light

 Photometry - Science of measuring light based on its perceived brightness to the human eye
 Photometer - Instrument that measures luminous intensity

3 Measurable Quantities of Light

 Luminous intensity - Brightness of the light source, SI unit is candela (cd)

 Luminous flux - Amount of radiant energy that falls on a surface, SI unit is lumen (lm)
 Illuminance - Amount of light the falls on a surface, SI unit is lux (lx)

Colors of Light

How do we see colors?

- Due to the differences in wavelengths or frequencies

- Objects show colors because they reflect one or more of the colors present in white light

Ex. A red rose is perceived as red because it reflects mainly the red color and absorbs all other colors

VIOLET - Shortest wavelength and highest frequency

RED - Longest wavelength and lowest frequency

SOLAR SPECTRUM - band of colors produced when sunlight is dispersed by a prism

DISPERSION - Process of separation of light into its band of colors

Prism - a triangular piece of glass or plastic

THERMAL ENERGY, HEAT, AND TEMPERATURE

THERMAL ENERGY

- includes both potential & kinetic energy kinetic energy is due to vibrations and movements
potential energy is due to the relative position of particles
- total energy of particles in a material

Temperature

- Average movement or kinetic energy of the particles in a system

- The greater the average kinetic energy, the higher the temperature

Measurement of Temperature

- Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin

- zero point in this scale is the absolute zero of temperature
- ABSOLUTE VALUE is the lowest possible temperature that a substance can reach

On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C

On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32° F and the boiling point is 212° F

On the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of water is 273 K and the boiling point is 373 K

Energy Transfer

Why do you feel cold when you touched an ice?

 Your hand/finger has a higher temperature than the ice.

 When the two come in contact, there is a spontaneous transfer of energy from your hand into
the ice.
HEAT - Energy that is transferred from one body to another

When does heat transfer occur? When there is a difference in temperature between two bodies in
contact

Note :

1. Matter does not contain heat.

2. Matter contains thermal energy, and when there is a temperature difference between the two
bodies, this thermal energy is transferred in the form of heat

Thermal equilibrium = no net flow of thermal energy occurs

Modes of Heat Transfer

1. CONDUCTION - transfer of energy by particles of matter bumping into each other

Example: Ice cooling down your hand
2. CONVECTION - transfer of energy by a mass of moving fluid (liquid or gas)
Example: Hot air near the equator rises
Hot sand heats the air.
3. RADIATION - transfer of heat without the need of a medium.
Example: Hamburger grilling over the charcoal flame.

LOCATING PLACES ON EARTH

Distinct Parts of the Globe

A globe has imaginary lines used in geographic coordinate system.
 Equator
 Prime Meridian
 Latitude
 Longitude
EQUATOR & PRIME MERIDIAN
GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM - universally used system for locating point and
indicating locations on Earth’s surface
EQUATOR - Imaginary line running east and west. It divides the globe into two halves: Northern
Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere
PRIME MERIDIAN - Imaginary line running from pole to pole and passing through Greenwich,England. It
divides the globe into two halves: Eastern Hemisphere & Western Hemisphere.
Parallels - horizontal lines on the globe that are parallel to the equator.
Meridians - vertical lines on the globe and map.
LATITUDE & LONGITUDE
LATITUDE - Parallels in degrees north or south of the equator.
LONGITUDE - Meridians in degrees east or west of the prime meridian.

Absolute & Relative Location

RELATIVE LOCATION - the position of a place as compared to another landmark
Let's say you're driving down the highway to spend a day at the beach, and you want to know how far it
is to that beach. When a sign comes up telling you it's 30 miles away, that is a relative location.
Relative location = 30 miles from the beach
ABSOLUTE LOCATION - describes the position of a place in a way that never changes, no matter your
location. Location is identified by specific coordinates
The most common coordinate system is longitude and latitude. It doesn’t matter whether your currently
in New York or Japan, the latitude & longitude of Philippines will always be the same

Location of the Philippines

To its NORTH On the EAST

Across the Luzon Strait, is Taiwan is the Philippine Sea
To the WEST To the South
Across the Philippine Sea, sits Vietnam The Celebes sea separates it from some islands
of Indonesia
Lies between 4० and 21० North latitude, and between 115० and 127० East longitude

SUMMARY
EQUATOR Imaginary line running east and west; 0० latitude
PRIME MERIDIAN Imaginary line running from pole to pole; 0०
longitude
LATITUDE Lines that run east or west direction across the
Earth (latitude degrees are measured as north or
south)

LONGITUDE Lines that run in north or south direction across

the Earth (longitude degrees are measured as
east or west)

Properties of Light

 Transmission - Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed.
For instance, an incoming light will just pass through a glass window as transmitted light.

 Absorption - Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the energy that it carries
is absorbed by the atoms of the material and is converted into thermal energy.

 Reflection - Reflection occurs when light bounces back as it hits a reflecting surface, such as a
mirror. This phenomenon can be described using light rays.

 Refraction - Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when it obliquely
passes two different media.