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I Toegepaste Wiskunde 1 / Applied Mathematics 1 .

I INLEIDING TOT MEGANIKA /

I INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS
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I Opgestel deur / Compiled by
Pro£. C.M. Villet

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I Kopiereg voorbehou / Copyright reserved
Januarie / January 2005
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I INHOUDSOPGAWE CONTENTS

I VOORWOORD FOREWORD viii

I HOOFSTUK 0
LINEeRE PROGRAMMERING
CHAPTER 0
LINEAR PROGRAMMING 1

I 0.1 INLEIDING
0.2 VOORBEELD VAN 'n LINEeRE
PROGRAMMERlNGSPROBLEEM
0.1 INTRODUCTION
0.2 EXAMPLE OF A LINEAR
PROGRAMMING PROBLEM
1

I 0.3 GRAFIESE OPLOSSING

0.4 HOeRDIMENSIONELE PROBLEME
0.3 GRAPHIC SOLUTION
0.4 HIGHER-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
2
5

I HOOFSTUK 1
VEKTORALGEBRA
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR ALGEBRA 6
1.1 INLEIDING 1.1 INTRODUCTION 6
I 1.2 VERWYSINGSTELSELS
1.2.1 Een-dlmensionele Verwysingstelsel
1.2.2 Twee-dimensionele Verwysingstelsel
1.2 REFERENCE SYSTEMS
1.2.1 One-dimensional Reference System
1.2.2 Two-dimensional Reference System
6
6
7

I 1.2.3 Drie-dimensionele Verwysingstelsel

1.3 VERPLASING
1.2.3 Three-dimensional Reference System

1.3 DISPLACEMENT
8

10
1.3.1 Notasie

I 1.3.2 Grootte en Rigting van Verplasing 1.3.1 Notation 10

1.3.2 Magnitude and Direction of Displacement 11
1.3.3 Samestelling van Verplasings
1.3.3 Composition of Displacements 13
1.3.4 Dimensies
1.3.4 Dimensions 13
I 1.4 VEKTORE 1.4 VECTORS 15
1.4.1 Definisie 1.4.1 Definition 15

I 1.4.2 Skalaar
1.4.3 Notasie
1.4.4 Gelokaliseerde Vcl<tore
1.4.2 Scalar
1.4.3 Notation
1.4.4 Localised Vectors
16
16
16

I 1.5 REKENREeLS VIR VEKTORE

1.5.1 Gelykheid van Vektore
1.5.2 Negatiewe Vektore
1.5 ALGEBRAIC RULES FOR VECTORS
1.5.1 Equality of Vectors
1.5.2 Negative Vectors
16
16
17

I 1.5.3 VektotSom
1.5.4 Nulvektor
1.5.5 Vektoverskil
1.5.3 Vector sum
1.5.4 Null Vector
1.5.5 Vector Difference
17
19
19
1.5.6 Produk van Skalaar en Vektor 1.5.6 Product of Scalar and Vector 20
I 1.6 MEETKUNDIGE TOEPASSINGS 1.6 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 21
1.7 KOMPONENTVORM VAN VEKTORE 1.7 COMPONENT FORM OF VECTORS 26
I 1. 7.1 Eenheidsvektor
1.7.2 Komponente en Projeksies van Vektore
1. 7.1 Unit Vector
1. 7.2 Components and Projections of Vectors
26
27
1.7.3 Sommasie van Vektore Lt.v. Komponente 1. 7.3 Summation of Vectors in terms of

I 1.7.4 Komponentvorm
1.7.5 Posisievektor
Components
1. 7.4 Component Form
1. 7.5 Position Vector
28
29
32

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I 1.8SKALAARPRODUK
1.8.1 Definisie
1.8 SCALAR PRODUCT
1.8.1 Definition
35
35
1.8.2 Spesiale GevaUe 1.8.2 Special cases 36

I 1.8.3 Algebraiese Eienskpappe van die SkBJa.a.rproduk

1.8.4 Skalaarprodulc in terme van Komponente van

1.8.3 Algebraic Properties of the Scalar
Product
1.8.4 Scalar product in terms of the
37

I Vektore
1.9VEKTORPRODUK
components of vectors

1.9 VECTOR PRODUCT

38

38
1.9.1 Definisle 1.9.1 Definition 43
I 1.9.2 Spesiale Gevalle
1.9.3 Algebraiese Eienskappe van die
Vektorproduk
1.9.2 Special cases
1.9.3 Algebraic Properties of the Vector
Product
43

45

I 1.9.4 Komponentvorm van die Vektorproduk 1.9.4 Component form of the Vector
Product 49
1.10 MEEROUDIGE PRODUKTE 1.10 MULTIPLE PRODUCTS 53

I 1.10.1 Die Ska1a.a.r-drieproduk

1.10.2 Die Vektor-clrieproduk
1.10.1 The Scalar Triple Product
1.10.2 The Vector Triple Product
53
57
HOOFSTUK 2 CHAPTER 2
I STATIKA
2.1 MEGANIKA
STATICS
2.1 MECHANICS
61

61

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2.1.1 Basiese Begrippe 2.1.1 Basic Concepts 61
2.1.2 Toepassingsvclde van Megailika. 2.1.2 Fields of Application of Mechanics 62
2.1.3 Beperkings van Klassieke Meganika 2.1.3 Limitations of Classical Mechanics 62

I 2.2 NEWTON SE WETTE

2.3 EENHEDE
2.2 NEWTON'S LAWS
2.3 UNITS
63
65
2.4 KRAGTE 2.4 FORCES 65
I 2.4.1 Aangrypingspunt
2.4.2 Klassifikasie van Kragte
2.4.1 Point of Application
2.4.2 Classification of Forces
65
66

I 2.5 AKSIOMAS
2.6 EWEWIG VAN 'N DEELTJIE
2.6.1 Ewewigsvoorwa.a.rde
2.5 AXIOMS
2.6 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE
70
72
2.6.1 Condition of Equilibrium 72

I 2.6.2 Gekoppelde Deeltjies

2.7 TWEE-DIMENSIONELE STELSELS VAN

2.6.2 Coupled Particles

2.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS OF

78

KRAGTE FORCES 81
I 2.7.1 Resultant van Nie-Ewewydige Kragte
2.7.2 Resultant van Ewewydige Kragte
2.7.3 Die Koppel
2.7.1 Resultant of Non-parallel Forces
2.7.2 Resultant of Parallel Forces
82
82
2.7.3 The Couple 84

I 2.7.4 Reduksie van Twee-Dimensionele Stelsel van

Kragte
2.7.4
Forces
of TWc>-dimensional System of
85
2.8 MOMENT 2.8 MOMENTS 85
I 2.8.1 Definisies
2.8.2 Dimensies
2.8.3 Momente van Ekwivalente kragte
2.8.1 Definition
2.8.2 Dimensions
85
86
2.8.3 Moment of Equivalent Forces 86

I 2.8.4 Die Vektoraard van Moment

2.9 KOPPELS
2.8.4 The Vector Nature of Moment
2.9 COUPLES
86
92
2.9.1 Moment van 'n Koppel 2.9.1 Moment of a Couple 92

I 2.9.2 Ekwivalensie van Koppels

2.9.3 Sommasie van Koppels
2.9.2 Equivalence of Couples
2.9.3 Summation of Couples
93
97

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I 2.10 RESULTANT VAN STELSEL VAN KRAGTE
2.10.1 Reduksiestelling
2.10 RESULTANT OF SYSTEM OF FORCES
2.10.1 Reduction Theorem
98
98
2.10.2 Spesiale Geval 2.10.2 Special Case 100

I 2.11 EWEWIG VAN STARRE LIGGAME

2.11.1 Algemene Ewewigsvoorwaardes
2.11 EQUILffiRIUM OF A RIGID BODY
2.11.1 General Conditions of Equilibrium
106
106
2.11.2 Ewewig in Twee Dimensies 2.11.2 Equilibrium in Two Dimensions 106
I 2.11.3 Ewewig in Drie Dimensies 2.11.3 Equilibrium in three dimensions 117

2.12 STATIESE BEPAAtBAARHEID IN TWEE 2.12 STATIC DETERMINACY IN TWO

I DIMENSIES
2.13 TWEE-DIMENSIONELE RAAMWERKE
DIMENSIONS
2.13 TWO-DIMENSIONAL TRUSSES
122
124
2.13.1 Knooppuntmetode 2.13.1 Method of Joints 125
I 2.13.2 Snitmetode 2.13.2 Method of Sections 129

I HOOFSTUK 3
KINEMATIKA VAN 'N PUNTDEELTJIE
CHAPTER 3
KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 132

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3.1 KINEMATIKA 3.1 KINEMATICS 132
3.2 BAANVERGELYKING 3.2 PATH EQUATION 132

3.3 SNELHEID 3.3 VELOCITY 133

I 3.3.1 Gemiddelde Snelheid

3.3.2 Oombliklike Snelheid
3.3.3 Dimensies
3.3.1 Average Velocity
3.3.2 Instantaneous Velocity
3.3.3 Dimensions
133
135
135

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3.3.4 Grootte en Rigting van Snelheid 3.3.4 Magnitude and Direction of Velocity 135

3.4 VEKTOR-DIFFERENSIASIEREELS 3.4 VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION RULES 136

3.4.1 Afgeleide van Tydkonstante Vektor 3.4.1 Derivative of Time-constant Vector 136

I 3.4.2 Afgeleide van Som van Vektorfunksies

3.4.3 Afgeleide van Produk van Skalaar- en Vektor-
funksie
3.4.2 Derivative of the Sum of Vector Functions 136
3.4.3 Derivative of the Product of Scalar and Vector
Functions 137

I 3.4.4 Afgeleide van Vektorfunksie in Cartesiese Kompo-

nentvorm
3.4.5 Afgeleide van Skalaarproduk van Vektorfunksies
3.4.4 Derivative of Vector Function in Cartesian Com-
ponent Form 137
3.4.5 Derivative of the Scalar Product of Vector Func-
tions 138
I 3.4.6 Afgeleide van Vektorproduk van Vektorfunksies

3.4.7 KettingreeJ
3.4.6 Derivative of the Vector Product of Vector Func-
tions
3.4.7 Chain Rule
138
139

I 3.4.8 Notasie
3.5 VERSNELLING
3.4.8 Notation
3.5 ACCELERATION
140
140
3.5.1 Definlsie 3.5.1 Definition 140
I 3.5.2 Notasie
3.5.3 Dimensies
3.5.2 Notation
3.5.3 Dimensions
141
141
3.6 REGHOEKIGE KOMPONENTE VAN SNELHEID 3.6 RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF VELOC-
I EN VERSNELLING
3.7 VLAKBEWEGING IN TERME VAN
ITY AND ACCELERATION 142
3.7 PLANAR MOTION IN TERMS OF POLAR CO-

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POOLKOORDINATE ORDINATES 145
3.8 TANGENSIALE EN NORMALE KOMPONENTE 3.8 TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL COMPONENTS
153

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I HOOFSTUK 4
DINAMIKA VAN 'N DEELTJIE
CHAPTER 4
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 159

I 4.1 NEWTON SE TWEEDE BEWEGINGSWET

4.2 TRAAGHEIDSTELSELS
4.1 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
4.2 INERTIAL SYSTEMS
159
160
4.3 BEWEGING VAN DEELTJIE ONDER INVLOED 4.3 MOTION OF A PARTICLE UNDER THE

I VAN BEKENDE KRAG

4.3.1 Beweging in een dimensie onder invloed van 'n
konstante krag
INFLUENCE OF A KNOWN FORCE 160
4.3.1 Motion in one dimension under the influence of a
constant force 160

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4.3.2 Deeltjie wat vertikaaI beweeg naby aardoppervlak 4.3.2 Particle that moves vertically near the surface of
the earth 163
4.3.3 Projektielbeweging 4.3.3 Projectile motion 163
4.3.4 Tydafhanklike krag 4.3.4 Time-dependent force 167
I 4.3.5 Spoedafhanklike krag
4.3.6 Posisie-afhanklike krag
4.3.6.1 Beweging in 'n Gravitasieveld
4.3.5 Speed-dependent force
4.3.6 Position-dependent force
4.3.6.1 Motion in a Gravitational Field
168
171
171

I 4.3.6.2 Eenvaudige HarnlOniese Beweging (EHB)

4.4 VERDERE TOEPASSINGS VAN N2

4.3.6.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

4.4 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF N2

174

179

I 4.5 MOMENTUM
4.5.1 Behoud van Momentum
4.5 MOMENTUM
4.5.1 Conservation of Momentum
186
187
4.6IMPULS 4.6 IMPULSE 187

I 4.7 ROTASIEBEWEGING
4.7.1 Die Eenvoudige Slinger
4.7 ROTATIONAL MOTION
4.7.1 The Simple Pendulum
191
192
4.7.2 Behoud van Hoekrnomentum 4.7.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum 194
I 4.8 HOEK-IMPULS 4.8 ANGULAR IMPULSE 196

I HOOFSTUK 5
MEERVERANDERLIKE FUNKSIES
CHAPTER 5
MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS 198

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5.1 INLEIDING 5.1 INTRODUCTION 198
5.2 MEERVERANDERtIKE FUNKSIES 5.2 MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS 198
5.3 PARAMETRlESE l(ROMMES 5.3 PARAMETRIC CURVES 201
5.4 SKALAAR- EN VEKTORVELDE 5.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS 203

I 5.5 DIFFERENSIASIE VAN MEERVERANDERtIKE

SKALAARVELDE
5.5 DIFFERENTIATION OF MULTI-VARIABLE
SCALAR FIELDS 204
5.5.1 rugtingsafgeleide 5.5.1 Directional Derivatives 204
I 5.5.2 Parsiele Differensiasie
5.5.3 rugtingsafgeleides en Parsiele
5.5.2 Partial Differentiation
5.5.3 Directional Derivatives and Partial
208

Differensiasie Differentiation 210

I 5.6 GRADIENT
5.6.1 V1/J·dr
5.6 GRADIENT
5.6.1 V1/J . dr
213
214
5.6.2 Geometric meaning of gradient 215
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5.6.2 Meetkundige betekenis van gradient
5.6.3 Grootte en Rigting van V1/J 5.6.3 Magnitude and Direction of V1/J 217
5.6.4 Opsomming van eienskappe van V1/J 5.6.4 Summary of Properties of V 1/J 217

I 5.7INTEGRASIE
5.7.1 Integraal van Skalaarfunksie
5.7.2 Lynintegrale van Vektorfunksies
5.7 INTEGRATION
5.7.1 Integral of Scalar Function
5.7.2 Line Integral of Vector Functions
218
218
219
5.7.3 Die integraal fr V1/J . dr 5.7.3 The integral fr V1/J . dr 222
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I HOOFSTUK 6
ARBEID EN ENERGIE
CHAPTER 6
WORK AND ENERGY 224

I 6.1 INLEIDING
6.2 ARBEID
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 WORK
224
224
6.3 KINETlESE ENERGIE EN DIE ARBEIDS·. 6.3 KINETIC ENERGY AND THE PRINCIPLE OF
I ENERGIE BEGINSEL

6.4 POTENSIELE ENERGIE

WORK AND ENERGY
6.4 POTENTIAL ENERGY
228
232
6.4.1 Konserwatiewe Kragte 6.4.1 Conservative Forces 233
I 6.4.2 Potensiille Energie 6.4.2 Potential Energy 235

6.5 BEHOUD VAN MEGANIESE 6.5 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL

I ENERGIE
6.6 ARBEIDSTEMPO
ENERGY
6.6 POWER
239
243

I HOOFSTUK 7 CHAPTER 7
DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
I
DINAMIKA VAN 'n STELSEL DEELTJIES
245

7.1 INLEIDING 7.1 INTRODUCTION 245

I 7.2 NOTASIE
7.2.1 Posisle
7.2 NOTATION
7.2.1 Position
245
245
7.2.2 Kragte 7.2.2 Forces 246

I 7.2.3 Sommasie oor Deeltjies

7.3 MASSAMIDDELPUNT
7.2.3 Summation over particles

7.3 CENTRE OF MASS

247

247

I 7.3.1 Definisie
7.3.2 Eienskappe van Massamiddelpunt
7.3.3 Momentum en Massamiddelpunt
7.3.1 Definition
7.3.2 Properties of Centre of Mass
7.3.3 Momentum and Centre of Mass
247
248
249

I 7.4 TRANSLASIE VAN MASSAMIDDELPUNT

7.5 BEWEGING VAN STELSEL AS GEHEEL
7.4 TRANSLATION OF CENTRE OF MASS
7.5 MOTION OF SYSTEMS AS A WHOLE
251
252
7.5.1 Beweging van Massamiddelpunt 7.5.1 Motion of Centre of Mass 252
I 7.5.2 Behoud van Momentum
7.5.3 lmpuls-Momentum Beginsel
7.5.2 Conservation of Momentum
7.5.3 Principle of Impulse and Momentum
252
253
253
7.5.4 Toepasslngs 7.5.4 Applications

I 7.5.4.1 Vuurpyle
7.5.4.2 Botsings
7.5.4.1 Rockets
7.5.4.2 Impacts
253
256

7.6 ROTASIE VAN MASSAMIDDELPUNT 7.6 ROTATION OF CENTRE OF MASS 262

I 7.7 BEWEGING TEN OPSIGTE VAN DIE MAS-
SAMIDDELPUNT
7.7 MOTION WITH RESPECT TO CENTRE OF
MASS 264

I 7.8 ALGEMENE BEWEGING VAN STELSEL

7.9 ROTASiE-BEWEGING
7.8 GENERAL MOTION OF SYSTEM
7.9 ROTATIONAL MOTION
266
267
7.9.1 Momente 7.9.1 Moments 267
I 7.9.2 Hoekmomentum
7.9.3 Rotasi...Bewegingsvergelykings
7.9.2 Angular Momentum
7.9.3 Equations of Motion for Rotation
268
268

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I 7.10 ARBEID EN ENERGIE
7.10.1 Klnetiese Energie
7.10 WORK AND ENERGY
7.10.1 Kinetic Energy
269
269
7.10.2 Arbeid . 7.10.2 Work 270
I 7.10.3 Arbeid-Energie Beglnsel
7.10.4 PotensU!le Energie
7.10.5 Energlebehoud
7.10.3 Principle of Work and Energy
7.10.4 Potential Energy
2.10.5 Conservation of Energy
272
273
274

I 7.11 OPSOMMING 7.11 SUMMARY 274

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I VOORWOORD FOREWORD.

I
In die Toegepaste Wiskunde word probleme ult die
werkllke lewe opgelos deur lniddel van wlskundlge mod-
e1lering. 'n Toegepaste Wiakundlge moet dus oor twee
vaardighede besklk: Eerstens moat hy die vermoe
I om 'n probleem ult enlge cliselpllne te kan anallseer en
te kan "vertaal" na 'n wlskundlge probleem, en tweedens
moat by die tegnlese vaarclighe!d om die wlskundlge
In Applied Mathematics, real-life problems are solved
by means of mathematical modelling. Therefore, an ap-
plied mathematician must have two sk11ls: firstly, he
must have the ability to analyse a problem from any
discipline and 'translate' It Into a mathematical prob-
lem, and secondly he must have the technical skill to
solve the mathematical problem. The undergraduate

I probleem op te los. Die voorgraadse kursusse in die

Toegepaste Wlskunde leerplan bestaan daarom ult die
ontwlkkellng van formele wlskundlge metodes sowel as
courses in the Applied Mathematics curriculum consist
of the development of formal mathematical methods as
well as .the investigation of areas of application.
die ondersoek van toepassingsgebiede.
I Hlerdie Inleldende kureus tot toegepaste Wlskunde be-
he1s 'n onderwerp wat tradisionee1 bale deegllk in
This introductory course to Applied Mathematics com-
prises a subject that is traditionally dealt with very thor-

I dle Toegepaste Wiilkunde behandel word, naamlIk die

Meganlka. All lnle1d1ng word daar egter afgeskop met
'n onderwerp waarln die &apek van wlskundlge model-
oughly in Applied Mathematics. By way of an intro-
duction however, we wlll begin with a subject that illus-
trates the aspect of mathematical modelling, viz. linear
lering eillustreer word, nae.mllk programmering. programming. This discuSsion is separate from the rest
I bespreking stsan disjunk van die res van die kur-
sus en verels 'n bale lae vlak van tegnlese wlskundlge
bedrewenhe!d. In die TGW3A-kursus word die betrokke
of the course and requlres a very low level of technical
mathematical proficiency. This subject Is handled com-
prehensively in the TWK3A course.

I onderwerp volledlg behandel.

Hoofstuk 1 word gewy san die ontwlkkeling van 'n bale
kragtige wlskundige diseipline, te wete dle Vektoralge-
I bra. Om die begrlppe van bierdie algebra te vestlg,
word dit toegepas op 'n wye reeks van meetkundlge
probleme. Aangesien die drle-dimensionele meetkunde
Chapter 1 is devoted to the development of a very pow-
erful mathematical discipline, viz. Vector Algebra. To
establish the concepts of this algebra, they are applied
to a wide range of geometric problems. Since three-
dimensional geometry and mechanics can be handled in

I sowel as meganlka op 'n kragtlge en ekonomlese wyse

gehanteer kan word met behulp van vektorbegrlppe, Is
dlt nodig dat die Student hom/haar leer om in terme
a powerful and economical manner with the help of vec-
tor concepts, students must train themselves to think
In terms of vectors.
van vektore te dlnk.
I Twee aspekte van MegllJlika word vervolgens on-
twikkel. In Hoofstuk 2 word aandag gekenk &an die
Two aspects of Mechanics are then developed. Chapter
2 focuses on Statics, wbich is the study of forces that

I Statika, waarln die kragte bestudeer word wat deeltjies

of llggame in 'n toestand van rus handhaaf. Die
wlskundlge apparatuur wat bier benodlg word, is ult-
sluitlik van die Vektoralgebra. In Hoofstk 3 word
I die K1nematika behandel; 'n ondersoek van die beweg-
lng van deeltjles sonder VIIrwyeing na die oorsaak van
beweglng. mer word be1de 'n bedrewenhe!d in die
maintain particles or bodies in a state of rest. The math-
ematical apparatUStrequlred here is exclUSively that of
Vector Algebra. Chapter. 3 deals with Kinematics, which
investigates the motion of particles without reference to
the cause of such motion. Proficiency in both Vector
Algebra and Calculus Is required here. The latter is a
subject in mathematics that is new to the student and

I Vektoralgebra en die Integraal- en Dlfferenslaalrekene

vere!s. Laasgenoemde is 'n onderwerp in die wlskunde
wat vir die etudent nuut Is en wat In Wiskunde lA-
is introduced into the Mathematics lA course.

I
. kursus ingevoer word.

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I Die res van die kursus (Hoofstukke 4 tot 8) word gewy
san die fundamentele vraag in die meganika: Hoe be-
The remainder of the course (Chapters 4 to 8) is devoted
to the fundamenta.! question in mechanics: How does a
weeg 'n deeltjie of 'n liggaam wat onderhewig is san part or a body that is subjected to given forces move?
I gegewe kragte? Die essensiele fisiese kennis waarop a.!
hierdie vraagstukke berus, is die Tweede Bewegingswet
The essentia.! physica.1 knowledge on which a.11 these is-
sues rests is Newton's Second Law of Motion. Chapters
van Newton. In Hoofstukke 5 en 6 word die toepassing 5 and 6 fully investigate the application of this law of

I van hierdie bewegingswet volledig ondersoek vir sover

dit die beweging van 'n enkele puntdeeltjie betref. In
Hoofstuk 7 word die resultate vir 'n deeltjie dan vera.!-
motion insofar as it causes the motion of a single par-
ticle. In Chapter 7 the results of a particle are then
genera.1ised for a system of particles, and in Chapter 8
gemeen vir 'n stelsel van deeltjies en in Hoofstuk 8 word they are applied to the motion of rigid bodies. Chapter
I dit toegepas op die beweging van starre liggame. In
Hoofstuk 4 word enkele bykomende wiskundige tegnieke
4 introduces additiona.! mathematica.1 techniques neces-
sary for the development of dynamics.
iogevoer wat van belang is by die ontwikkeling van die

I dinamika.
Sterk klem moet hier geU, word op die wyse waarop Emphasis must be placed on the way in which the stu-
die student hierdie kursus (en a.!le ander kursusse in dents approach this course (and a.11 other courses in ap-
I Toegepaste Wiskunde) moet benader. Aangesien enige
kursus van wiskundige aard nie net 'n Iys van feite is
nie maar eerder 'n progressiewe ontwikkeling van be-
plied Mathematics). Since any course of a mathematical
nature is not simply a list of facts, hut rather a pro-
gressive development of concepts, two requirements

I grippe, is twee vereistes nodig vir sukees. Eerstens

moet die student deurlopend werk; 'n goeie reel is om
nooit na te laat om die begrippe wat in 'n gegewe lesing
bebandel is, te bemeester voor die volgende lesing nie.
I Tweedens moet die student die nodige vaardighede
ontwikkel. Daar is net een manier om dit te doen, na.a.m-
lik deur soveel as moontlik probleme aan te durf oor 'n
are necessary for success. Firstly, students must work
consistently. A good rule to follow is: a.!ways master
the concepts that are dealt with in a class before the
next class. Secondly, students must develop the neces-
sary skills. There is only one way to do this: do as
many problems as possible on a given subject. With
this purpose in mind, numerous problems are included

I gegewe onderwerp. Met doel in gedagte, word 'n

groat aanta.! probleme ingesluit in hierdie aantekeninge.
Die student word aangemoedig om verdere probleme san
in these notes. Students are encouraged to tackle other
problems from the prescribed textbooks.

I te pak uit die voorgeskrewe handboeke.

I Gra.a.g bedank ek mev. S, Geldenhuys vir die profes-

sionele wyse waarop sy hierdie a.a.ntekeninge tegnies ver-
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Mrs S
Geldenhuys for the professiona.! way in which she man-

I
sorg het. aged the production of these notes.

I
C.M. Villet
I
I
I
I
I viii

I
 I
I HOOFSTUK 0 CHAPTER O·
I LINEERE PROGRAMMERING LINEAR PROGRAMMING

I 0.1 INLEIDING 0.1 INTRODUCTION

Lineere programmering is een van 'n reeks van tegnieke Linear programming is one of a Beries of techniqueB
I wat saam bekend $taan as operasionele navorslng.
Hierdie tegnieke het gedurende die tweede wereldoorlog
in Brittanje ontstaan toe 'n span wetenskaplikes opdrag
known as operational research. These techniques
originated in Britain during World War II when a team
of mathematicians were instructed to investigate the

I gek:ry het om ondersoek in te stel na die mees doel-

trefrende manie!' om beperkte midde1e aan te
wend. NlL die tweede w@reldoorlog neem die V.S.A.
most efficient way of utilising limited resources.
After World War II, the US took the lead in this field.

die leiding op die gebied.
I Huidige toepassingsgebiede sluit o.a. die volgende
in: Finansiele beplanning, stadsbeplanning, lugdienB-
The current areas of application include Financial Plan-
ning, City Planning, Airline Management, Traffic Sys-
tems, Criminal Investigations.

I bestuur, verkeerstelsels, misdaadondersoeke enB.

0.2 VOORBEELD VAN 'n LINEERE 0.2 EXAMPLE OF A LINEAR PRO-

PROGRAMMERINGSPROBLEEM
I Twee produkte gaan elk deur dieselfde twee stadiums
van produksie. Die tabel gee die tyd (in minute) geverg
I vir elke produk, die daaglikae vermoe van die stadia (in
minute per dag) en die wins per eenheid van elke produk
(in Rand). Alle produkte word verkoop.
GRAMMING PROBLEM
Two products undergo the same two stages of produc-
tion. The table gives the time (in minutes) required for
each product, the daily capacity of the stages (in min-
utes per day) and the profit per unit of each product (in
Rands). All the products are sold.

I
I Tyd per eenbeid (min)

Produksie-

I Stadium Produk 1 Produk 2 vermoe

(min/dag)

I 1

2
1

1
2

4
430

460

I Wins/eenheid (R) 1 3

I Die daaglikse produksie moet no s6 gereel word dat die

wins gemaksimeer word.
The daily production must now be arranged so that
maximum profit is obtained.

I Ons "vertaal" eer$ hierdie probleem na 'n wiskundige

een: Laat XI die daaglikse produksie van i wees
First, we "translate" this problem into a mathematical
one: Let XI be the daily production of the product i
(i = 1,2). Dan is die daaglikse wins in Rand: (i = 1,2). The the daily profit in Rands is:

I p=xl+3x 2 (0.1)

I 1

I
I
I Die beperklngs op hierdie funksie Is die produksie-
vermoe van die twee stadiums:
The constraiut8 on this function represent the pro-
duction capacity of the two stages:

I :1:, + 2:1:. :S 430

(0.2a)

I Negatiewe hoeveelhede lean natuurlik nle geproduseer Naturally, negative quantities cannot be produced:
word nle:
I (0.2b)

I Hierdie is 'n tipiese lineere programmering-probleem:

Maksimeer die Iineere funksie (0.1) (die objek-
This is a typical linear programming problem: Max-
Imise the linear function (0.1) (the object function)
subject to the linear constraints (0.2).
I funksie) onderhewig aan die lineere beperklngs
(0.2).

I 0.3 GRAFIESE OPLOSSING 0.3 GRAPHIC SOLUTION

Aangesien ons net twee veranderlikes in die vooraf-
I gaande probleem het, i8 dit natuurlik om elke veran-
derlike lang8 een van twee onderling loodregte as8e n 'n
vlak VDor te stel 800S in Figuur 0.1. Die gelykhede In
Since we have only two variables in the above problem,
each variable can be represented on one of two mutually
perpendicular axes on a plane, as in Figure 0.1. The
equaUties in (0.2) are then represented by straight

I (0.2) word dan deur reguitlyne in die vlak voorgestel,

en die beperkings wat deur die ongelykhede teweegge-
bring word, is dan gebiede in die vlak wat grens aan
lines on the plane, and the restrictions that are brought
about by the inequalities are then the areas in the
plane that border on the 8traight lines.

I die reguit lyne.

I " " " ___ -= P

" ,,
I "
" ,
,
I
I
I A

I
Figuur 0.1

I
I 2

I
I
I Die toegelate waardes van "" en "" word in die """"-
vlak bevat deur die geat'seerde gebied - die. sogenaamde
oplossingsruimte. Pie objekfunksle word verteen-
The permitted values of x, and X2 are contained by
the shaded area in the x, "" plane - the so-called so-
lution space. The object function is represimted by
woordig deur 'n reguitlyn met helling - i; die waarde a straight line with slope - the value of p will obvi-
I van p bepaal die reguitlyn se "'", afsnitte. Die waarde
van p sal klaarblyklik 'n maksimumwaarde vir toege-
ously reach a maximum value for the permitted x at
one of the extreme points A, B,e or D. The correct
late '" bereik by een van die ekstreme punte A, b, extreme point can be obtained either by means of an

I e of D. Die korrekte ekstreme punt kan verlay word 6f

deur 'n akkurate skaaltekening 6f deur p te bereken vir
elke ekstreme punt. Ons sal deurgaans laasgenoemde
accurate scale drawing or by calculating p for each ex-
treme point. We will prefer the latter method through-
out. Since every extreme point is the point of intersec-
metode verkies. Aangesien elke ekstreme punt die sny-
I
tion oftwo straight lines, the coordinates of the extreme
punt van twee reguit Iyne Is, kan die kolirdinate van die points as well as the profit at every extreme point can
ekstreme punte bereken word en kan die wins by elke be calculated:
ekstreme punt bereken word:

I "" = 0
A: "" = 430; "" = 0 ; p = R430
"" + 2"" =430'
I
B: p=RO
I
x, = 0
x, = 0; x, = 115; P = R 345
I C:
x, + 4x.=460'

x, + 2x. =
I
430
D: x, = 400; x. = 15; P = R445
"" +4x' = 460'

I Die optimum produkBieplan is dus die by D. The optimum production plan is thus represented by
D.

I Probleme Problems
PO.S.l Vind graftes die oplossingsruimte vir die vol- PO.S.l Graphically find the solution space for the fol-

I gende ongelykhede: lowing inequalities:

x, +x. :S 4
I 4x, + 3x, :S 12
-x, +"" 1

I x, +x. :S 6
Xl, X2 0

I Watter beperkings word deur ander gelmpiiseer? Re-

duseer die stelsel na die kleinste aantal beperkings wat
dieselfde oplossingsruimte sal definieer.
Which constraints are implied by others? Reduce the
system to the smallest number of restrictions which will
define the same solution space.

I PO.S.2 Maksimeer PO.3.2 Maximise

I onder hewig aan subject to

I 3

I
I
I
"1 +"2 :> 10

I "1
"1,"2
= 5
0

I PO.S.S Beskou die volgende probleem: PO.S.S Consider the following problem:

I Maksimeer Maximise

p = 6"1 - 2",

I onderhewig san subject to

"1-"':>
I 3"1 -"2 :>
x"X.
1
6
0

I Toon gra.fies san dat by 'die optimale oplossing kan XI

en X2 onbepaald vergroot word terwyl die objekfunsie
Show by means of a graph that at the optimal solution
XI and x. can be increased indefinitely while the object

I konstant bly.

PO.S.4 'n Maatskappy produseer twee soorte hoede:

function remains constant.

PO.S,4 A company produces two types of hats: the

Die tiengelling (T) en vyfgelling (V) modelle. Die volle ten-gallon (T) and five-gallon (F) models. The full ca-
I vermoe van die fabriek kan gebruik word om 6f 600 T-
modelle 6f 400 V -modelle per dag te produseer. Die
mark kan daagliks slegs 500 van die T- en 300 van die
pacity of the factory can be used to produce either 600
T models or 400 F models'per day. The market absorbs
only 500 of the T models and 300 of the F models per

I V -mode11e absorbeer. Die netto wins per eenheid is R 4

vir'n T-model en RIO vir 'n V-model. Vind die mees
winsgewende produksiepla.il.
day. The net profit per unit is R 4 for a T model and
RIO for an F model. Find the most profitable produc-
tion plan.

I PO.S.S 'n Boer moet daagliks 'n 100 kg voermengsel

vir ay slaghoenders voorsien. Die dieetvereistes is die
PO.S.S A farmer must provide 100 kg of feeding mix for
his broilers. The diet requirements are the following:
volgende: (a) A minimum of 0.08%, but not more then 0.3% cal-

I (a) Ten minste 0.08% maar nie meer as 0.3% kalsium.

(b) Ten minste 22% proteien.
(c) Nie meer as 5% vesel nie.
cium.
(b) A minimum of 22% protein.
(c) Not more than 5% fib,e.

I Die mengsel bestsan uit mielies en sojameel. Die voed-

ingsinboud en koste vir hierdie bestanddele word in die
tabel aangegee. Vind die voermengsel wat die boer se
The mixture consists of maize and soy fiour. The feed-
ing content and cost of these ingredients are given in
the table. Find the feeding mix that minimises the
koste minimeer. farmer's cost.
I
I Bestanddeel
Kg. per kg van bestanddeel
Koste (R)
Kalsium Proteine Vesel per kg
I Mielies 0.001 0.09 0.02 0:0463

I Sojameel 0.002 0.50 0.08 0.1250

I 4

I
I
I . PO.3.6 Die maatskappy "MacDougal, MacHine and
MacAtini" bemark 'n rare versnyding van Skotse whisky.
PO.3.6 The "MacDougal, MacHine and MacAtini"
company markets a rare blend of Scotch whisky. The
Die versnyding moet presies 43% aIkobol bevat, ten min- blend must contain exactly 43% alcohol, at least 25%

I ste 25% Hoogland-mengsel en nie meer as 8% mout nie.

Vier stookprodukte kan gekombineer word vir die ver-
snyding. Die inboud van elke produk sowel as die koste
Highland mixture and no more than 8% malt. Four dis-
tilling products can be combined for the blend. The
content of every product and the cost thereof are given

I daarvan word in die tabe1 aangegee. in the table:

Stookproduk

I Bestanddeel
A B C D

I % Alkohol 46 40 45 40
% Hoogland 33 20 28 18
I % Mout 10 5 12 2

I Koste(R/liter) 7 8 11 9

I (a) Die mengselllloet gevind word wat die koste min-

imeer. Toon aan dat dit aanieiding gee tot 'n vier-
(a) Find the mixture that minimises cost. Show that
this leads to a four-dimensional linear programming
dimensionele programmeringsprobleem. problem.

I (b) Toon aan dat sommige van die beperkings in (a)

gebrnik kan word om die probleem te reduseer na 'n
twee-dimensionele een.
(b) Show that some constraints in (a) can be used to
reduce the problem to a two-dimensional one.
(c) Solve the two-dimensional problem graphically in or-

I
(c) Los die twee-dimensioneie probleem gralles op om der to' obtain the optimal mixture.
die optimummengsel te ver kry.

0.4 HOERDIMENSIONELE 0.4 HIGHER-DIMENSIONAL

I PROBLEME PROBLEMS
In a problem that contains three variables, the solution
In 'n probleem WQar drie veranderlikes voorkom, sal die

I oplossingsruimte 'n drie-dimensionele gebied wees be-

grens deur vlakke en die objekfunksie sal verteenwo-
ordig word deur 'n vlak. Indien vier of meer veran-
space will be a three-dimensional area .bordered by
planes, and the object function will be represented by
a plane. If there are four or more variables, the so-
derlikes voorkom sal die oplossingsruimte begrens word lution space will be bordered by hyperplanes, and the
I deur hipervlakke en die objekfunksie sal verteenwo-
ordig word deur 'n hipervlak.
object function will be represented by a hyperplane.

An algebraic procedure, the simplex method, was de-

I 'n Algebraiese prosedure, die simpleksmetode, is on-

twerp om sulke hoerdimensionele geva1le te hanteer.
Studente sal die metode kennis maak in die
signed to handle such higher-dimensional cases. Stu-
dents will acquaint themselves with this method in the
TWK3A course.

I TWK3A-kursus.

I
I
I 5

I
I -
I
HOOFSTUK 1 CHAPTER 1
I VEKTORALGEBRA VECTOR ALGEBRA

I 1.IINLEIDING 1.1 INTRODUCTION

I Die vektoralgebra en die vektoranalise is in die negen-

tiende eeu ontwlkkel en het oor die afgelope halfeeu 'n
noodsaaklike deel van die wlskundige agtergrond van
die wiskundige, fisikus, ingenieur en ander wetenskap-
I iikes geword. Die redes hiervoor is dat hierdie dissi-
plines 'n kompakte herformulerlng van die wiskunde
verbonde aan meetkundige en fisiese probleme moont-
Vector algebra and vector analysis were developed in the
nineteenth century and has - in the past 50 years - be-
come a necessary part of the mathematical background
of mathematicians, physicists, engineers and other sci-
entists. The reasons for this are that these disciplines al-
low for the compact reformulation of the mathemat-
ics associated with geometric and physical problems and

I lik maak en ook die vorming van intuitiewe beelde

van fislese en wlskundige begrippe vergemaklik. Inder-
daad is die "vektortaal" die natuurlikste denkwyse in
die fisiese wetenskappe, en die student word sterk aange-
I moedig om hierdie denkwyse sy eie te maak.
facilitate the formation of intuitive image. of physical
and mathematical concepts. The "vector language" is
in fact the most natural way of thinking in the physical
sciences, and students are encouraged to make this way
of thinking their own.

In hierdie hoofstuk word die vektoralgebra ontwikkel This chapter develops vector algebra on the basis of sim-

I aan die hand van eenvoudige meetkundige begrippe wat

reeds bekend is aan die student. Die rekenreills wat s6
ontwikkel word, word ter illustrasie hoofsask1ik toegepas
ple geometric concepts already known to the students.
The algebraic rules that are developed in this way are
applied mainly to geometric problems by way of illus-

I op meetkundige probleme. In hoofstuk 2 word die be-

grippe van die statika dan op 'n volledige vektoralge-
braiese wyse ontwikkel.
tration. In chapter 2 the concepts of statics will then be
developed in a comprehensive vector algebraic manner.

I 1.2 VERWYSINGSTELSELS 1.2 REFERENCE SYSTEMS

I 'n Begrip wat van baie groot belang in die meganika is, is
dh! van die puntdeeltjie: 'n Liggaam wat in 'n gegewe
situasie as Idein genoeg beskou kan word om beskryf te
A concept that is very important in mechanics is that
of the particle: a body, which in a given situation, can
be regarded as small enough to be described as a mass
word as 'n massa by 'n meetkundige punt. Daarom at a geometrical point. Therefore, it is necessary to
I is dit nodig om die posisie van 'n meetkundige punt
te kan vasstel. Hiervoor word gebruik gemaak van 'n
be abie to establish the position of a geometrical point.
To this end we make use of a fixed reference system.
vaste verwysingstelsel. S6 'n stelsel word so opgestel Such a system is set up in a way that makes it possible

I dat dit moontlik is om enige punt in 'n betrokke ruimte

eenduidigUk (d.w.s. uniek) te etlketteer deur middel
van 'n minimale stel getalle.
for any point in a relevant space to be labeled uniquely
by means of a minimal set of numbers.

I 1.2.1 Een-dimensionele Verwysingstelsel 1.2.1 One-dimensional Reference System

Beskou bv. 'n kraletjie wat op 'n dread beweeg (Figuur As an example, consider a bead that moves on a

I 1.1). In hierdie geval kan 'n verwysingstelsel byvoor-

beeld soos volg opgestel word: 'n Vaste punt 0 op die
dread word gekies om as die sogenoemde oorsprong
wire (Figure 1.1). In this instance, a reference sys-
tem can, for example, be introduced as follows:
a fixed point 0 on the wire is chosen to serve as

I van die stelsel te dien. 'n Keuse word oak gemaak the so-called origin of the system. A choice is also

I
I 6

I
I
I
I
I o
s
I
,,
I __ ________ ________ __________________
)X
0'
I Figuur 1.1

I ten opsigte van die rigting waarin aistande !angs die

draad as positiewe afstande beskou sal word. (Let tog
made regarding the direction in which the distances
along the wire will be regarded as positive distances.

I op die konvensie wat deurgaans in sketse in hierdie aan-

tekeninge gehandhaaf word: Die positiewe rigting van
'n verwysingsas word a1tyd d.m.v. 'n pyitjie aangedui.)
Dan le die aistand 8 (saam met die korrekte teken),
I gemeet langs die draad, P se posisle uniek vas. Ons
sal in hierdie geval na 8 verwys as die .-koordinaat van
die betrokke punt.
(Note the convention that is used throughout in the
sketches in these notes: the positive direction of an axis
of reference is always indicated with an arrow.) Then
the distance 8 (with the correct sign), measured along
the wire, establishes P's position uniquely. In this case,
we will refer to • as the s coordinate of the relevant
point.

I Ons sien onmiddelik in dat die stelsel 0' X egter ook

kan dien as 'n verwYsingstelsel vir die betrokke prob-
However, we realise immediately that the 0' X system
can also serve as a reference system for the relevant

I leem: Die x-koordinaat is die aistand (saam met die

regte teken) tussen die oorsprong 0' en die loodregte
projeksie van P op die X-as. Klaarblyklik is x uniek
vir 'n gegewe posisie van P en andersom.
problem: the x coordinate is the distance (with the cor-
rect sign) between the origin 0' and the perpendicular
projection of P on the X axis. Clearly, x is unique for
a given position of P and vice versa.

I Die dirnensie (aantal koordinate) van 'n verwys-

ingstelsel is uniek; nie die keuse van die stelsel
The dimension (number oC coordinates) oC a reC-
erence system is unique; not the choice oC sys-

I nie. tem.

1.2.2 Twee-dimensionele Verwysingstelsel 1.2.2 Two-dimensional Reference System

I Beskou byvoorbeeld 'n deeltjie wat in 'n plat vlak
beweeg (Figuur 1.2). Hier kan byvoorbeeld gebruik
Consider a particle that moves in a plane surface (Fig-
ure 1.2). Here we can, Cor example, use two mutually

I gemaak word van twee onderling loodregte, reguit ver-

wysingsasse deur 'n vaste oorsprong O. 'n Punt P se
posisie kan dan vasgestel word deur die keuse van die
orthogonal, straight axes of reference through a fixed
origin O. Point P's positio": can then be determined
by means of the choice of the pair of numbers (X,II),
getallepaar (X,II) waar x en 11 respektiewelik die ais- where x and 11 are the distances (with the correct signs)
I tande (saam met die korrekte tekens) tussen die oor-
sprong en die projeksies van P respektiewelik op die x-
between the origin and the projections of P on the x
and 11 axes respectively.
en II-asse is.

I Let Wel: 'n Plat vial< is nie die enigste moontlikheid

van 'n tweedimensionele ruimte nie - dink byvoor beeld
NB: A plane surface is not tlie only possibility of a two-
dimensional space - think about the surface of the earth,
aan die aardoppervlal<.
I
for instance.

I
 I
I
I +
o 'j y
I
I ,----_._-_ ..• I

I +
x
I Flguur 1.2

I 1.2.3 Drie-dimensionele Verwysingstelsel 1.2.3 Three-dimensional Reference Sys-

tem

I + 'I

I
I +

I x

I
Figuur 1.3

I Hier word (byvoarbeeld) drle anderUng laadregte ver-
wysingsasse deur 'n vaste oorsprong 0 vereis (Figuur
I 1.3). Let ap die wyse waarop die drie-dimensionele
figuur ap die twee-dimensianele vlak van die bladsy
voorgestel ward: Die X-en Y -asse ward gekies om in
This requires (far example) three mutually orthogo-
nal axes of reference through a fixed origin 0 (Figure
1.3). Note the way in which the three-dimensional fig-
ure is represented on the two-dimensional surface of
the page: the X and Y axes are drawn to lie in the

I die vlak van die bladsy te le en hulle word dan laodreg

ap mekaar en respektieweUk ewewydig aan die grense
van die bladsy geteken. Die Z-aB, wat loodreg ap die
plane surface of the page. They are then drawn per-
pendicuiar to each other and respectively parallel to the
borders of the page. The Z axis, which is normal to

I
bladsy staan, word geteken sodat die positiewe rigting the page, is drawn so that its positive direction forms
daarvan stomp haeke maak met die positiewe rigtings obtuse angles with the positive directions of both the
van beide die X-en Y -aBse. X and Y axes.·

I
I 8

I
I
I In ooreenstemming met die algemene konvensie sal ons
verder altyd 'n regterhandstelsel gebruik: Indien 'n
In keeping with the general convention, we will always
use a right-hand system: if the spiral part of a
kurktrekker met 'n regsdraad se spiraaigedee!te lood- corkscrew with a right-handed thread Is held per-
I reg op die XY -vlak gehou word en die bandvatse! word
langs die kortste pad van die positlewe X-rigting
pendicular to the XY plane and the handle is turned
along the shortest route of the positive X direction to
na die posltlewe Y -rlgting gedraai, beweeg die spi- the positive Y direction, the spiral part moves in the

I raaigedeelte in die posltlewe Z-rigting. 'n Mens ste!

maklik vas dat hierdie reel konsekwent is: Indien die
permutasies X -+ Y -+ Z -+ X in die voorafgaande sin
positive Z direction. It is easily established that this
rule is consistent: ifthe permutations X -+ Y -+ Z -+
X are made in the previous sentence, the sentence will

I gemaak word, sal die sin steeds waar bly. still be true.

'n Verwyeingstelse! 8008 wat hierbo beskryf word, word A reference system, as described above, is called a rect-

I 'n reghoeklge regterhandstelsel of ook 'n Carte-

slese stelsel genoem. Die vasstelling van die koordinate
van 'n punt ten opsigte van so 'n verwysingstelse! word
angular right-handed system or a Cartesian sys-
tem. The establishment of the coordinates of a point
with regard to such a reference system is illustrated in
geIDustreer in Figuur 1.4. Figure 1.4.
I
y
I
I
I f----i-,- - - - - I p
,
I J- ------------ - ---7-- - - . ; .
,!,' 0 'X x
,,
I
I Figuur 1.4

I Die z (lI,z)-koiirdinaat van P word bepaai deur 'n plat

vlak te konstrueer wat P bevat en loodreg op die X
The z (11, z) coordinate of P is determined by construct-
ing a plane surface that contains P and is perpendic-

I (Y, Z)-as is. Die afstand tussen die oorsprong en die

punt waar die vlak die X (Y, Z)-as sny, tesame met die
regte teken, is dan die z (11, z)-koiirdinaat van P. Ons sal '
voortaan die koiirdinate van punt P aandui deur middel
I van die notasie P(Z,II,Z). (Let ook op 'n ander konven-
sie wat gebruik word by tekeninge van drle-dimensionele
figure: In Figuur 1.4 word alle Iyne wat onsigbaar sou
ular to the X (Y, Z) axis. The distance between the
origin and the point where the plane cuts the X (Y, Z)
axis, with the correct sign, is then the z (11, z) coordi-
nate of P. We will indicate the coordinate of point P
with the notation P(Z,II,Z). (Note another convention
that is used in drawings of three-dimensional figures: in
Figure 1.4, all the lines that would have been invisible

I wees indien die vlakke in die figuur ondeursigtlg was,

deur stippeUyne aangedui.)
if the planes in the figure were non-transparent are in-
dicated by dotted lines.)

I
I 9

I
I
I Probleme Problems
P1.2.1 Maak vir dleoelfde keuse van 'n verwysing- P1.2.1 Draw sketches for the oam.e choice of a refer-
I stelsel sketse waaruit die posisie blyk van die punte met
kOOrdinate (1, 1, 1); (1, -1, 1); (1, 1, -1) en (-1, -1, -1).
ence system which shows the position ofthe points with
coordinates (1, 1, 1); (1, -1, 1); (1,1, -1) and (-1, -1, -1).

I 1.3 VERPLASING 1.3 DISPLACEMENT

I
I
I
I - - - - - -.,1-----+

,.

I
I Flguur 1.5

I Die begrip van verplasing is fundamenteel by die beskry-

wing van beweging. Indien 'n deeltjie van die punt
P,(x',I/,,'d beweeg na die punt P.(x.,I/., •• ), word
die netto verandering in sy posisie eenduidiglik bepaal
I deur die beginpunt P, en die eindpunt p•. Die ver-
plasing van 'n deeltjie word dus volledig gekarakteriseer
deur die geordende getallepaar PIP•. Dit is natuur-
The concept of displacement is fundamental to the de-
scription of motion. If a particle moves from point
P,(x, , 1/"'1,) to point p.(x., 1/" •• ), the nett change in
its position is determined uniquely by the initial point
PI and the end point P,. The displacement of a parti-
cle is therefore characterised completely by the ordered
number pair p,p.. It is natural to represent this

I Ilk om hierdie verplasing op 'n skets vo or te otel deur

middel van 'n gerigte Jynstuk (Figuur 1.5).
displacement on a sketch by means of a directed line
segment (Figure 1.5).

I 1.3.1 Notasie 1.3.1 Notation

Dit is duidelik dat die gerigte Iynstuk wat die verplas- It is evident that the directed line segment that rep-
I ing tussen PI en p. voorsteI. beid. 'n grootte (gemeet in
meter) en 'n rlgting besit. Om hierdie rede sal ons voor-
taan 'n verplasing deur middeI van notasie onderskei van
resents the displacement between PI and P, contains
both a size (measured in metres) and a direction. For
this reason, we will differentiate between a displacement

I ander hoeveelhede waarvan slegs die grootte van belang

is. Die verplasing tussen P, en p. word aangedui deur
middel van 'n balkie soos volg: 1fP. (Let op die volg-
orde van P, en p.). Soos in Figuur 1.5 aangedui, kan ons
I ook kortweg die verplasing met 'n enkele letter aandui
en die letter dan onderskei van ander letters in die teke.
In gedrukte teke (soos hierdie aantekeninge) sal ons 'n
and other quantities, the sizes of which are the only im-
portant aspect, by means of notation. The displacement
between PI and P, is indicated by means of a bar as fol-
lows: AA (Note the order of P, and P,.) As indicated
in figure 1.5, we will also indicate the displacement with
a single letter, and this letter is then differentiated from
other letters in the text. In a printed text (as in these

I vet lettertipe gebruik, dit wil se a, en in handgeskrewe notes), we wilI use bold face symbols, e.g. a, and in a

I 10

I
I
I teks sal ons 'n balkie gebruik, dit wiJ se a. Ander no-
tasies wat ook in die literatuur gebruik word, is onder
hand-written text we will use a bar over the letter, e.g.
a. Qther notations also used in the literature include
andere P,P., a, a, II en Wanneer ons slegs na die M, a, a, II and If we refer only to the magnitude
I grootte van die verplasing in Figuur 1.5 verwys, sal ons
dit aandul as 1J5;J'21, lal of a.
of the displacement in Figure 1.5, we will indicate it by
IP;P;I, lal or a.

I 1.3.2 Grootte en Rigtlng van Verplasing 1.3.2 Magnitude and Direction of Dis-
placement

I Aangesien die verplasing J5iJ5; eenduidig bepaal word

deur P, en p. se p08isies, moet dit moontlik wees
Since the displacement J5;J'2 Is determined uniquely by
the position of P, and p., we must be able to calculate
om belde die grootte en rigting van die verplasing te both the size and direction of the displacement from the

I bereken uit die koordinate van die twee punte. Vir

doel defineer ons eers a se Z-, 11- en z-komponente
respektiewelik soos volg:
coordinates of the two points. For this purpose, we
first define the Z,1I and z components respectively, as
follows:

I (1.1a)

I Ons let op die volgordes in vergelyking (l.la): Die

ko5rdinate van die beginpunt word afgetrek van
We note the order in the equation (1.1a): the coordi-
nates of the initial point are deducted from those of
van die eindpunt. the end point.

I Die meetkundige betekenis van die verplasing se kompo-

nente blyk duidelik in Figuur 1.6(a): Die komponente
van 'Pi1'. is die sylengtes van 'n reghoekige volume waar-
I van die verpJasing J5;J'2 die diagonaal is. Die grootte
van die verpJasing, dit wil se die reglynige afstand tussen
P, en p., kan nou verkry word met behulp van die
I stelling van Pythagoras. Eerstens volg vir /:; P, QT dat
The geometric significance of the displacement's compo-
nents is clear in Figure 1.6(a): the components of P,P.
are the side lengths of a rectangular volume which has
the displacement J5;J'2 as its diagonal. The magni-
tude of the displacement, i.e. the straight line distance
between P, and p., can now be obtained with the help
of Pythagoras' theorem. Firstly, it follows for /:; P, QT
that

I
en dan vir /:; P,T p.:
. .'
C =a' +a'
and then for /:; P, T p.:

I a' = C + a2z = a=
2
+ a211 + a2
Die grootte van die verpJasing P,P. is dus The magnitude of displacement PI p. is therefore
I
I Let daarop dat ons die positiewe wortel neem in (Llb). Note that we take the positive root in (Llb).

I 'n Natuurlike manier om die rigting van PIP. vas te

stel word getoon in Figuur 1.6(b): Die hoeke cr, (3 en
I 'Y is respektiewelik die hoeke tussen die voorwaartse
rigting van J5iJ5; en die posltiewe rigtings van die Z-,
11- en z-asse. Hierdie hoeke kan verkry word uit die soge-
naamde rigtingscosinusse.l, m en n, wat direk verkry
I kan word uit inspeksie van die reghoekige driehoeke
A natural way of determining the direction of PIP.
is shown in Figure 1.6(b). Angles cr, (3 and 'Y are the
angles between the forward direction of J5;J'2 and the
positive directions of the z, 11 and z axes respectively.
These angles can be obtained from the so-called direc-
tion cosines l, m and n, which can be obtained directly
from the inspection of right-angled triangles /:;PI QP.,
/:;PIRP. and /:;PISP.:

I 11

I
le.: {oS cl. -,. a.::
jO: (liS i3-=
I n: 15:-
- - -."l
, /

I /
,
H "2.-2,1"'-

, GI.:\:." I- "'l t ,,&"

I f·-------
••

I I
I
•
I•

"'.,'
.' ,0
.' I
).-- ----
Po
_ _ _ ... - - ..2'1."",1)_

I 1. ;, ."
.... - ---'/
Q
.I , , ..
C ' / r.& r: 2 .
c. :: O. &) 2 t( CH) l.
/

!+--- ..y.- // / : ("'" - xd

I x)'---:----- -
I
____ - -
u
- - - _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,
I

I (a)

I
I sy,---_ __
I I
,Q.}
I

I
y
I
T
I
I (b)

I -
,'\
Figuur 1.6
+
,

I t:=

m:= cosfj =
cos a = b.•
(l.lc)
•
I n:= cos'Y =

I 12

I
I
I Indien beide kante van (l.lc) gekwadreer word en die
som van al drie gevind word, word 'n baie
If we square both sides of (1.1c) and calculate the sum
of all three equations, we obtain a very useful1dentity:
nuttige identiteit verkry:
I e +m' +n' = 1 (l.ld)

I Let op dat (1.1d) impllseer dat a, /3 en 'Y nie onafhanklik Note that (1.1d) implies that a, /3 and 'Y are not inde-
van mekaar Is nie. pendent of each other.
I
1.3.3 Samestelling van Verplasings 1.3.3 Composition of Displacements
I
I
I
I
I
o If
I
I Figuur 1.1

I In Figuur 1.7 word twee opeenvolgende verplasings

getoon: Die verplasing P;P; gevolg deur p;p;. Dit
is duidelik dat hierdie twee verplaslngs saam dieselfde
netto e!fek het as een verplasing, naamlik p;p;. Dit Is
I natuurlik om hierdie ekwivalensie BOOS volg uit te druk:
Figure 1. 7 shows two successive displacements: dis-
placement J5;P; followed by displacement M. It Is
clear that these two displacements together have the
same nett effect as one displacement, viz. p;p;. It is
natural to express this equivalence as follows:

I (1.2)

1.3.4 Dimensies 1.3.4 Dimensions

I Tensy ander gemeld, sal afstande altyd aangegee word Unless otherwise indicated, distance will always be
in die SI-eenheid, naamlik meter. given in the SI unit, viz. metre.

I
I
I 13

I
I
I Probleme
Pl.3.l P en Q is punte met koordinate (3,-2,1) en
I (-1,1,1) respektieweJik.
(a) Wat is die afstand van P na Q ?
(b) Watter hoeke mw die gerigte Iynstuk 'PQ met die
I positiewe rigtings van die koordlnaatasse?
I
Pl.3.2 'n Helikopter vlieg 100 'meter vertikaal op-
waarts, dan 700 meter horlsontaal suid en dan 300 meter
horlsontaal oos. Hoe ver is hy van By beginpunt ?
I Pl.3.3 ABCD is die vloer en EFGH die plafon van
'n kubiese kamer; al die afmetings is 4 meter en E, F, G
I ,en H le respektiewelik vertikaa\ bokant A, B, C en D.
L is 'n punt in die middel van die plafon en J is die
mlddelpunt van die vloer. Kles die positiewe rigtlngs
van die X -, Y - en Z-asse respektiewelik om saam te val
I met die voorwaartse rigtings van die gerigte iynstukke
A11, AD" en D. Doen nou die voigende vir elk van die
gerigte Iynstukke rn, J1I, 1JF, 1iF, AE, ?J1J, rJlJ
I enE:
(a) Noem die gerigte Iynstukke op die vloer sowel as op
die plafon wat die projeksies van bogenoemde lynstukke
is.
I (b) Bereken die iengtes en rigtingskosinusse van die
gerigte lynstukke m. b.t. die XY Z-stelsel.
(c) Bereken die hoeke wat die lynstukke met die X-, y-
I en Z-asse maak.
P1.3.4 In P1.3.3 sit 'n spinnekop by A en bemerk 'n
I mier by 'n punt M op die plafon; die hoogtehoek van die
mier by A is 8 waar cos 8 = f,v en M vertikaa\ boksnt
'n lyn le wat 'n hoek 45° met die X-as mw.
I (a) Bereken
(I) Die koordinate van M.
(iI) Die afstand tussen A en M.
(iii) Die hoeke wat AA? mw met die positiewe
I koordlnaatrigtings.
(b) Die spinnekop ksn van 'n groot aantal gerigte Iyn-
stukke gebruik maak om die mier te bereik, bv. AD +
I 151l + 'H1il.
(i) Noem nog vier moontlikhede.
(iI) Watter een van hierdie moontlikhede sal vir die
I spinnekop die kortste afstand na die mier gee?
(iii) Is dit die klelnste van alle moontlikhede? In-
dien nie, vind die gerigte iynstukke wat die kortste
afstand verteenwoordig as die splnnekop altyd kon-
I tak hou met die vloer, mure en plafon.
P1.3.5 Punt P(2, 5, d) is 'n afstand 5 meter vanaf
I Q(-l, 1,4). Vind d.
I 14
I
Problems
P1.3.l P and Q are points with coordinates (3,-2,1)
and (-1,1,1) respectively.
(a) What is the distance from P to Q?
(b) Which angles does the directed line segment 'PQ
make with the positive direction of the axes of coordi-
nates?
P1.3.2 A helicopter flies 100 metres vertically up-
wards, then 700 metres horizontally south and then 300
metres horizontally east. How far Is the helicopter from
its starting point?
P1.3.3 ABCD is the floor and EFGH the ceiling of
a cubic room; all the measurements are 4 metres and
E, F, G and H lie vertically above A, B, C and D respec-
tively. L is a point in the centre of the ceiling an J is the
centre point of the floor. Choose the positive directions
of the X, Y and Z axes to coincide with the forward
direction of directed line segments )[]j, AD and :;n;:
respectively. Carry out the following for each of the di-
rected line segments rn, m, 1J1!', 1iF, :;n;:, ?J1J, rJlJ
and E:
(a) Name the directed line segments on the floor and
the ceiling, which are the projections of the above line
segments.
(b) Calculate the lengths and direction cosines of the
directed line segments with regard to the XY Z system.
(c) Calculate the angles that the line segments form with
the X, Y and Z axes.
P1.3.4 In P1.3.3 there is a spider at A that notices an
ant at point M on the ceiling; the angle of elevation of
the ant at A is 8 waar cos 8 = f,v and M lies vertically
above a line that forms an angle of 45° with the X axis.
(a) Calculate
(i) The coordinates of M.
(iI) The distance between A and M.
(iii) The angles that AA? forms with the positive
direction of the coordinates.
(b) The spider could use a large number of directed line
segments to reach the ant, e.g. AD + 1511 + 1lKl.
(i) List four more possibilities.
(iI) Which of these possibilities will give the spi-
der the shortest distance to the ant?
(iii) Is this the smallest of all possiblities? If not,
find the directed line segments that represent the
shortest distance If the spider maintains constant con-
tact with the floor, walls and ceiling.
P1.3.5 Point P(2, 5, d) is a distance of 5 metres from
Q( -1,1,4). Find d.
I
I PI.3.6 Die positlewe X-as Is horlsontaal en oos gerig,
die posltiewe Y -as Is vertikaai opwaarts gerlg en die posl-
P1.3.6 The positive X axis is horisontal and directed
to the east, the positive Y axis is vertical and· directed
tiewe Z-as Is horlsontaal en suid gerlg. 'n Waarnemer sit upwards and the positive Z axis is horizontal and di-
I op die grond by die oorsprong. Die toppunt van 'n kerk-
torlng het 'n hoogtehoek van 30· t.o. v. die oorsprong
rected to the south. An observer sits on the ground at
the origin. The top-most point of the church steeple has
en le In 'n rlgtlng 50· oos van suld. Watter hoeke maak an angle of elevation of 30· with regard to the origin

I die Iyn van die waarnemer na die torlng se toppunt met

die koordinaatasse ?
and lies in a direction 50· east of south. Which angles
does the line from the observer to the steeple's top-most
point form with the coordinate axes?

I PI.3.7 0 Is die oorsprong en P Is 'n ander punt. Die

segment OP maak 'n hoek van 60· met die positiewe
P1.3.7 0 is the origin and P is another point. Segment
OP forms an angle of 60· with the positive X axis and

I X-as en 'n hoek van 45· met die positlewe Y-as. Wat
kan gese word van die hoek wat dlt maak met die posl-
tiewe Z-as?
an angle of 45' with the positive Y axis. What could
be said about the angle that it forms with the positive
Z axis?

I 1.4 VEKTORE 1.4 VECTORS

I Ona het in §1.3 gesien dat verplaslng belde grootte en

rigtlng besit. In die fisiese wetenakappe kom bale ander
entiteite van dleselfde aard voor, SOO8 byvoorbee1d krag,
We saw In §1.3 that displacement has both magnitude
and direction. Many other entities of the same nature
are found in the physical sciences, e.g. force, velocity,
sneiheid, versnelling, elektrlese veld en magneetveld, om acceleration, electrical field and magnetic field. As with
I net 'n paar te noem. Net BOOS vir verplaslngs is dit
gerieflik om hierdle hoeveelhede op 'n gekose skaal voor
te stel deur 'n gerigte Iynstuk of py!. Ona verwys voor-
displacement, it is convenient to represent these quan-
tities on a chosen scale by means of a directed line
segment or arrow. We refer to these quantities as vec-

I taan na hierdle hoeveelhede as vektore.

1.4.1 IJerlatUsie
tors.

1.4.1 IJefinition

I 'n Vektor Is 'n hoeveelheld wat voorgestel kan word

deur 'n gerigte Iynstuk of pyl wat 'n bepaalde grootte
A vector is a quantity that can be represented by 8
directed line segment or arrow, which has specific mag-
en rigting besit. nitude and direction.

I Beskou byvoorbeeld in Figuur 1.8 die pyl OP wat vanaf

o in 'n NW-rlgting getrek is en 4 cm lank Is. Hierdie
Consider for instance arrow OP In Figure 1.8, drawn
from 0 In a NW direction. It is 4cm long. This arrow

I pyl kan nou gebruik word om byvoorbeeld:

(a) 'n Verplasing van 400 !dlometer in 'n NW rlgting
voor te stel op die skaal 1 cm : 100 km.
can now be used to represent:
(8) A displacement of 400 kilometres in 8 NW direction
on 8 scale of 1 cm : 100 km.
(b) 'n Krag van 16 Newton In 'n NW rigtlng voor te stel (b) A force of 16 Newton In 8 NW direction on 8 scale
I op die skaai 1 cm : 4 Newton. of 1 cm : 4 Newton.

I p

I
-=0----- OCes)

I
I s
Flguur 1.8

I 15

I
I
I (c) 'n Snelheid van 4 meter per sekonde in 'n NW voor
te stel op die skaal 1 cm : 1 meter per sekonde.
(c) A velocity of 4 metres per second in a NW direction
on a scale of 1 cm : 1 metre per second.
(d) 'n Magneetveld van 4.0 x 10-& tesla in 'n NW rigting (d) A maguetic field of 4.0 x 10-& tesla in a NW direc-
I . voor te stel op die skaal 1 cm : 10-& tesla. tion on a scale of 1 cm : 10-&.

I 1.4.2 SkaJaar
'n Skalaar is 'n hoevee1heid wat gespesifeer kan word
1.4.2 Scalar
A scalar is a quantity that can be specified by a single

I deur 'n eukele getal (positief, negatief of nul). Voor-

beelde van sulke hoeveelhede is tyd, temperatuur, en-
ergie en masea.
number (positive, negative or zero). Examples of such
quantities are time, temperature, energy and mass.

I 1.4.3 Notasie

Diese\fde notasie as wat in §1.3.1 ingevoer is vir verplas-

1.4.3 Notation
The same notation used in §1.3.1 for displacements will

I ings, sal voortaan vir vektore gebrUik word. be used for vectors.

1.4.4 Gelokaliseerde Vektore 1.4.4 Localised Vectors

I Dit is soms gebruiklik om 'n vektor voor te stel deur 'n It is sometimes customary to represent a vector by
drieta\ (,",1/, .. ) waar '", 1/ en .. die koordinate is van die means of three symbols (,",I/,") where ,",1/ and .. are

I eindpunt van die pyl wat die vektor voorste\. In hierdie

geval aanvaar ons implisiet dat die vektor gelokaliseerd
is, d.w.s. dat die beginpunt van die pyl by die oorsprong
the coordinates of the end point of the arrow represent-
ing a vector. In this case we assume implicitly that the
vector is localised, i.e. that the initial point ofthe ar-

I
is. In die meganika het ons te doen met vektore wat nie
noodwendig by die oorsprong aangryp nie. Dink aan 'n
groep persone wat 'n motor stoot; die kragte (vektore)
gryp aan daar waar hulle hande en die motor kontak
row is at the origin. In mechanics we deal with vectors
that do not necessarily take effect at the origin. Think
about a group of people pushing a car; the forces (vec-
tors) take effect where their hands and the car make

I maak. Om hierdie rede verkies ons om aan vektore te

clink in terme van gerigte lynstukke want dan kan ons die
grootte, rigting en aangrypingspunt visueel voor-
contact. Therefore, we prefer to think about vectors in
terms of directed line segments because we can then rep-
resent the magnitude, direction and point of action

I ste!. visually.

1.5 REKENREELS VIR VEKTORE 1.5 ALGEBRAIC RULES FOR VEC-

I TORS
Die rekenreels vir vektore word opgestel na aanleid- The algebraic rules for vectors are introduced on the

I ing van die geometrlese eienskappe van verplasings.

Vanult die definisie van ander vektorhoeveelhede (soos
bv. snelheid, versneliing, momentum, krag ens.) kan
basis of the geometric properties of displacements.
From the definition of other vector quantities (e.g. ve-
locity, acceleration, momentum, force) it could then be
shown with the necessary mathematical tools that these
I dan, met behulp van die nodige wiskundige werktuie,
aangetoon word dat hierdie reels vir alle vektorhoeveel-
hede geld.
rules apply to all vector quantities.

I 1.5.1 Gelykheid van Vektore

Twee vektore a en b word gelyke vektore genoem in-
1.5.1 Equality of Vectors
Two vectors a and b are called equal vectors if they

I dien hulle groottes sowel as rigtings dieselfde is. Dit

beteken dat hulle op dieselfde skaal voorgestel word deur
twee pyle met diese\fde lengte en rigting (Figuur 1.9).
Ons sal hierdie gelykbeid soos volg aandui:
I a=b
have the same magnitude and direction. This means
that they are represented by two arrows on the same
scale with the same length and direction (Figure 1.9).
We shall indicate this equality as follows:
(1.3)

I 16

I
I
I
I
I Figuur 1.9

1.5.2 Negatiewe Vektore 1.5.2 Negative Vectors

I
I
I Figuur 1.10

I In Figuur 1.10 is a en b se groottes dieselfde maar hul

rigtings is teengesteld. Ons se dan dat a en b mekaar
se teengesteldes is en dui dit soos volg aan:
I a=-b
I
Uit hierdie definisie volg onmlddelik
-(-a) = a
In Figure 1.10, a and b are the same magnitude but
their directions are in opposition. We then say that a
and b are opposites, and we indicate this as follows:
(1.4)
The following is evident from this definition:
(1.5)

I 1.5.3 Vektorsom 1.5.3 Vector sum

Gegee twee vektore a en b, word hul BOm gelyk gestel The sum of two given vectors a and b is a third vector

I aan 'n derde vektor c wat verkry word asof hulle opeen-
volgende verplasings is. Ons dui die vektorsom in
Figuur 1.11 BOOS volg aan:
c, which is obtained as though they were successive
displacements. We denote the vector sum in Figure
1.11 as follows:

I c=a+b (1.6)

I
I
I
I Figuur 1.11

Let op die volgorde: Vektor a kom eerste voor in a + b
I en word dUB eerste voorgestel; vektor b se voorstelling
word dan 56 geteken dat ay beginpunt saamval met die
eindpunt van a se voorstelling.
Note the sequence: vector a appears first in a + b, so
it is represented first; vector b's representation is then
drawn so that its initial point coincides with the end
point of a's representation.

I 17

I
I
I Die algebrai'ese eienskappe van die vektorsom kan al-
mal uit die definisie vervat In Flguur 1.11 verkry word:
The algebraic characteristics of the vector sum can all
be obtained from the definition contained in Figure 1.11:

I (a) Die vektorsom is geslote - Die som a + b Is weer

'n vektor.
(a) The vector sum Is closed - the sum a + b is also
a vector.

I (b) Die vektorsom is kommutatieC - Ult elementere

geometriese oorweglngs volg in Flguur 1.12 dat
(b) The vector sum is commutative - it follows
from elementary geometric considerations in Fig-
ure 1:12 that

I a+b=b+a. (1.7)

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 1.12

I (c) Die vektorsom is assosiatieC - Uit Figuur 1.13 (c) The vector sum is associative - it follows from
volg dat Figure 1.13 that
I
d = (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). (1.8)

I
I 1.

I
I
I
Figuur 1.13

I 18

I
I
I 1.5.4 Nulvektor 1.5.4 Null Vector
'n Verplaslng 8 gevolg deur - 8 het geen verplasing A displacement a followed by - 8 has no displacement
I tot gevolg - die nulverplaslng genoem. Soortgelyk sal
die som van enlge vektor met 6Y teengeste1de 'n vektor
lewer waa.rva.n die grootte nul en die rlgting natuurlik
- this is called the null displacement. Similarly, the
sum of any vector and its opposite produces a vector the
ma.gnltude of which is zero and the direction of which

I onbepa.eJd is. Ona noem hlerdie vektor die nulvektor

en dui dit a.a.n deur 0 (U in geskrewe werk).
cannot be determined. We ca.ll this vector the null vec-
tor and indica.te it by 0 (ll in written work).

a+ (-a):= 0
I
(1.9)

Indien die nulvektor by enlge vektor getel word, sal dit IT the null vector is added to a.ny vector, the vector will
obviously rema.in unchanged:
I uitera.&.rd die vektor onveranderd la.a.t:

a+O=a (1.10)

I 1.5.5 Vektorverskil 1.5.5 Vector Difference

I Die venokil tussen twee vektore a en b word gedefinieer

as
The difference between two vectors
as
8 a.nd b is defined

I a-b:=a+(-b) (1.11)

I en word gra.fies geillustreer in Figuur 1.14. In la.asge-

noemde figuur is dit nuttig om die definisie te onthou
a.a.n die hand van t:"OAB.
and is illustrated graphically in Figure 1.14. In this fig-
ure it is useful to remember the definition with reference
to t.OAB.

I -b A
fE-----
,,
I ,,

,
I ,
,,
,
I cs
I Figuur 1.14

I Dit Is belangrik om in te sien da.t da.a.r ook 'n vektor-

som vervat is in Figuur 1.14, te wete
(a- b) + b =8
It is importa.nt to note that Figure 1.14 also contains a
vector sum:
(1.12)

I Hierdie feit, saam met die eienaka.ppe (1.7) en (1.8) van

die vektorsom, impliseer dat vektorultdrukkings sover
This fact, together with characteristics (1.7) a.nd (1.8)
of the vector sum, implies that vector expressions can

I dit die + en - operasies betref, net soos skalaaruit-

drukkillgll gemanipuleer ka.n word.
be manipulated like scalar expressions with regard
to the + and - operations.

I 19

I
•
• 1.5.6 Produk van SkaJaar en Vektor 1.5.6 Product of Scalar and Vector

•I Die vektorsom a + a + a Is 'n vektor wat dieselfde rigting

het soos a en waarvan die grootte driekeer so groot is
soos die van a. Dit is natuurlik om hlerdle som as 3a te
skryf. Dit le! ons dan na die volgende definisie:

Vir I' > 0 definieer Ons pa as 'n vektor soos voig:

The vector sum a + a + a is a vector that has the same
direction as a, and its magnitude is three times that of
a. It is natural to represent this sum by 3a. This leads
us to the following definition:

For p > 0, we define pa as a vector as follows:

I palla; lpal = pial

•
(-p)a = -(pal (1.13)
Oa = 0

•I
Hierdle definisie word visueei voorgestel in Figuur 1.15 This definition is represented visually in Figure L15 for
vir I' > 1. 1'> 1.

_____ a.
f>ii
.. - - - - -__
I Figuur 1.15

•• Die algebraiese eienskappe van hlerdle produk volg

weereens ult definisie.
The algebraic properties of this product once again fol-
lows from definition.

I (a) Assosiatiwiteit - Van (1.13) volg (a) Associativity - it follows from (1.13) that

• p(qa)lIqalla

•I en

en dUB
Ip(qa)I =plqal =p(qlal) = (pq)lal·
and

and hence

= (pq)a.
I p(qa) (1.14)

I
(b) Distributiwiteit - Uit figuur 1.16 volg dat aan- (b) Distributivity - it follows from 1.16 that since
geslen

I (i) allpa,

I (ii) bllPb,

•I
IPaI Ipbl_
(iii) jiiI = lbI- p,

20
 is t:J.OAB en t:J.O ' A' B' gelykvormlg. Dan volg that t:J.OAB en t:J.O' A' B' are similar. It then fol-
lows that:

cll(a+b)i lal:1bl=Pi

d.w.s. i.e.
I c=p(a+b)

I en dus and hence

pta + b) = pa + pb. (1.15)

"''0 S'
"' ....
B \>0-
I \,
...Cl-.I(
"'c. .,.

I 0
a.
A 0' A'

I Figuur 1.16

I Die eienskappe (a) en (b) impliseer dat ons die produk

van 'n skalaar en 'n vektor kan manipuleer op dieselfde
The properties (a) and (b) imply that the product of
a scalar with a vector can be manipulated in the same
wyse as die produk van twee skalare. way as the product of two scalars.

I 1.6 MEETKUNDIGE TOEPASSINGS 1.6 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS

I Aangesien die definlsies in §1.5 die eienskappe

van driehoeke Implislet bevat, kan 'n groot aantai
Since the definitions in §1.5 implicitly contain the prop-
erties of triangles, a great number of geometric problems
meetkundige probleme wat gemoeid is met driehoeke op pertaining to triangles can be solved in a compact way in

I 'n bondige wyse in terme van vektoroperasies opgelos

word. Ons bespreek nou enkele voorbeelde.
terms of vector operations. We shall now discuss some
examples.

I Voorbeelde Examples
V1.6.1 Toon ann dat indien die middelpunte van opeen- V1.6.1 Show that if the centre points of the successive

I volgende sye van 'n vierhoek verbind word, word 'n

parallelogram verkry.
sides of a quadrilateral are connected, a parallelo-
gram will be obtained.

I
I 21

I
I
Oplo8.ing: Ons begin deur die gegewe inligting eerstens Solution: We begin by writing the given informa-
I In vektorvorm op te skryf. Die feit dat die Iynstukke
AB, BC, CD en DA respektieweJik by E, F, G en
tion in vector form. The fact that the line segments
AB, BC, CD and DA are halved by E, F, G and H
H halveer word, word in figuur 1.7 aanskoulik gemaak respectively is made evident in Figure 1.7 by means of

I deur Iynstukke met dieselfde lengtes en rigtings, gelyke

vektore te laat verteenwoordig. Die feit dat ABCD 'n
geslote figuur is, lel dan onmiddelik na die volgende
line segments of the same length and direction, repre-
senting equal vectors. The fact that ABCD is a closed
figure leads immediately to the following vector sum:

I vektorsom:

2a+2b+2c +2d = 0
I As hierdie vektorvergelyking nou aan albei leante met If the vector equation is now multiplied by ! on both
vermenigvuldig word, vind ons met behulp van (1.15) sides, we find with the help of (1.15) that:
I a+'b+c+d = O.

I
D
I c

I b
c

I F
j;
I A a E a
I Figuur 1.17

Aangesien ons die vektore in hierdie vergelyking sover
I dit die + en - operasies betref, lean manipuleer net soos
skalare, lean ons die vergelyking omskryf as
Since we may manipulate the vectors in this equation
with regard to the + and - operations as we would
scalars, we can rewrite this equation as

I d+a=-b-c.
Uit inspeksie van figuur 1.17 volg dan onmiddelik 1£ we inspect Figure 1.17, it follows immediately that

I e= r,

waarmee ons dan aangetoon het dat EFGH 'n parallel- and we have shown that EFG H is a parallelogram.
I ogram is.

I V1.6.2 Toon aan dat die lyn wat die middelilUnte van
twee sye van 'n driehoek verbind, ewewydlg aan die
derde sy is en dat die lengte van die lyn die helfte van
V1.6.2 Show that the line that joins the centre points
of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side, and
that the length of this line is half that of the third side.
die van die derde sy is.
I
I 22

I
I
I
I
I
I c
b

I Figuur 1.18

Oplolling: Met behulp van dieselfde algebraiese eien- Solution: With the help of the same algebraic proper-
I smppe as in die vorige probleem, volg in figuur 1.18 ties as those used in the previous problem, it follows in
Figure 1.18 that

I
I V1.6.3 Ons herlei hier 'n hulpresultaat wat ons in
staat stel om die feit dst drie punte op 'n reguitlyn le,
V1.6.3 Here we derive an auxiliary result that enables
us to represent the fact that three points lie on a striaght
in vektorvorm te ste!. line in vector form.

I
I
I o
I
I Figuur 1.19

I In figuur 1.19 le A, B en C op 'n reguitlyn, sodat In Figure 1.19, A, Band C are on a straight line so that

1RJ = er BA. .
I Die vektorverskille in b.OBC en b.OBA word In hi-
erdie vergelyking ingestel:
The vector differences in b.OBC and b.OBA are sub-
stituted in this equation:

I c-b=er(a-b)

Indien (bv.) c nou die onderwerp van die vergelyking
I gernaak word, volg dan 'n bale nuttige resultaat:
c = aa + (1 - er)b
If c is now made the subject of the equation (for in-
stance), a very useful result follows:
(1.16)

I 23

I
I
I
Ons ate! maklik vas dat ons ook byvoorbeeld die verge- We easily establish that we can also write the equation
Iyking in die vorm as
a =pb + (1 - Plc
I kan skryf; die som van die koeffisiente Ban die regterkant
is net BOOS in (1.16) geJyk Ban 1.
As in (1.16), the sum of the coefficients on the right is
equal to 1.

I Vl.6.4 Toon &an dat die diagonale wn 'n parallelogram Vl.6.4 Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bi-
mekaar halveer. sect each other.

I
a.
I
I
I
I A

Figuur 1.20
a.

I Oplo•• i"g: In figuur 1.20 le A, P en C op 'n reguit Iyn: Solutio,,: In Figure 1.20, A, P and C lie on a straight
line:

I AP=aAC
Aangesien D, P en Book op 'n reguit Iyn le, volg dan Since D, P and B are also on a straight line, it follows

I wn (1.16):
Ph + (1 - p)a = a(b + a)
from (1.16) that:

I Die algebrwese eienskappe van vektore laat ons nou toe

om die terme in a en b te versamel:
(P - a)b = (a + P - l)a
I Aangesien a en b nie dieselfde rlgting het nie, kan
hierdie verge!yking slegs waar wees indien die nulvek-
I tor &an albei kante voorkom, d.w.s
The algebraic properties of vectors now allow us to col-
lect the terms in a and b:
Since a and b do not have the same direction, this
equation can be true only if the null vector occurs on
both sides, Le.

I p-a
a+p
=
=
0
1

I Hierdie gelyktydige vergelykings kan opgelos word om

die waardes
These simultaneous equations can be resolved to obtain
the values

I a=p=-2
1

I 24

I
I
te verkry, waarmee die gevraagde resultaat dan bewys which then proves the required result.
I is.

I Probleme
PI.8.1 Toon grafies aan dat -(a - b) = -a+ b.
Problems
P1.8.1 Show graphically that -(a - b) = -a + b.

I PI.8.2 'n Reelmatige Beshoek ABCDEF word gevorm

deur seB gerigte Iynstukke, almal met dieselfde lengte.
. Laatn en AlJ respektiewelik die vektore a en b voors-
I tel. Vind, in terme van a en b, die ander Bye van die
Beshoek sowel as AE', AD en AB.
P1.8.2 A regular hexagon ABCDEF is formed by six
directed line segments, all with the same length. Let
:FA and AlJ represent vectors a and b respectively. In
terms of a and b, find the other sides of the hexagon as
well as AE', AD and AB.

I PI.8.S Beskou enlge 60AB met C 'n punt op AB.

Laat a = UA, b = 'lJB en c = re. Van (1.16) volg dan
dat c = Aa + I'b waar A+ I' = 1. Vind nou die waarde
P1.8.S Consider any triangle with a point C
on AB. Let a = AB, b = 751J and c = re. It follows
from (1.16) that c = Aa + I'b where A + I' = 1. Find

I van A en I' as
(a) C die middelpunt van AB is.
(b) A die middelpunt van CB is.
the values of A and I' if
(a) C is the midpoint of AB.
(b) A is the midpoint of CB.
(c) C tussen A en B is met AC = lAB. (c) C is between A and B with AC = !AB.
I P1.8.4 As a en b gegewe vektore is wat die diagonale P1.8.4 If a and b are given vectors representing the
diagonals of a parallelogram, find the sides of the par-
I
van. 'n parallelogram verteenwoordig, vind die sye van
die parallelogram. alellogram.

P1.8.S In 6ABC is P, Q en R respektiewelik die mid-
I delpunte van sye AB, BC en CA. Toon aan dat vir
enlge punt 0 geld (jA + Oli + or; = 1J15 + OQ + OR.
Pl.6.S In 6ABC, P, Q and R are the centre ponts of
sides AB, BC and CA respectively. Show that for any
point 0, (jA + OB + (f(J = 1J15 + OQ + OR.

I PI.8.8 Toon aan dat daar 'n driehoek bestaan waarvan

die sye respektiewelik ewewydig aan en net so lank is as
P1.6.8 Show that there exists a triangle with sides
which are the medians of any given triangle.
die mediane van 'n gegewe driehoek.

I Pl.8.7 Toon aan dat die mediane van 'n driehoek

mekaar in een punt sny en dat hierdie punt die mediane
P1.6.7 Show that the medians of a triangle meet in a
common point which is a point of trisection of the me-

I verdeel in die verhouding 1:2.

Pl.8.S In figuur 1.21 is ABCD 'n parallelogram met P

dians.

P1.6.S In Figure 1.21, ABCD is a parallelogram with

en Q die middelpunte van sye BC en CD respektiewelik.
I Toon aan dat AP en AQ die diagonaa1 BD by punte E
en F trisekteer.
P and Q the midpoints of sides BC and CD respectively.
Show that AP and AQ trisect diagonal BD at points E
and F.

I
I
I
8
I Figuur 1.21

I 25

I
I
1.7 KOMPONENTVORM VAN VEK- 1. 7 COMPONENT FORM OF VEC-
I TORE TORS
1.7.1 Eenheidsvektor 1.7.1 Unit Vector
I Beskou die vektor Consider the vector

I
I Van dellnisie volg It follows from the dellnition that

I Iql = G) lal = 1.

I Vektor q is dus 'n vektor met dieselfde rigting soos

a en grootte 1. Ons sal voortaan blerna verwys as
'n eenheidsvektor en dit aandui deur a. Ons Sc
)Ok
Vector q is thus a vector with the same direction as
a and magnitude 1. We shall refer to this as a unit
vector and indicate it by il. We shall also often use the
dikwels die verkorte skryfwyse ! in plaas van ! a
I gebrulk, d. w.s.
a a shorthand method of writing instead of a, i.e.

I (1.17)

I Dit is soms nuttig om (1.17) te omskryf as It is sometimes useful to rewrite (1.17) as

I in hierdie vorm kan ons aan die regterkant a se grootte

(1.18)

in this form we can read directly from the magnitude

direk allees terwyl die vektor a slegs met die rigting
I van a te maak het. Dit is baie gerlef\ik om op hierdie
wyse 'n vektor a formeei te skryf as die "produk van
grootte a en rigting an.
I Dit is belangrlk om daarop te let dat a dimensieloos is:
As a byvoorbeeld 'n verplasing is wat in meter aangegee
of a on the right, while vector a is associated only with
the direction of il. It is very convenient to write vector
a formally in this way as the" product of magnitude a
and direction an.
It is important to note that a is dimensioniess: If a.1s
a displacement given in metres, the dimensions of both

I word, is die dimensies van beide a en a in (1.18) van

verpiasing en a moet dus dlmensieloos wees. Dit is egter
so dat a die skaal aandui waarin die vektor voorgestel
I
word. As in llguur 1.8 byvoorbeeld die sksal 1 cm: 4
Newton gebrulk word, sal PQ 16 Newton voorstel omdat
dit 4 cm lank is.
a and a in (1.18) are those of displacement, and cl must
therefore be dimensionless. It is however true that Cl
indicates the scale in which the vector is represented.
If the scale used in Figure 1.8 is 1 cm: 4 Newton, for
instance, PQ will represent 16 Newton because it is 4
cm long.

I Van groot belang is die eenheidsvektore in die Carte-

siese koordinaatrigtings, waarna ons sal verwys as
(z,g,i), en wat gelllustreerword in figuur 1.22. Ander
The unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinate direc-
tions are very important. We shall refer to these as
(z,O,i), and they are illustrated in Figure 1.22. Other
notasies wat in die literatuur voorkom, is byvoorbeeld
I
notations that occur in literature are (i,j, k), (el, e.,es)
(i,j,k), (el,e"e3) of (ux,uy,u.). or (ux , u y , u.), for instance.

I
I 26

I
I
I
I
I
x
I Figuur 1.22

I 1.7.2 Komponente en Projeksies van Vek- 1.7.2 Components and Projections ofVec-
tore tors
I Ons het reeds in §1.3.2 kennis gemaak met kompo-
nente van verplaslngs. Dit is nuttig om hier byvoor-
We became acquainted with components and dls-
placements In §1.3.2. It is useful to focus our attention
beeld ODS aandag te vestig op boP, QP. wat voorkom in here on triangle boP, QP., found in Figure 1.6(b) and re-
I figuur 1.6(b) en wat gereproduseer word in figuur 1.23.
Uit laasgenoemde figuur het ons vir die x-komponent
produced in Figure 1.23. From the latter figure we have
the following for the x component of the displacement:
van die verplasing,

I Gz =acosCt'

I
I
I
I
I Figuur 1.23

I Na aa.nleiding van die voorafgaande defineer ons nou (se)

die e-komponent van enige vektor a as die produk van
Following the above, we define the e component (for
instance) of any vector a as the product of a's magnitude

I a se grootte met die kosinus van die kleinste hoek

tussen a en e se voorwaartse rigtings, en dui dit aan
asa,. Vir die vektore in figuur 1.24 skryf ons dus
with the cosine of the smallest angle between a and e's
forward directions, and we indicate it as a e • Therefore,
for the vectors in Figure 1.24, we write:

I a, := acos8 . (1.19)

I
I 27

I
I
I
I cl

I
I Flguur 1.24

I Die projeksie van a In die e-rigtlng Is 'n vektor wat

aangedul word deur ... en gedeftnieer word aB
... =a,e.
I Die meetkundige verband tUllBl!n die voorstelllnge van
vektore en die voorstellinge van hul projeksies in 'n
I gegewe rigtlng word vir verskillende waardes van (J in
flguur 1.25 getoon. Let op die verband tuasen die teken
van 'n vektor se e-komponent en die rigting van sy e-
The projection of a in the e direction is a vector In-
dicated by a, and defined as
(1.20)
The geometric association between the representations
of vectors and the representations of their projections
in a given direction is shown for different values of (J in
Figure 1.25. Note the association between the sign of a
vector's e component and the direction of its e projec-

I projeksie: Vir skerp (stomp) (J is die komponent positief

(negatief) en is die projeksle ewewydlg (teengesteld) aan
die vektor.
tion: for an acute (obtuse) (J, the component is positive
(negative) and the projection is parallel (opposite) to
the vector.

I
b
I
I --

I 0"
A

e
)

I Flguur 1.25

I 1.7.3 Sommasie van Vektore i.t.v. Kom-

ponente
1.7.3 Summation of Vectors in terms of
Components

I Die nllttigheid van die komponente van 'n vektor blyk

onder andere uit die volgende belangrike result ....t:
The usefulness of the components of a vector is evident
from the following important result:

I
I
I 28

I
I
Theorem The e component of the vector sum of two
I
Stelling Die e-komponent van die vektorsom van twee
vektore is geiyk aan die som van die vektore se e- vectors is equal to the sum of the e components of the
komponente. vectors.

I BeWJIS: In figuur 1.26 geid Proof: The following is valid in Figure 1.2.6

I Van definisie (1.20) volg dan

c,=a.+b,.
It then follows from definition (1.20) that

I c,e = a,e + b,e.

Die algebraiese eienskappe van die produk van 'n skaJaar
I
en 'n vektor laat ons toe om die terme in e aan die
regterkant te versamel:
The algebraic properties of the product of a scalar and
a vector allow us to collect the terms in e on the right-
hand side:

I c,e = (a, + b,)e

Aangesien die groottes van die vektore aan belde kante Since the magnitudes ofthe vectors on both sides of the
I van die vergelyking gelyk meet wees, voig dan die
gevraagde resultaat:
equation must be equal, the required resuit foHows:

I c=a+b==}c,=a,+b, (1.21)

I
I
,
I r;;
I
I
I

I C" 'I be.

Figuur 1.26

I
1.7.4 Komponentvorm 1. 7.4 Component Form
I In figuur 1.27 word die voorstelling van vektor a getoon In Figure 1.27, the representation of vector a is shown

I saam met 'n gekose verwysingstelsel. Dit is duidelik dat with a chosen reference system. It is evident that a is
a gelyk is aan die som van ay X-, v- en z-projeksies: equal to the sum of its x, V and z projections:

I a = a.ot + a.fi + a,2 (1.22)

I
I 29

I
 I
I
I
I
I
I
Flguur 1.27

I Ona sal voortsan na (1.22) verwys 88 die kompo-
nentvorm van 'n vektor. Omdat die komponente van
I a in die vorm eksplisiet getoon word, sal dlt blyk dat
daar groot voordele verbonde is san hierdie voorstelling
van 'n vektor. Inderdaad kan ons nou 'n hele santal al-
We shall refer to (1.22) 88 the component form of a
vector. Since the components of a are shown explicitly
in this form, it will become obvious that there are huge
advantages to this representation of a vector. In fact, we
can now reformulate a number of algebraic characteris-

I gebralese eienskappe van vektore herformuleer in terme

van die komponente van vektore.
tics of vectors in terms of the components of vectors.

(a) Grootte en Rigtlng: Indien liguur 1.27 verge-
I Iyk word met liguur 1.6(b), is dit duldelik dat
die resultate in vergelykings (l.1b) en (1.lc) vir
enige vektor verkry kan word. Die grootte en rig-
(a) Magnitude and Direction: If Figure 1.27 is
compared to Figure 1.6(b) , it is evident that the
results in equations (1.lb) and (1.lc) can be ob-
tained for any vector. The magnitude and direc-

I tlng van a kan dan net sOO8ln (1.1) bereken word,

d.w.s. die vektor in (1.22) het die grootte
tion of a can therefore be calculated as in (1.1) i.e.
the vector in (1.22) has the magnitude

I (1.23a)

I terwyl die rigting daarvan vervat word in die while the direction thereof is contained in the
rigtingskosinusse direction cosines

I
a.
I t:= cos a

m:= cos/3 ==
=
a
a. (1.23b)
a
I n:= cos')' =
a.
a

I (b) Vektorgelykheid: Laat (b) Vector Equality: Let

I a=b. (1.24a)

I 30

I
I
I Ona Skty£ beide vektore in komponentvorm: We write both vectors in component form:

I
I Na standaard-manipuiasie volg Standard manipulation yields

I (a. - b.)! + (a. - b.)fi + (a. - b.)z = O.

I Van (1.19) volg egter dat aUe komponente van

die nulvektor nul is, en due
It follows from (1.19) that all the components of
the null vector are zero, hence

I = b: i a" = b" ; Q,c = b.l" (1.24b)

I Vektotgelykheid impliseer gevolglik dat vektore

se oorElenstemmende komponente dleselfde is.
Vector equality implies that the correspond-
ing components of vectors are the same.

I (c) Vektotsom - Laat (c) Vector Sum - Let

I c = a+ h. (1.2Sa)

I Ona skryf die vektore aan die regterkant

in komponentvorm en voer weer standaard-
We write the vectors on the right-hand side in
component form and again perform standard ma-
nipulation:
I
manipulasie uit:

c = (a.! + a.ii + a.i) + (b.! + b.ii + b.z)

I = (a. + b.)x + (a. + b.)ii + (a. + b.)z

I Van (1.24) volg dan It follows from (1.24) that

I (1.25b)

I Die Cllrtesiese komponente van vektore som-

meer dUB net soos die vektore self; 'n resul-
taat Wilt klaarblyklik net 'n spesiale geval van die
The Cartesian components of vectors add in
the same way as the vectors themselves; a result
that is obviously only a special case of the theorem
stelling in §1.7.3 !s. in §1.7.3.
I (d) Prod1l.k van 'n Skalaar en 'n Vektor: In terme
van die komponente van a het ona
(d) Product of a Scalar and a Vector: In terms
of the components of a, we have

I '\a = ,\(a.x + a.fi + a.i).

I 31

I
I
I Met behulp van die IiJgebraiese eienskappe van die
produk van 'n skalaar en 'n vektor volg dan
From the algebraic properties of the product of a
scalar and a vector then follows .

I (1.26)

I Indien 'n vektor met 'n skalaar >. vermenigvuldig
I word, word elkeen van sy komponente dUB met
die faktor >. vermenigvuldlg.
(e) Komponente van Eenheidsvsktor: Beskou
Hence, if a vector is multiplied by a scalar >. each
of its components is multiplied by the factor >..
(e) Components of Unit Vectors: Consider

I
I = lx+m1i+nz
(1.27)

I
Die komponente van a is die rigtingskosinusse The components of a are the direction cosines

I van a. ofa.

I 1.7.5 Posisievektor 1.7.5 Position Vector

I
I
I
x
I Figuur 1.28

I Die posisievektor van P, aangedui deur r, is die vektor

wat die oorsprong met P verbind, soos getoon in figuur
1.28. Klaarblyklik is r 'n verplasing. Van (!.la) volg
The position vector of P, indicated by r, is the vector
that links the origin to P, as shown in Figure 1.28. It
is evident that r is a displacement. It follows from

I dan vir die komponente van r: (1.1a) for the components of r that:

rz = x - 0; rl' = 11 - 0; r z = z - o.

I Die posisievektor van P is dUB 'n vektor waarvan die

komponente die koordinate van Pis, d.w:s.
The position. vector of P is thUB a vector, the compo-
nents of which are the coordinates of P, i.e.

I r =:tX +110 +
Oos kan natuurlik ook r formeel skryf in die vorm
zz. (1.28)
Of course we can also write r formally in the form

I 32

I
I
I r=rr , (1.29)
waar where

I r = ";XO +11 0 +ZO (1.30)

I die afstand tussen 0 en P is en waar F 'n eenheidsvektor

is met dieselfde rigtlng as r.
is the distance between 0 and P, and where i' is a unit
vector with the same direction as r.

Dit is gerieffik om verplaslngs in terme van posisievek-
I tore te hanteer. In figuur 1.29 het ons byvoorbeeld vir
die verplaslng van P, (x',I/" zt} na Po (xo, 110, zo)
It is convenient to deal with dispiacements in terms of
position vectors. In Figure 1.29, we have the following
for the displacement from P, (X" 1/" z,) to p. (xo, 110, zo)

I waar where

I sodat
r, = x'x + I/,g + Z,%; ro = xox + I/og + ZO% ,
so that

I (1.31)

I
I
I
I Figuur 1.29

I Vergelyking (1.31) is natuurlik net 'n a1ternatiewe

manier om (l.la) te skryf.
Equation (1.31) is of course only an alternative way of
writing (1. la) .

I Voorbeelde Examples

I VI. 7.1 Vind die grootte van die verpiasing van

P,(-1,3,4) na Po(2,-3,2) sowel as die hoeke wat die
gerigte iynstuk "PiJ'. mw met die koordinastrigtings.
I OploSBing: In figuur 1.29 geld vir hierdie spesiale geval
VI. 7.1 Find the magnitude of the displacement from
P,(-1,3,4) to Po(2, -3, 2) as well as the angles that the
directed line segment '1{P; forms with the coordinate
directions.
Solution: In Figure 1.29, the following applies to this
special case

I r, = -x + 3g + 4Z;
Die verplasing word dan in komponentvorm gegee deur
r, = 2x - 30 + 2%.
The displacement is then given in component form by

I a:=PiJ'2=r.-rl =
=
{2-(-1)}x+{-3-3}0+{2-4}%
3x - 60 - 2%.

I 33

I
 I
I Die grootte van die verpiasing word verkry m.b.v.
(1.23a):
The magnitude of the dispiacement is obtained by means
of (1.23a):
,,= .,13' + (-6}' + (-2)' - 7

I Die rigtingskosinusse van a word verkry uit (1.23b): The direction cosines of a are obtained· from (1.23b):

I l = 7;
3
m
-6
= T; n =T
-2

I Die hoeke wat a maak met die positiewe X -, Y- en Z-

rigtings is dan
a = 64.62°; fj =149.00°; 'Y =106.60·.
The angles that a forms with the positive X, Y and Z
directions then are

I V1.'7.2 Vind, in komponentvorm, 'n eenheidsvektor

met dieselfde rigting as die posisievektor van die punt
VI. 7.2 Find, in component form, a unit vector with the
same direction as the position vector of point (2,1,-2).

I (2,1,-2).

Oplo•• ing: ana weet dat die posisievektor van 'n punt Solution: We know that the components of the position
se komponente gegee word deur die punt se koordinate. vector of a point is given by the coordinates of the point.

I 10 hierdle geval het Dna dus Therefore, in this case we have

I Die grootte van hierdie vektor volg onmlddeJik uit

r = 2:t + y - 22.

The magnitude of this vector follows immediately from

I (1.30):
r = .,12' + l' + (-2)' - 3
(1.30):

Uit definisie volg dan It follows from definition that

I r
f = r
I = - 2z)

I = G)H G)O- G) z.
I
Probleme Problems
I Pt. 7.1 Aan watter vereiste moet a en bvoldoen sodat P1.7.1 Which requirements must a and bmeet so that
a + book 'n eenheidsvektor is ? a + bis also a unit vector?
I Pl. 7.2 Los die vergelyking r = Cl,:t + a20 op vir '"
en '" as r 'n vektor met grootte 10 is wat in die eerste
PI. 7. 2 Solve the equation r = a,:t + ",11 for a, and Go
if r is a vector of magnitude 10, which is found in the
first quadrant of the XY plane and forms an angle of
I
kwadrant van die XY-vial< le en wat 'n hoek van 30·
met die positiewe X -rigting maak. 30· with the positive X direction.

I
I 34

I
I
I PI.7.3 Vind die groottes van die volgende vektore sowel
as die hoeke wat hulle maak met die kOOrdinaatrigtlngs:
P1.7.3 Find the magnitudes of the following vectors as
well as the angles that they form with the coordinate
(a) - 14% + tfi + 14£ directions:

I (b) - 3% +60 - 2£
(c) 8% - 8y + 14£
(a) - 14% + 7y + 14£
(b) - 3% +60 - 2Z
(c) 8% - 80 + 14Z

I PI.7.4 Die vektore a, b en e is respektlewelik die po-

sislevektore van die punte (3,-1,4), (-2,4,-3) en (1,2,-1).
PI. 7.4 Vectors a, b and e are the positive vectors of
points (3,-1,4), (-2,4,-3) and (1,2,-1) respectively. Find:
(a) 2a - b + 3e In component form,
Vlnd

I (a) 2a - b + 3e in komponentvorm,
(b) la+b+el,
(c) 13a - 2b + 4el en
(b) la+b'+el,
(c) 13a - 2b + 4el and
(d) a unit vector with the same direction as 3a - 2b +4e.
(d) 'n eenheidsvektor met dieselfde rlgtlng as 3a - 2b +
I 4c.
PI.7.5 'n Deeltjie word vanaf die punt (1,2,3) verplaas PI. 7.5 A particle is displaced from point (1,2,3) over a

I oor 'n afstand van 6 meter In 'n rigtlng waarvan die rigt-
Ingskosinusse gegee word deur -0.81, 0.32 en -0.49. Wat
Is die kOOrdinate van die endpunt van die verplasing ?
distance of 6 metres In a direction, the direction cosines
of which are given as -0.81, 0.32 and -0.49. What are
the coordinates of the end point of the displacement?

I PI.7.0 (a) Toon aan dat die vektore a = %- 2fi + 3£,

z
b = 3% + 4y - en e = -2% - 6y + 4£ die sye van 'n
PI. 7.6 (a) Show that vectors a =
% - 20 + 3£,
b = 3% + 4y - .. and c = -2% - 6y + 4.. can form

I
drleboek kan vorm. the sides of a triangle.
(b) Bereken die lengtes van die driehoek se mediane. (b) Calculate the lengths of the medians of the triangle.

PI.7.7 Vind die vergelykings van die reguit Iyn tussen P17.7 Find the equations of the straight line between

I die punte (2,3,-1) en (4,-2,0). points (2,3,-1) and (4,-2,0),

1.8SKALAARPRODUK 1.8 SCALAR PRODUCT

I 1.8.1 Definisie 1.8.1 Definition

I Die skalaarprod uk van twee vektore a en b word

aangedui deur a . b en word gedefinieer as die produk
van hulle groottes en die kosinus van die ldeinste hoek
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is indicated
by a· b and defined as the product of their magnitudes
and the cosine of the smallest angle between their for-

I tuss}",-hulle voorwaartse rigtings. Vir die twee vektore

wJt in figuur 1.30 voorgestel word, het ons dus
ward directions. Therefore, for the two vectors respre-
sented in Figure 1.30, we have

( 'Ia-.":"b-:-_-a7b-co-s71
el
I
(1.32)

I b

I
I
Figuur 1.30

I
I 35

I
I
I In die literatuur word dikweis na hierdie produk verwys
as die binne-produk, die dotproduk of die puntproduk.
Aidrie hierdie name mag voorkom in die res van die
In the literature, this product is often referred to as the
inner product, the dot product or the point product. All
three names may occur in the rest of this course.
kursus.
I 1.8.2 Spesiale gevalle 1.8.2 Special cases

I (a) Vir die skaiaarproduk van 'n vektor met homself

het ons
(a) For the scalar product of a vector with itself, we
have

I a·a= (G)(G)COS O· = G'.

I Hierdie produk word ook dikweis in die literatuur

aangedui as a' (If in geskrewe werk), sodat
This product is also often indicated in the litera-
ture as a' (11' in written work) so that

I a 2 :=a a=a2 .
o
(1.33)

I (b) Van definisie (1.32) voig onmiddelik dat die (b) It follows from definition (1.32) that the scalar
skaiaarproduk a· b gelyk aan nui is indien product a . b is equal to zero if

I a =0 M/or b =0 M/or a.L b. (1.34)

1 (c) As e en j twee eenheidsVektore is en 6 is die (c) If e and j are two unit vectors, and 6 is the angle

1 hoek tussen hulle voorwaartse rigtings, volg between their forward directions, it follows that

e· j = (1)(1) cos 6 = cos6. (1.35)

I
. (d) Vir die Cartesiese eenheidsvektore volg (d) It follows for the Cartesian unit vectors that

1 byvoorbeeld for instance

= (1)(1) cos O· = 1
1 ft· ft

en

I· ft· y = (1)(1) cos 90· = O.

1 Ons kan nou maklik al die moontlike skalaarpro-

dukte (tot op omruilings binne die skaiaarproduk)
Now we can easily write down all the possible
scalar products (up to interchanges within the

1 tussen die C&rtesiese eenheidsvektore neei-skryf: scalar product) between the Cartesian unit vec-
tors:

1 ft·ft=y·y=z·z=1
ft·y=ft·z=y·z=O
(1.36)

1 36

I
I
I (e) Vir die vektore a en il in figuur 1.24 het ons (e) Fbr vectors a and il in Figure 1.24, we have

I a· il = (0)(1) cos/l.

I Van definisie (1.19) volg dan onmiddelik It then follows from definition (1.19) that

I aoe=Oe o (1.37)

I 1.8.3 AIgebraiese Eienskappe van die

Ska1aarproduk
1.8.3 Algebraic Properties of the Scalar
Product

I (a) Die skalaarproduk is nie gesiote nle -10 definisie

(1.32) sien ons dat twee vektore deur middel van
(a) The scalar product is not closed- in definition
(1.32) we see that two vectors are mapped to a
die skalaarproduk op 'n skalaar afgebeeld word. scalar by means of the scalar product.

I (b) Die skalaarproduk is kommutatief - Omdat

skalare kommutatief is ten opsigte van ver-
(b) The scalar product is commutative - since
scalars are commutative regarding multiplication,
menigvuldiging, volg vir die vektore in figuur 1.30 it follows for the vectors in Figure 1.30 that
I
b· a = bac08/1 = abcos/l ,

I sodat so that

I b·a=a·b. (1.38)

I (c) Die skalaarproduk is assosiatief sover dit die pro-

duk van 'n skalaar en 'n vektor betref - Omdat
(c) The scalar product is associative with regard to
the product of a scalar and a vector - Since scalars
skalare 8880siatief sowel 88 kommutatief is ten op- are associative and commutative with regard to

I sigte van vermenigvuldiging, volg vir die vektore

in figuur 1.31
multiplication, it follows for the vectors in Figure
1.31 that

I (aa). (/fu) = (aa)(,Bb)cos/l = (a,B)(abcos/l).

I
I
I
I Figuur 1.31

I 37

I
 I
I OIlS men dus dat skalare wat voorkom in 'n
skalaarproduk, gemanipuleer kan word 880f hulle
We see therefore, that scalars that occur In a scalar
product can be manipulated as if they occur in a
voorkom in 'n produk van skalare: product of scalars:
I
(era) . (Ph) = (er13)a. b (1.39)

I
(d) Die skalaarproduk Is distributler - Van (1.21) (d) The scalar product is distributive - From (1.21),

I volg in figuur 1.32 dat it follows in Figure 1.32 that

=nc + bc•
I d,

I
I
I
I e
I Van (1.37) volg dan
Figuur 1.32

It then follows from (1.37) that

I
As ons vervolgens hierdie vergelyking met c ver-
I menigvuidig, kan ons dan die eienskap (c) hierbo gebruik
om die vergelyking te skryf in die volgende vorm:
If we multiply this equation by c, we can use property
(c) above to write the equation In the following form:

I d· (cC) =a· (cC) + b· (cC)

Aangeslen cC = c, volg die distributlwlteit van die Since cC =c, the distributivity of the scalar product
I skalaarproduk onmiddelik:
(a + b) . c = a· c + b· c
follows immediately:
(1.40)

I 1.8.4 SbJaarproduk in terme van die 1.8.4 Scalar product in terms of the com-
Komponente van Vektore ponents of vectors
I Ona OlDllkryf nou a· b in terme van die komponente van We now write a· b in terms of the components of a and· b
a en b deur die komponentvorm van belde Vektore In die by setting the componentlal form of both vectors in the

I skalaarproduk in te stel en dan gebruik te maak van die

eienskappe (1.38) tot (1.40) sowelas die skaiaarprodukte
(1.36):
scalar product, and by ueing properties (1.38) to (1.40)
. as well as scalar products (1.36):

I 38

I
I
I
I = (a.x). (b.x) + (a.x) . (b.g) + (a.x) . (b ... )
+(a.g) . (b.!) + (a.g) . (b.O) + (a.O) . (b... )

I +(a.£) . (b.!) + (a,i) . (b.O) + (a ... ) . (b ... )

= (a.b.)x· x + (a.b.)x ·0 + (a.b.)x ...

I +(a,b.)O· x + (a,b.)g '0 + (a.b.)O ...
+(a,b.)z· x + (a,b.)"·O + (a.b.)"·"

I = a.b.(l) + a. b. (0) + a.b.(O)

+a.b.(O) + a.b.(l) + a.b.(O)
+a,b.(O) + a.b.(O) + a,b.(l)
I Oos verkry hier 'n baie belangrike resultaat Here we obtain a very important result:

I (1.41)

Saam met definisie (1.32) stel hierdie resultaat ona nou Together with definition (1.32), this result enables us
I in staat om die hoeke tussen Iyne in die ruimte te bepaal
en om inderdaad 'n groot aantai meetkundige probleme
to determine the angles between the lines in the space
and to solve a large number of geometric problems in an
algebraic way.
op algebraiese wyse op te los.

I Voorbeelde Examples

I V1.S.1 As a =
a·b:
3x - 50 + 3.. en b = -2! + 0 + 2':, vlnd V1.S.1 If a =
a·b.
3x - 5y + 3.. and b = -2x + y + 2.. , find

I Oplo.sing: Van (1.41) volg Solution: From (1.41) we have

(3)(-2) + (-5)(1) + (3)(2)

I a· b =
= -6-5+6
= -5

I V1.S.2 Bepaal die komponent van a = 9x - 3y + 6£ in V1.S.2 Determine the component of a = 9x - 3y + 6..
die rigting van die vektor e = 4X + 2y - 4£. in the direction of vector e = 4X + 20 - 4...

I Oplo.sing: Ona bepaal eers 'n eenheidsvektor met die-

selfde rigting BOOS e:
Solution: We first determine a unit vector with the same
direction as e:

I e = J(4)' + (2)' + (-4)' - 6

en dus and hence

I e (2).
e• = e = 3 x + (1).
3 11 - (2).
3 z.
I Van (1.37) volg dan From (1.37) it then follows that:

I 39

I
I
I
I
= 6-1-4
I = 1.

VI.8.3 Vind die hoek wat die iyn tussen die punte VI.8.3 Find the angle which the line between the points
I (2,1,2) en (3,4,0) onderspan by die oorsprong. (2,1,2) and (3,4,0) spans at the origin.

OploBsing: Ons skryf eerstens a en b in flguur 1.33 in Solution: Firstiy, we write a and b in Figure 1.33 in

I komponentvorm: component form:

a=2:1:+0+2%; b=3z+40
I
I
I
I
I
Flguur 1.33
I Deur (1.32) en (1.41) te kombineer, het ons dan By combining (1.32) and (1.41), we then have

I cos9 =

I =
(2)(3) + (1)(4) + (2)(0)
(3)(5)

I =
2
3'

I en dus

9 =48.19·.
and hence

I
I
I 40

I
I
I Probleme
PI.8.1 Vlnd die skalaarproduk tussen die volgende vek-
Problems'
P1.8.1 Find the scalar product between the following

I tore:
(a) 3! - 50 - 2£ en -6! + 70 -
(b)!-20+3% enO-z
z
vectors:
(a) 3! - 50- 2z and -6!+ 70 - z
(b) ! - 20 + 3i and 0 - %
(c) U+O en2!-0 (c) 2! + ii and 2! - (;
I PI.8.2 Vind die hoeke tussen P1.8.2 Find the angles between:
z
(a) 2! - 3(; + and 2! - 60 ,
I (a) 2! - 30 + zen 2! - 60 ,
(b) die posisievektore van die punte met koordinate
(3,0,5) en (3,-2,-2) ,
(b) the position vectors of the points with coordinates
(3,0,5) and (3,-2,-2) ,
(c) die lyne AB en AC waar A, B en C die punte met (c) lines AB and AC where A, B and C are points

I koordinate (2,-1,3), (3,-2,7) en (1,-1,6) respektiewe1ik is

en
with coordinates (2,-1,3), (3,-2,7) and (1,-1,6) respec-
tivelyand
(d) die twee lynstukke met rigtingskosinusse a, h-!} (d) two line segments with direction cosines H, j,-H
n,i,n.
I en and {i,i,i}.

PI.8.S Vind die hoek tussen twee diagonale van 'n PI.8.S Find the angle between two diagonals of a cube.

I kubus.

PI.8.4 Skryf 2a+3b+4c as die skalaarproduk van twee P1.8.4 Write 2a + 3b + 4c as the scalar product of two '

I vektore.

a b)2
PI.8.S Toon aan dat ( a2 - b'
(a_b)2
= a2b'
vectors.

a' b)2
PI.8.S Show that ( a2 - b2
(a_b)'
= a2b'

I PI.8.6 Vind die komponente van 'n vektor met grootte
3 en wat gelyke hoeke maak met -!, -0 en
I P1.8.7 Toon aan dat die vektore a = 3! - 20 +
b = ! - 30 + 5£ en c = 2! + 0 - 4Z die sye van 'n
P1.8.6 Find the components of a vector with magni-
z. tude 3 which forms equal angles with -!, -0 en z.
z, P1.8.7 Show that vectors a = 3!-2!i+z, b = !-30+5£
and e = 2! + 0 - 4i form the side of a right-angled tri-

I
reghoekige driehoek vorm. angle.

P1.8.8 Vind, In komponentvorm, die projeksies van P1.8.8 Find, in component form, the projections of
a = ! - 20 + £ respektiewelik ewewydig aan en loodreg z
a = ! - 20 + respectively parallel and perpendicular

I op b = 4! - 40 + 1£. tob=4!-40+7Z.

PI.8.D Die hoekpunte van 'n driehoek het a, b en e as
I posisievektore. Toon aan dat die hoek 9 by die hoekpunt
met posislevektor e gegee word deur
P1.8.D The vertices of a triangle have a, b and c as
position vectors. Show that angle 9 at the vertex with
position vector c is given by

I cos 9 = :-:-_.,.-'-(a;",-_c.:.)..,'"..(b;",---,:.c!..,):-:---:-'"
j(a - c) . (a - c) (b - c) . (b - ell t

I PI.8.10 Daar is gegee dat e, j en e - j almal een- P1.8.10 It is given that e, j and e - j are all unit
heidsvektore is. Gebruik die skalaarproduk om verdere vectors. Use the scalar product to obtain further infor-

I Inligting oar e en j te bekom. e

mation about and j.

e- e en j e- e and I
I P1.8.11 Die vektor 21 het 'n grootte 2j
eenheidsvektore. Vlnd die hoek tilssen en f. e
is P1.8.11 Vector 21 has a magnitude of 2;
e
are unit vectors. Find the angle between and j.

I 41

I
I
I PI.8.12 Onder watter voorwaardes geld a· c = b . c ? P1.8.12 Under which conditions Is a· c =b . c true?
PI.8.13 As a = (a· b)b wat kan van b gese word? P1.8.13 If a = (a. b)b what could be said about b?
I PI.8.14 Vind die projeksie van r = 5:& + 20 - 3£ op P1.8.14 Find the projection of r = 5:&+ 20- 3£ on the
XY plane.
die XY-vlak.

I PI.8.U Die vektor ai-20+z Is loodreg op die vektor

:& - 20 - 3£. Vind B.
P1.8.15 The vector B:& - 2fj +
vector :& - 2y - 3£. Find B.
z is perpendicular to

I PI.8.16 Die vektore a+b en a-b Is loodreg op mekaar.

Gebruik die skalaarproduk om 'n gevolgtrekking te
P1.8.16 Vectors a+ band a- b are perpendicular to
each other. Use the scalar product to reach a conclusion

I maak oor die groottes van a en b.

PI.8.1 T Vind die projeksie van 6:& - 6ji - n

about the magnitudes of a and b.

P1.8.1 T Find the projection of 6:& - 6y - 7Z

(a) op die Y-as en (a) on the Y axis and
I (b) op 3ji - 4Z. (b) on 3fj - 4Z.

PI.8.18 'n Eenheldsvektor e maak hoeke van 45·, 60· P1.8.18 Unit vector e forms angles of 45·, 60· and
I en 120· respektiewelik met die X -, Y- en Z-asse. Vind
die e-komponent van die vektor :& - fj - £.
120· with the X, Y and Z axes respectively. Find the
e component of vector :& - fj - z.
I P1.8.19 Gebruik die skalaarproduk om die kosinusreel
te bewys.
P1.8.19 Use the scalar product to prove the cosine
rule.

I P1.8.20 Bewys dat 'n deursnit van 'n sirkel 'n regte
hoek onderspan by enige punt op die sirkel se omtrek.
P1.8.20 Prove that an angle inscribed in a semi-circle
is a right angle. .

I PI.8.21 ABCD Is 'n parallelogram. Thon aan dat

A11' + 1KJ' + ?J15' + 75A' = All' + 1J15'.
P1.8.21 ABCD is a parallelogram.
A11' + 7KJ' + ?JJJ' + 1JA' = All' + 7J15' .
Show that

= P1.8.22 Prove the identity costa - 13) = cos a cos 13 +

I Pl.8.22 Bewys die identiteit cos(a-i3) cos a cos 13+
sin a sin 13 deur gebruik te maak van die skalaarproduk
tussen twee eenheidsvektore in die XY-vlak.
sin a sin 13 by using the scalar product between two unit
vectors in the XY plane.

I Pl.8.23 Vind die kortste afstand tussen die punt

(4,6,-4) en die lyn tussen die punte (2,2,1) en (4,3,-1).
P1.8.23 Find the shortest distance between point
(4,6,-4) and the line between points (2,2,1) and
(4,3,-1).

I
I
I
I
I
I 42

I
I
I 1.9VEKTORPRODUK
1.9.1 Defl.nisie
1.9 VECTOR PRODUCT
1.9.1 Definition

I Die vektorproduk van a en b word aangedul deur a x b

en is 'n vektor waarvan
(a) die grootte die produk is van a en b se groottes en
I die sinus van die ldeinste hoek tussen hulle voorwaartse
rigtings en
(b) die rigting 8008 volg wsgeste1 word: Indlen die spi-
The vector product of a and b is indicated by a x b Wld
it is a vector, which has
(a) its magnitude as the product of the magnitudes of a
and b and the sine of the smallest angle between their
forward directions, and
(b) a direction that is established as follows: if the spiral

I raalgedee1te van 'n kurktrekker loodreg op belde a en

b geplaas word en die handvatse1 van die kurktrekker
word langs die kortste pad ...... a na b gedraa1, be-
weeg die spiraslgedee1te in die rigting van a X b.
I In llguur 1.34, waar a en b beide in die vlak van die
part of a corkscrew is placed perpendicular to both a
and b and the handle of the corkscrew is turned along
the shortest route from a to b, the spiral part moves
in the direction ofax b.
In Figure 1.34, where a and b both lie on the plWle of

I bladsy l@ en /l loodreg u1t die bladsy gerig is, het ons

dUB
the page, and iI is directed perpendiculary out of the
page, we therefore have

I (1.42)
I
la x b:= absin9i1

I b

I
I n"

I a
Figuur 1.34

I Dit is bale be1angrik om te let op die rol wat die vol-
gorde van die vektore in die vektorproduk vul: By
I die bepaling van die rigting van die produk word die
kurktrekker se handvatse1 gedraai vanaf die vektor wat
eerste voorkom in die produk na die vektor wat laaste
It is very important to note the role that the order of
the vectors plays in the vector product: when estab-
lishing the direction of the product, the handle of the
corkscrew is rotated from the vector that occurs first
in the product to the vector that occurs last.

I daarin voorkom.

1.9.2 Spesiale gevalle 1.9.2 Special cases

I (a) Vir twee parallelle of antiparalle1le vektore soos in
IIgnur 1.35 geld
(a) For two parallel or antiparallel vectors, as in Fig-
ure 1.35, the following applies

I la X bl = obsinO· = 0 M/or la x bl = ab sin 180· = 0 ,

I en dus Wld hence

I 43

I
I
I a xb = O. (1.43)

I
b
1 10'
>
l
180
0

ii
1 b Cl

1 Flguur 1.35

I 'n Speslale geval hlervan Is

ax a= O.
A special case of this is

(1.44)

1 (b) Vir die Cartesiese eenheidsvektore, wat getoon (b) For the Cartesian unit vectors, shown in Figure
word in figuur 1.36, het ona van (1.44) dat enige 1.36, we know from (1.44) that any vector prod-
1 vektorproduk van twee identiese eenheidsvektore
gelyk Is aan die nulvektor. Vir twee versklllende
uct of two identical unit vectors is equal to the null
vector. For two different vectors we for instance
have
vektore het ona byvoorbeeld
1
z x y = (1)(1) sin 90· z.
I
1
1 0·';----4>"

1 Figuur 1.36

1 Ona stel makllk al die moontlike onderlinge vektorpro-

dukte (tot op omruilings binne die produk) tussendie .
We can easily establish all the possible mutual vector
products (up to interchanges within the product) be-

1 drie eenheidsvektore vas: tween the three unit vectors:

zxz=O yxy=O zxi=O

1 .zxy=z yxz=z zxz=y (1.45)

1
I 44

I'
I
I 1.9.3 Algebraiese Eienskappe van die Vek-
torproduk
1.9.3 Algebraic Properties of the Vector
Product

I (a) Die vektorproduk is geslote: Die vektorproduk

van twee vektore is van definlsie op sy beurt 'n
(a) The vector product is closed: The vector product
of two vectors is by definition also a vector.
vektor.
I (b) Die vektorproduk is antikommutatlef: Vir die
vektore in figuur 1.34 volg ult die definlsie (1.42)
(b) The vector product is anticommutative: From
definition (1.42) follows for the vector in Figure

I
1.34 that

b x a = ba sin 9(-fi) .

I
Ona het dUB die bultengewone eienskap van die Therefore, we have the extraordinary property of

I vektorproduk dat die omruiling van die twee vek-

tore wat daarin voorkom, die teken van die produk
verander:
the vector product that the interchange of the two
vectors which occurs in it, changes the sign of the
product:

I (1.46)

I Dit is duldeJik dat ona voortaan kennis moet It is obvious that we shall have to take note of
neem van die volgorde van vektore wat voorkom the order of the vectors that occur in the vec-

I in die vektorproduk. In die besonder sien Dna

dat as Dna byvoorbeeJd in die vierde verband in
(1.45) die omgekeerde volgorde gebruik het, sou
tor product. If we had used the reverse order in
the fourth relation in (1.45), we would have had
fj xx = -z. [Verify that this result is also obtained
ona gehad het Y x x = -t. [Verifieer self dat
I hierdie resultaat ook direk ult definlsie (1.42)
volg.]
directly from definition (1.42).]

I (c) Die vektorproduk is assosiatief m.b.t. ver-

menigvuldiging met skalare: In figuur 1.37 het Dna
dat
(c) The vector product is associative with regard
to multiplication with scalars: In Figure 1.37, we
have

I (aa) x (.81» = (aa)(,8b)sin9fi = (a,8)absin9fi,

I
I
I
I
Flguur 1.3'7
I
I 45

I
I
I waar ons die eienskappe van die produk van 'n
skalaar en 'n vektor in die laaste stap gebrulk het.
where we used the properties of the product of a
scalar and a vector in the last step. The associa-
Die assosiatiwiteit 800S hierbo beskryf, volg on- tivity, as described above, follows immediately:
I middelik:

I (aa) X (1Th) = (aj3)a X b (1.47)

I (d) Die vektorprodukte met a (se) van vektore waar-

van die projeksies loodreg op a identies is, is
gelyk: In figuur 1.38 le a en b in die vlak van
(d) The vector products with a (for instance) of vec-
tors of which projections perpendicular to a are
identical, are equal. In Figure 1.38, a and b lie
die bladsy, n wys loodreg uit die bladsy, en bol is in the plane of the page, n points perpendicularly
I die projeksie van b loodreg op a. Dan volg out ofthe page, and bJ. is the projection of b per-
pendicular to a. It then follows that

I a X b = a(bsin9)1I = albolllI = albollsin90oll,

I en dus and hence

a X b = a X bol . (1.48)
I
I
I
I
a
I
Flguur 1.38

I
Vir vektor c volg dan byvoorbee1d For vector c, it then follows that

I a x c = a x Col = a X bol = a X b .

I (e) Die vektorproduk is distributief: Ons wil nou

aantoon dat
(e) The vector product is distributive: We now want
to show that

I a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c. (1.49)

I
I 46

I
I
I BoeweI.hierdie eipnskilpvan die vektolp>odukBet
8008 dill vir die prodllk van skaiare 4aK. Wi&len, Iaeka juR like
properties of the the vector product
of the product of scalars, in
Is 4il In die IIg vU dle aatlkommutatiwiteit van view of antlcommutatlvlty of the vector product,
I die veIaorproduk bale belaogr1k om te let op die
'volsa.des In 1.49: Die pare {." b} en {a, c} kom
IndhaeWe volgorde voor &an beide Iamte van die
It is verr important to note the orders in 1.49:
the pairs {a, b} and {a, c} occur In the same or-
der on both sides of the equation.

1-"'-' ... ;50".

(l)Ou Wcm tlIII'II _dill (1.49) pW.,.,AIIl""'g!e (I) E\rsi, 'MI *.._is perpendicular
QM {1.4Qt.appIles the special
in
geva\ waar a is op beide b en c.. Soos case to both b and c. As

I getooD In l.3S1lt b en·c daD altwee In die

.op a li:"1r"et
_1iIJiUDr
wotd deqr 4\Il
'p1a.:rt, l1t.!.!B\iiis pup........,......
WIIlcn
e
to
ue
a. As In
both InFthe S
1.12, b + i: CIIII be rePrI!8lIDted by the dlagoila1. of
igure

"rI:,. lIIftCIiIIi'II tilt malA ea waatvan die a p&ra1leIOgram, whiCh Ues;m S; the sides of which
I 'f'IIIl
tu
... £ !& . • , 'epd ! ' hJlDll c respectlwly.
The mapitudes of the products that occur in

I (i:49) 'QILIl now be written as follows:

I la X bl = ab sin 90° =albl

la X cl = GC sin 90° = aiel
lax (b+c)1 - alb+clsln90o=alb+cl
I
contain a and

I gpaJa. ....
prqdukte verkry word,
vektore
alm8i in
1&. Die vektore b, c en b + c word dus in ef- r .
b, c.
all the vectors
plrOd11cts also Ue in S.
+ c are in effect ro-
fekiJiiji"DW'IiiS geiOteer en met 'Ji'FiJitQr a vel"- tateG,tIlfougb, 90° In S rmd increased in magnitude
I groat, !)It bet' 'qlat a x (b + c) die cItagooaal is
van 'n pal'aUeUogram met B)'8 a X b en a x c. Die
bye. factor o. 'Tbls means that a x (b + c) is the
diagoIIaI of a parallelogram. with sides a x b and
vektoraoni in (1.49)volg dan onm1ddellk. a x c. The vector sum in' (1.49) follows immedi-

I ately.

I
I
I
I
I ......
I Figuur 1.39

I 47

I
... :
I
I (11) OIls toon DOU &aD dat (1.49) oak geld In die al-
geval. Scioa ptoon In flguur 1.40 lean ons
(iI) Now we show that (1.49) also applles in general.
gemeD8 A. shown in Figure 1.40, we can regard b and

I bene belde beskou BB die BOm van hul respek-

tleweIIke projekslee Ioodreg op a (&aDgedul deur
die voetakrIf .I.) en ewewydlg &aD a (B&Dgedui deur
c both as the Bum of their respective projections
perpendicular to a (indicated by' the subscript .I.)
and parallel to a (indicated by the Bubscript It),
die voetakrIf 11)' cLw.s. i.e.
I
b =b.l. +blti c = C.I. +clt·
I BerikQu, !JOY Consider

I d :=
=
b+c
(b.l. + C.l.) + (bit + clt)
= d.l.+dlt,

I where d.l. = b.l. + C.I. and dll = bit + clt are respectively
the projections of d perpendicular and parallel to a.

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 1.40

I Van (1.48) wig clan It follows from (1.48) that

aX d = ax d.l.
I = a x (b.l. + C.I.)

In die laaste uitdrukklng kom daa.r nou die BOm voor
I van twee vektore wat belde loodreg op a Is. In (i) het
ons reeds gesIen dat die dIstrIbutlwitelt van die vektor-
produk welln so 'D geval geld, en met behulp van (1.48)
In the last expression we Bee the Bum of two vectors
that are both perpendicular to a. In (i) we saw that
the distributivity of the vector product ·iB valid in such
a case, and with the help of (1.48) we show that (1.49)

I toon ons clan &aD dat (1.49) In die algemene geval geld: applies in general:

a x (b + c) =
I =
a X d
axb.l.+axc.I.
= axb+axc

I 48

I
I
1.9.4 Komponentvorm van die Vektorpro- 1.9.4 Component form of the Vector
I duk Product
Ona omskryf nou a x b In tenne van die komponente van We now write a x b in terms of the components of a and

I a en b deur die komponentvorm van beide vektore in die

vektorproduk In te ste! en dan gebruik te maak van die
eienakappe (1.46) tot (1.48) BOwel 88 die vektorprodukte
b by introducing the component form of both vectors
into the vector product and then using characteristics
(1.46) 88 well 88 the vector products (1.45):

I (1.45):

I = (a.t) x (b.t) + x (b.O) + (a.t) x (b.i)

I +(a.O) x (b.t) + (a.O) x (b.O) + (a.O) x (b.i)

+(a.i) x (b.t) + (a,£) x (b.O) + (a,£) x (b,i)

I =

I = a.b.O + a.b." + a.b,( -ii)

+a.b. (-i) + a.b.O + a.b,x
I +a,b.O + a,b.( -x) + a,b.O

I Ona versamel vervolgens respektiewelik die terme in

oen z om dan die vektorproduk In komponentvonn te
skryf:
x, We then collect the terms in x, z
0 and respectively in
order to write the vector product In component form:

I (1.50)

I 'n Gerieflike manier om hierdie resuitaat te onthou, is

deur dit In die vonn van 'n 3 x 3-determinant te skry£:
A convenient way of remembering this result is by writ-
ing it In the form of a 3 x 3 determinant:

I axb =
x 0 ..
0 21 ar
b. b. b.
Q. (1.51)

I [Die determinant is 'n begrip uit die lineere algebra. 'n

3 x 3- Matrlks C is 'n wiskundige entiteit met nege
[The determinant is a concept from linear algebra. A 3 x
3 matrix C is a mathematical entity with nine elements

I elemente wat S008 voig georden is: ordered as follows:

I
Cll
C =( C.I
C31

I
I
I 49

I
I
(Ons let op <!at C/J die element In die i-te ry en j-te (Note that CiJ is the element in the i-th row and j-
I kolom is.) Die determinant van hierdie matriks word
dan soos volg aangedui en gedefinieer:
th column.) The determinant of this matrix is then
denoted and defined as follows:

I det C =
Cll
Col
C12
Co.
C13
Cos

I
CS1 CS2 Css

= CnCo.css + C'2C2SC31 + C,SCo,CS.

I -Cn C2sCS2 - ClSC22CSl - C12C:11 C33

Die 3 x 3-matriks is natuurlik net 'n speslale geval van The 3 x 3 matrix is of course only a special case of a
I 'n n x n-matriks.] n X n matrix.]

Soortgelyk aan die geval van die Bksiaarproduk, kan As in the case of the scalar product, (1.46) and (1.51)

I (1.46) en (1.51) saam gebruik word om meetkundige

probleme op te los, vera! in gevalle waar die sinusver-
houdings van hoeke ter sprake is.
can be used together to solve geometric problems, es-
pecially in cases where the sine relations of angles are
used.

I Examples
Voorbeelde
I V1.9.1 Vind, In komponentvonn, 'n eenheidsvektor
loodreg op belde a = £ - Y+ 3% en b = -z - %.
V1.9.1 Find, in component fonn, a unit vector perpen-
= =
dicular to both a £ - iJ + 3£ and b -z - z.
I OpIoB.ing: Ons weet dat c := a X b loodreg op beide
a en b is, en dat c = 'n eenheidsvektor met dieselfde
Solution: We know that c := a x b is perpendicular to
both a and b, and that c= is a unit vector with the
c
c
same direction as c. We first calculate c by the use of
I
rigting SOOB C is. Ons bereken eers C m.b.v. (1.51):
(1.51):

I c=axb =
£
1 -1
Y
3
%
-1 0-1
I
= [(-1)(-1) - (0)(3)]H [(3)(-1) - (1)(-1)]Y + [(1)(0) - (-1)(-1)]£
I = £-2y-%

I Die grootte van c word verkry uit (1.23a), The magnitude of c is obtained from (1.238)

Jp + (-2)2 + (-1)' = v'6 ,

I en dus
c=
and hence

I
I
'I 50

I
 I
V1.9.2 Bereken die oppervlaktes van 'n drlehoek en 'n V1.9.2 Calculate the areas of a triangle and a parallel-

I parallellogrBln m.b. v. die vektorproduk. ogram with the help of the vector product.

I
I
a:
I Flguur 1.41

I OploBBing: In figuur 1.41 volg vir die oppervlakte van

die parallellogram,
Solution: In Figure 1.41, it follows for the area of the
parallelogram that

I Sp = Ilh
= Ilbsln8

I en vir van die drlehoek,

= lax bl,
and for that of the triangle

I 1
Sd = -ck
2

I =
I 1
= 21c x dl·
I V1.9.3 Vind die kortBte afstand van (6,-4,4) na die lyn
tussen (2,1,2) en (3,-1,4).
V1.9.3 Find the shortest distance from (6,-4,4) to the
line between (2,1,2) and (3,-1,4).

I OploBling: In figuur 1.42 volg het ons vir die kortste

afstand tllSSl!n R en PQ,
Solution: In Figure 1.42, we have for the shortest di...
tance between R and PQ,

I
I b

I
I
I Figuur 1.42

I 51

I
I
I h
1
= hin9 = -(absin9)
a
1
= -la
a
x bl

I Ons bereken hlerdle hoeveelheid m.b.v. (1.1) en (1.51): We calculate this quantity with the help of (1.1) and
(1.51):

I sodat
en b=n=4%-5D+2z
so that

a= ';1 2 +(-2)2+2 2 -3 m
I en and

I ax b = 1 -2
0 £
2
4 -5 2
I
.
I Die gevraagde afstand is dan The required distance then is

I h = + 60 + 3£1

I = :'';62 + 62 + 32
3
= 3m
I Probleme Problems

I P1.9.1 As a
(i) a x b ,
(il) b x a en
= - 3D - z en b = + 4D - 2%, vind P1.9.1 IT a
(i) a x b ,
(ii) b x a and
= 2x - 30 - £ and b = + 4Ji - 2£, find

(ill) (a + b) x (a - b) .
I PI.9.2 As a = - D+ 2%, b = 2x + 0 - £ en
(iii) (a + b) x (a - b) .

P1.9.2 IT a = 3x - 0 + 2%, b = 2x + Ii - £ and

c = - 20 + 2%, vind c = - 2Ji + 2£, find
I (i) (a x b) x c en
(il) a x (b x c) .
(i) (a x b) X c and
(ii) a x (b x c) .

I PI.9.3 Bewys, deur definisies te gebruik, dat

(a x b) . (a x b) = (a. a)(b. b) - (a· b) (a . b).
P1.9.3 Use definitions to prove that
(a x b) . (a x b) = (a· a)(b . b) - (a. b)(a. b).

I P1.9.4 Vind 'n vektor ewewydig aa.n die XY-vlak en

loodreg op die vektor 4% - 30 + z.
P1.9.4 Find a vector parallel to the XY plane and per·
pendicular to vector 4x - 3i1 + £.

I P1.9.5 Vind die oppervlak van die driehoek met

hoekpunte (1,3,2), (2,-1,1) en (-1,2;3).
PL9.5 Find the area of a triangle with vertexes (1,3,2),
(2,-1,1) and (-1,2,3).

PI.9.6 Bewys die sinusreel vir driehoeke deur gebrulk PL9.6 Prove the sine rule for triangles by using the
I te mask van die vektorproduk. vector product.

I 52

I
I
PI.D.7 Vereenvoudig die volgende twee ultdrukklngs: P1.D.7 Simplify the following two expressions:

I (I) (a· b)' + (a X b)'

(il) (a. b)' - (a X b)'
(I) (a· b)' + (a X b)'
(il) (a. b)' - (a X b)'

I PI.D.8 Die vektor r le in die XY-vlak en bevredig die

verge\yldng! x r = z. Beskryf die lokus van die punte
waarvoor r 'n posisievektor is.
PI.D.8 Vector r lies in the XY plane and satisfies the
equation ! x r = z. Describe the locus of the points for
which r is a position vector.

I PI.D.D Bewys die identiteit sin (a - (J) = sin a cos {J -

cos a sin {J deur gebrulk te maak van die vektorproduk
van twee eenheidsvektore in die XY -vlak.
=
PI.D.D Prove the Identity sin(a - (J) sinacos{J-
cos a sin {J by using the vector product of two unit vec-
tors in the XY plane.

I PI.D.IO Vereenvoudig (a + b). [(b + c) x (c + all. P1.D.IO Simplify (a + b). [(b + c) x (c + all.

I 1.10 MEERVOUDIGE PRODUKTE 1.10 MULTIPLE PRODUCTS

I Aangesien b x c 'n vektor is, kan dit op sy beurt in 'n

skalaarproduk of 'n vektorproduk voorkom, sodat meer-
voudige produkte dan gevorm word. Ons bespreek ver-
voigens twee soorte meervoudige produkte, nI. produkte
I van die vorm a· (b x c) Cn skalaar-drieproduk genoem)
en a X (b x c) ('n vektor-drieproduk genoem).
Since b x c is a vector, It can occur in a scalar prod-
uct or in a vector product, so that multiple products
are formed. We shall now discuss two types of multiple
product, viz. products of the form a . (b x c) from (a
scalar triple product) and a x (b x c) (a vector triple
product).

I 1.10.1 Die SkaJaar-drieproduk 1.10.1 The Scalar Triple Product

Omdat (a· b) x c geen betekenis het nie, kan a· (b xc) Because (a. b) x c has no significance, a· (b x c) can be
I ondubbelsinnlglik geskryf word as a . b x c. written unambiguously as a· b x c.

'n Meetkundige betekenls kan aan die skalaar- A geometric significance can be given to the scalar

I drieproduk geheg word. In figuur 1.43 word die drie-

dimensionele figuur getoon waarvan die sye die vektore
a, b en c voorstel. Elke paar teenoorstaande vlakke
triple product. Figure 1.43 is a three-dimensional fig-
ure, the sides of which are represented as vectors a, b
and c. Each pair of opposite planes of the figure are in
van die figuur is met ander woorde identlese parallel- other words identical parallelograms spanned by two of
I logramme wat gespan word deur twee van die vektore
a, b en c. Daar word na h1erdie figuur verwys as 'n
the vectors a, b and c. This figure is referred to as a
parallelepiped.
paralleleplpedum.

I
I ,,
.,
I " ,
,,
11 ,
,
I
---- ----_.
I .. 1-··· c .
b

I Flguur 1.43

I
I 53

I
I
Uit mel!tkundige oorwegings is dit bekend dat die vol- We know from geometric considerations that the volume
I ume V8J:l die parallelepipedum gegee word deur die pro-
duk van die oppervlakte S van die basis met die lood-
of the parallelepiped is given by the product of the area
S of the base with the perpendicular height h.. We also
regte hoogte h. Verder het ons in V1.9.2 gesien dat ons saw in V1.9.2 that we can write S as Ib x cl. Therefore,

I S kan omskryf as Ib x cl. Die volume van die figuur is

dus
the volume of the figure is

I v =
=
Sh
Ib x cl(ac08/1)
= Ib x cl(a. 11)
I = Ob xciII) . a .

I Aangesien b x c ewewydig 6f teengesteld &an 11 is (Iaasge-

in die geval waar b en c omgeruil is in figuur
1.43), het ons dan
Since b x c is parallel or opposed to 11 (the latter n the
case where b and c are interchanged in Figure 1.43), we
have

I V=±a·bxc,
6f or

I v = la·b x cl. (1.52)

I Maar nou volg uit figuur 1.43 dat a, b en c in

enige volgorde kan voorkom in (1.52), en dus sal
twee ska!aar-drieprodukte waarin hierdie drie vektore
But it follows from Figure 1.43 that a, b and c may oc-
cur in any order in (1.52). Therefore, two scalar triple
products in which three vectors occur will differ at the
voorkom hoogetens met 'n teken versld!. Ona kan
I die onderllnge verband tussen die ses moontlike skalaar-
drieprodukte waarin a, b en c voorkom, vasstel deur
most by a sign. We can establish the mutual relation
between the six possible scalar triple products in which
a, b and c occur by first applying (1.51) in a· b x c,
eera (1.51) in a· b x c toe te pas,
I
x 0 ..
I It· b x c = (a.x + a.O + a.z)· b. b. b.
Cz er

I en daatna (1.41): and then (1.41):

/
a: all a,a::
I a .b x c = b.
c:
b.
ea,
b.
Col
(1.53)

I Die onderlinge verbande tUBsen die skalaar-drieprodukte

wat a, b en c bevat, volg nou uit 'n welbekende
The mutual relations between the scalar triple products
that contain a, b and c follows from a well-known sym-
Bimm"trie-eienskap van die determinant, een wat metry property of the determinant, one that is easily

I maklik uit die definiaie van die determinant ingesien

word: lndien die elemente van enige twee rye in die de-
terminant omgeruil word, verander die teken van die
obtained from the definition of the determinant: if the
elements of any two rows in the determinant are in-
terchanged, the sign of the determinant changes. For

I determinant. Vi'r die drieproduk in (1.53) impliseer dit

dat die teken daarvan verander indien enige twee .
vektote In die produk omgeruil word. Hieruit volg
the triple product in (1.53), this implies that its sign
changes if any two vectors In the product are In-
terchanged. The following follows from this:
onmiddelik die volgende:
I
I 54

I
I
I a·bxc =c·axb=b·cxa
=-a·cxb =-b·axc=-c·bxa
(1.54)

I Ons sien dat 'n ander manier om bogenoemde

simmetrie-eienskap van die skalaar-drleproduk te stel,
We see that another way of describing the above symme-
try property ofthe scalar triple product is that a· b x c

I is dat a· b x c invariant is t.o.v. omruiling van die x

en die . operasies.
is invariant with regard to the interchange of the x
and the . operations.

I Die meetkundlge interpretasie wat aan die skalaar-

drieproduk gebeg word, stel ons in staat om 'n baie be-
langrike gevolgtrekking te maak: Die skalaardrieproduk
a . b x c is gelyk aan nul indien
I (1) a, b, c saamvlakkig is 6f.
(2) indien enige twee van die drie vektore veelvoude is
van mekaar 6f
The geometric interpretation attached to the scalar
triple product enables US to reach a very important con-
clusion: the scalar triple product a . b x c is equal to
zero if:
(1) a, b, c are coplanar or
(2) any two of these three vectors are multiples of each
other or

I (3) indien enlge twee van die drie vektore gelyk is.
[GevaUe (2) en (3) is natuurlik net spesiale gevalle van
(1), maar dit is nogtans goed om hulle uit te BOnder.]
(3) any two of these three vectors are equal.
[Naturally, cases (2) and (3) are only special cases of
(1), but it is still good to point them out.]

I Laasgenoemde eienskappe van die skalaar-drIeproduk, The latter properties of the scalar triple product as well
sowel as die voorskrlf (1.53) vir die berekening daarvan, as prescription (1.53) for the calculation thereof enable

I stel ons nou in staat om veral meetkundige probleme

waarln plat vlakke ter sprake kom, op 'n algebraiese
wyse op te los.
us to solve geometric problems invoiving planes in an
algebraic w a y . · '

I Voorbeelde Examples

I VI.IO.I Bereken a x b . c waar a = £

-2X - g + 3£ en c = 3£ - g - 3£.
+ g + £, b = V1.10.1 Calculate a x b . c where a = £
b = -2£ - g + 3£ and c = 3£ - g - 3£.
+ 0 + i,

Oplo88ing: Ons mw gebruik van die simmetriee in Solution: We use the symmetries in (1.54) and result
I (1.54) en die resultaat (1.51): (1.51):

I axb·c = a·bxc

I =
1
-2
3
1
-1
-1
1
3
-3

I = 14

I
I
I
I 55

I
I
V1.l0.2 Vind die vergelyking van die plat vlak deur V1.l0.2 Find the equation of the plane through

I Q(3,-1,2), 5(1,-1,-3) en T(4,-3,1). Q(3,-1,2), 5(1,-1,-3) and T(4,-3,1).

I
I
I
I Flguur 1.44

I Oplossing: In figuur 1.44 word die piat vlak getoon

waardeur .t.Q5T bevat word; P(x, 1/, z) is 'n wiUekeurige
Solution: In Figure 1.44 the fiat plane is shown by which
triangle f::.Q5T is contained; P(x, 1/, z) is an arbitrary

I punt in die vlak. Die vergeiyking van die vlak is die al-
gebraiese verband tussen x, 1/ en z, en ona kan hierdie
verband vasstel deur daarop te let dat (byvoorbeeld)
die vektore p, s en t saamvlakkig is. Ona skryf dus eers
I hierdie drle vektore in komponentvorm,
point in the plane. The equation of the plane is the alge-
braic relation between x, 1/ and z, and we can establish
this relation by noting that (for instance) vectors p, s
and t are coplanar. Therefore, we first write these three
vectors in component form,

I p
s
=
=
ijJ5 = (x - 3)x + (1/ + 1)71+ (z - 2)£
QS=-2x-5£
t = QT=x-20-1£,
I waarna ons eis dat after which we demand that

I
/
o = p·sxt

I =
x-3 1/+1 z-2
-2
1
o -5
-2 -1

I = 0 - 5(1/ + 1) +4(z - 2) - 0 - lO(x - 3) - 2(1/ + 1) .

I Die vergelyking van die plat vlak is dus

10x + 71/ - 4z = 15 .
Therefore, the equation of the plane is

I Probleme Problems

I Pl.IO.l Bereken (2x - 30) . (x +0 - £) x (3x - i). P1.10.1 Calculate (2x - 30) . (x + 0 - i) x (3x - i).

P1.10.2 Bereken die volume van die parallelepipedum P1.10.2 Calculate the volume of the parallelepiped

I =
met sye a = 2x-3y+4i, b = x+2y-£ en c 3x-y+2i. with sides a =
c = 3x -0 + 2£.
2x - 30 +4£, b =
x + 2i} - £ and

I 56

I
I
I P1.10.3 Bepaal die konstante p sodat die vektore
2! - 0 + i, %+ 20 - 3£ en 3% + PO + 5£ saamvlakkig
is.
P1.10.3 Determine the constant p so that vectors
2% - 0 + i, % + 2jj - 3£ and 3% + PO + 5i are copla-
nar.

I P1.10.4 Vind die volume van die tetraeder waarvan

die hoekpunte van die basis (-2,6,0), (3,2,1) en (0,0,5)
P1.10.4 Find the volume of a tetrahedron, the vertexes
of the base of which are (-2,6,0), (3,2,1) and (0,0,5) and
is en waarvan die toppunt by die oorsprong is. (Wenk: the apex of which is at the origin. (Hint: volume =

I Volume=!basisoppervlaktexhoogte) i base area x height)

P1.10.5 As a = b= P1.10.5 If a = >'11+ vln, b = >'21+

I en c = >.,,1 + + Van, toon aan dat and c = >'31 + + van, show that,

>'1 Vi

I a·bxc= >'.
>."
Vs
Vs
(I· m x n) .

I P1.10.6 Bereken die kortste afstand tussen die oor-

sprong en die vlak wat die punte (3,-2,-1), (1,3,4) en
(2,1,-2) bevat.
P1.10.6 Calculate the shortest distance between the
origin and the plane that contains points (3,-2,-1),
(1,3,4) and (2,1,-2).

I P1.10.T Gegee die punte P(3,2,1), Q(I, 1, 2),

R(-2, -1, -2) en 5(0,1, -4), bereken die kortete af-
P1.10. T Given the points P(3, 2,1), Q(I, 1,2),
R(-2,-I,-2) and 5(0,1,-4), calculate the shortest
stand tUBBen lyne PQ en R5. distance between lines PQ and R5.
I 1.10.2 Die Vektor-drieproduk 1.10.2 The Vector Triple Product

I Beskou ons die vektor-drieproduk a x (b x c), ontstaan

die vraag onmiddellk of die volgorde waarin ons die twee
vektorprodukte bereken belangrik is, dit wil se of ons
I ook die produk sou kon skryf as (a x b) x c. Ten einde
die vraag te beantwoord, maak ons soos getoon in figuur
1.45 'n definitiewe keuse van 'n verwysingsteisel: Die
If we consider the vector triple product a x (b x c), we
ask ourselves immediately whether the order in which we
calculate the two vector products is important or not,
i.e. whether or not we could also write the product as
(a X b) x c. To be able to answer this question, we make
a definite choice - as shown in Figure 1.45 - of reference

I Y -as word in dieselfde rigting soos b gekies en die X-as

word s6 gekies dat c in die XY-vlak le. Vektor a se
orientasie is dan willekeurig.
system: the Y axis is chosen in the same direction as b
and the X axis is chosen 80 that c lies in the XY plane.
Vector a's orientation is then arbitrary.

I
I , ,
bxc , '/-
: -.=c--- -

I , , ,
,. ,
.
,. I
I
I
, , , "
, '
"

,
,I
I
/
, , I
'_"'/ 0
,__ _. -. - 0 --). y
,
,,
I
I Figuur 1.45

I 57

I
 I
I Aangesien b x c van definisle loodreg op beide b en c
is, is dit gerig in die positiewe Z-rigting. Die vektore a
Since b x c is perpendicular to b and c by definition,
it is directed in the positive Z direction. Vectors a and
en b x c le dus In 'n vial< wat loodreg op die XY -vial< b x c therefore lie in a plane that stands perpendicular
I staan en enige Iyn loodreg hierop sal ewewydig aan die
XY-vlal< wees. Maar a x (b x c) is loodreg op beide a
to the XY plane, and any line perpendicular to this
will be parallel to the XY plane. But a X (b X c) is
en b x c. Die vektor a x (b x c) is dus ewewydig aan die perpendicular to both a and bxc. The vector ax (bxc)

I XY-vlak, d.w.s. die vlak wat b en c bevat. Op presies

dieselfde wyse kan ons aantoon dat (a Xb) x c ewewydig
Is aan die vlak wat a en b bevat. In die algemeen het
aX (bxe) en (axb)xc dus verskillende rigtings. Hieruit
I volg onrniddeUk dat
therefore is parallel to the XY plane, I.e. the plane that
contains b and c. In the same way we can show that
(a x b) x c is parallel to the plane that contains a and
b. Therefore, in general, a x (b x c) and (a x b) x c
have different directions. It follows from this that

a X (b x c) # (a X b) xc, (1.55)
I d.w.s. die vektorproduk Is rue assosiatlef nie. i.e. the vector product is not associative.

Die mef!tkundige argument hierbo stel ons nou in staat The geometric argument stated above enahles us to de-
I om die vektorproduk d := a X (b X c) op 'n baie nuttige
wyse te omskryf. Aangesien d in dieselfde vial< Hi soos
b en c, is dit duidelik uit figuur 1.46 dat ons 'n paral-
scribe vector product d := a x (b x c) in a very useful
way. Since d lies in the same plane as b and c, it is clear
from Figure 1.46 that we can construct a parellelogram

I lelogram kan konstrueer waarvan d 'n diagonaal is en

waarvan die sye ewewydig aan b en c is. (Daar is een
spesiale geval waar ons dit nie kan doen nie, en wel die
with d as diagonal and with sides that are parallel to
b and c. (There is one special case where we cannot
do this, i.e. the case in which b and c are parallel or
geval Waar b en c ewewydig of teengesteld is. Dan het opposed. Then we have b x c = 0 and hence d = 0.)
I ons egter dat b X c = 0 en dus d = 0.)

I
I
I c

I
Figuur 1.46

I Uit figuur 1.46 volg nou dat d as 'n vektorsom S008 volg It follows from Figure 1.46 that d can be written as a
geskryf kan word: vector Bum:

I d = a x (b x c) = ,Bb + 'Yc (1.56)

Ona neem aan beide beide kante van hierdie vergelyking On both sides of this equation we tal<e the scalar product
I die skalaarproduk met a:
a·aX (b xc)
with a:
+'Y(a·c)

I Aan die linkerkant van die vorige vergelyking kom nou

'n skaiaar-drieproduk voor waarin dieselfde vektor (a)
twee keer voorkom. Ons het in §1.10.1 gesien dat so 'n
I drieproduk identies gelyk aan nul is, sodat
On the left-hand side of the previous equation, we now
have a scalar triple product in which the same vector
(a) occurs twice. We saw in §1.1O.1 that such a triple
product is identically equal to zero, so that

b) + 'Y(a· c) =0 .
I 58

I
I
I ODS het nou een verge!yking in die twee onbekendes /3 en
'Y en ons kan hoogstens oplos vir die verhouding tussen
hulle:
We now have one equation in the two unknow8 {J and "I
and we can only solve for the ratio between them:

I 'Y a· b

I Aangesien ons nou in effek die aantal onbekendes in die

probleem na een verminder het (die verhouding is
Since we have now, In essence, reduced the number of
unknowns in the problem to one (the relation It is

I dit natuurllk om 'n ander onbekende, se A, in te voer op

s6 'n wyse dat die regterkant van (1.56) 'n simmetriese
vorm het. ODS doen dit deur te ste!
natural to include of another unknown, say A, in such a
way that the right-hand side of (1.56) has a symmetrical
form. We do this by putting

I Dan word (1.56)

/3 = A(a· cl; 'Y = -A(a. b) .
Then (1.56) becomes

I d = A[(a· c)b - (a. b)c] . (1.57)

I ODS vind nou A deur die x-komponente (se) van die

vektore aan weerskante van (1.57) te vergelyk. Laat
e := b x c; dan volg van (1.50) vir die x-komponent aan
die llnkerkant van (1.57):
We now find A by comparing the x components of the
vectors on both sides of (1.57). Let e := b x c; it follows
from (1.50) for the x components on the left-hand side
of (1.57):

I
d= = a.,e ... - aze"

I = a.(bzc" - b.e..) - a,(b.e.. - b.c.)

I Soortgelyk volg van (1.41) vir die x-komponent aan die

regterkant van (1.57):
Similarly, it follows from (1.41) for tbe x component on
the right-hand side of (1.57):

I A[(a· c)b z - (a. b)cz ] =

=
A[(azcz + a.c" + a,c,)bz - (a.b. + a.b. + a,b.)c.]
A[a.bzc" + a,h.c, - a.h.c. - a,h,c.]

I Aangesien die x-komponent aan beide kante van die Since the x component on both sides of the equation
verge1yking ge1yk moet wees, volg dus A == 1, en (1.57) must be equal, it follows that A == 1, and (1.57) yields a

I lewer 'n baie belangrike identiteit:

a X (b x c) = (a· c)b - (a. b)c

very important identity:

(1.58)

I
Probleme Problems
I P1.10.8 Bewys dat (a x b) . (c x d) = (a· c)(b. d) -
(a· d)(b. c).
P1.10.8 Prove that (a x b) . (c x d) = (a· c)(b· d) -
(a· d)(b . c).

I Pl.1O.9 Bewys dat aX (bxc)+bx (cxa)+cx(axb)=

O.
P1.10.9 Prove that aX (bxc)+bx(cxa)+cx (axb) .=
O.

I
I 59

I
I
= (a.bxc)2.
I P1.10.10 Bewys dat (axb).(bxc)x(cxa) P1.10.10 Prove that (a x b) . (b x c) x (e x a) =
(a. b X c)'.

PI.IO.n As exb = e en bxc =e, bewys dat exe =b. P1.10.1l IT e x b =e and b x e = e, prove that
I ex e=b.

I P1.10.12 Los die volgende vergelykings op vir r: P1.10.12 Solve the following equation for r:

r·a = Q

I rxb = e met a·biO

PI.IO.13 As a X b = c x d en a x e = b x d, bewys = b x d, prove

I dat a - d ewewydig MD b - c is.
P1.10.13 IT a x b = e x d and a x e
that a - d is parallel to b - e is.

PI.I0.14 Bewys dat a die volgende identiteit bevredig: P1.10.14 Prove that a satisfies the following Identity:
I
I PI.IO.15 Toon aan dat (a x b) x (b x c) = (a. b x e)b. P1.10.15 Show that (a X b) X (b x c) = (a· b x e)b.

I PI.IO.16 Vereenvoudig (a + b) . (b + c) x (e + a). PI.IO.16 Simplify (a + b) . (b + c) X (c + a).

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 60

I
I
I
HOOFSTUK 2 CHAPTER 2
I STATIKA STATICS

I 2.1 MEGANIKA 2.1 MECHANICS

I Meganika Is die vertakking van die fisiese wetenskappe

waann die toestand van rus of beweglng van liggame
onderhewig aan kragte, ondersoek word. Dit is die
oudste fisiese wetenskap: Die vroegste aangetekende
I geskrifte in die veld is die van Archimedes (287 - 212
vC.), waarin die hefboom-beginsel en teorie van dry-
wende voorwerpe beskryf word. Groot vordering is ver-
Mechanics is the branch of the physical sciences in which
the state of rest or motion of bodies subject to the
action of forces is investigated. It is the oldest phys-
ical science. The earliest recorded writings in this field
are those of Archlmedes (287 - 212 BC), in which the
principle of the lever and the principle of buoyancy are
described. Substantial progress was made by Stevlnus

I volgens gemaak deur Stevinus (1548 - 1620), wat die

vektorii!1e kombinasie van kragte sowel as die beginsels
van statilQl geformuleer het. Gallleo (1564 - 1642) was
(1548 - 1620) who formulated the vectorial combination
of forces as well as the principles of statics. Galneo
(1564 - 1642) was the first person to solve a dynamic
die eerste mens om 'n dinamiese probleem op te los, en problem, namely one involving falllng bodies.
I wel i.v.m. vaIIende liggame.

Die grootste en en mees fundamentele bydrae tot die The largest and most fundamental contribution to me-

I meganikais gelewer deur Newton (1642- 1727), wat die

bewegingswette sowel as die gravitasiewet geformuleer
het en wat ook die infinitesimaalrekene ontwikkel het as
chanics was made by Newton (1642 - 1727) who formu-
lated the laws of motion as well as the law of gravitation
and developed the infinitesimal calculus as the mathe-
die wiskUlldige werktuig om die beweging van liggame matical tool used to describe the motion of bodies. This
I mee te beskryf. Hierdie monumentale skepping word
tereg beskou as die oorsprong van die moderne weten-
monumental creation is justifiably regarded as the ori-
gin of modern science, and many people regard Newton
skap, en Newton word deur bale gereken as die grootste as the greatest scientist of all time.
I wetenskaplike van aIIe tye.

Bale ander belangrike bydraes is gemaak in die tydperk
tussen die vyftiende en negentiende eeue. Inderdaad
I het wiskundiges en wetenskaplikes (en selfs som-
mige kunstenaars) hulle gewy aan hierdie veld, mense
SOO8 Da Vinci, Varignon, Euler, D'Alembert, La-
Many other contributions were made in the period be-
tween the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. In fact,
most mathematicians and scientists (and even some
artists) dedicated their time to this field, e.g. Da Vinci,
Varignon, Euler, D'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace,

I grange, Laplace, Hamilton, Jacobi en bale ander. Hamilton, Jacobi and many others.

Interest in mechanics decreased at the end of the previ-

Nadat belangstelling in die meganika aan die einde
ous century, but there has been a revival in this cen-
I van die "orige eeu getaan het, het 'n herlewing in
hierdie eeu gevolg, gelei veral deur die F'ranse wiskundi-
ges Poincare en Painleve. Die R.A.U. doen mee
tury, led particularly by the French mathematicians
Poincare and Palnleve. The R.A.U. participates in
this revival, and research of international standard in

I
aan hierdie herlewing, en navorsing van internasionale
the dynamics of non-linear systems is being done
geh8Jte in die dinamika van nie-lineere sisteme word
here.
hier gedoen.

I 2.1.1 Basiese Begrippe 2.1.1 Basic concepts

'n Aantal begrippe is van fundamentele belang by die
I studie van die meganika, en hoewel hulle nie a1ma1streng
definieerbaar is nie, is dit nodig om 'n intuitiewe begrip
daarvan te he.
A number of concepts are of fundamental interest to
the study of mechanics, and although they are not all
strictly definable, it is necessary to have an intuitive
understanding thereof.

I
I 61

I
I
I Ruimte is die meetkundige gebied waarln liggame ver-
keer en waarin hulle posisies d.m.v. 'n verWYSingstelsei
Space is the geometric region area occupied by bodies
and in which their positions can be established by means
vasgesteJ word. . of a reference system.
I Tyd is dit wat deur 'n horiosie gemeet word. Time is measured by a watch.

I Massa is 'n maat van die traagheid van 'n iiggaam,

d.w.s. sy weerstand teen 'n sneiheidsverandering.
Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body, i.e. its re-
sistance to a change of velocity.

Krag is die wedersydse invloed van liggame op mekaar. Force is the mutual influence of bodies on one another.
I 'n (Punt)deeltjie is 'n Ilggaam wat in 'n gegewe situ- A particle is a body that can be regarded as small
asie as Idein genoeg beskou kan word om beskryf te word enough in a given situation to be described as a mass at

I as 'n massa by 'n meetkundige punt.

'n Starre llggaam is 'n liggaam wasrvan die vervorm-

a geometric point.

A rigid body is a body, the deformation of which is

I iog ignoreerbaar is. negligible.

Meganika word logies verdeei in twee deie: statika, Mechanics is divided logically into two parts: statics,

I waarin die ewewig van Ilggame onder invloed van kragte

bestudeer word, en dinamika, waarin die beweging van
liggame onder invloed van kragie bestudeer word.
which concerns the equilibrium of bodies under the in-
fluence of forces; and dynamics, which concerns the
motion of bodies under the influence offorces.

I 2.1.2 Toepassingsvelde van Meganika 2.1.2 Fields of Application of Mechanics

Hoewel die meganika 'n fundamenteie °rol inneem by Although mechanics assumes a fundamental roie in our
I ons begrlp van die lisiese werldikheid en daarom as
'n basiese wetenskap bestudeer kan word, neem dit
verdere belangrikbeid aan as geiet word op die toepas-
understanding of physical reality and can therefore be
studied as a basic science, it takes on further impor-
tance if we pay attention to the applicability thereof in

I baarheid da.arvan in die ingenieurswese. Enkele van die

modeme toepassingsgebiede is die volgende: sateilletbe-
weging, vloeistofdinamika, vibrasieteorie, stabiliteit en
engineering. Some of the modern fields of application in-
clude the following: satellite movement, fluid dynamics,
theory of vibration, stability and strength of structures
sterkte van strukture en masjiene, robotika, ontwerp van and machines, robotics, design of spacecrafts, and auto-
I ruimtetuie, outomatiese beheer en werkverrlgting van
masjiene.
matic control and operation of machines.

I 2.1.3 Beperkings van Klassieke Meganika

Ons bestudeer in hierdie kursus die klassieke meganika
wat berus op die "alledaagse" begrip van ruimte en tyd
I soos gefonnuleer deur Galileo en die bewegingswette
soos geformuleer deur Newton. Hoewel hierdie beeld
van die meganika voldoende is vir die oorweldigende
2.1.3 Limitations of Classical Mechanics
In this course, we shall study classical mechanics, which
is based on the "commonsense" concepts of space and
time as formulated by Galileo as weil as the laws of
motion as formulated by Newton. Although this view
of mechanics is adequate for the overwheiming major-

I meerderheid van ingenieurs-toepassings, is dit veral vir

wetenskaplikes nodig om daarvan kennis te neem dat die
klassieke meganika in sekere uiterste regimes nie meer
ity of engineering applications, it is important for scien-
tists - in particular - to note that classical mechanics
is no longer valid in certain extreme regimes. H a par-

I
geidig is nie. lndien 'n deeitjie bv. teen 'n sneiheid be-
weeg wat vergelykbaar is met die van lig, word sy gedrag
beskryf dellr die relatiwistiese meganika (ontwlkkel
deur Einstein in die eerste twee dekades van hierdie
I eeu), terwyl die gedrag van 'n mikroskopiese deeltjie
(d.w.s. eel\ waarvan die deursnee in die orde van die
van 'n atoom is, m.a.w. 10- 10 meter) deur die kwan-
ticle moves at a velocity that is comparable to that of
light, for instance, its behaviour is described by rela-
tivistic mechanics (developed by Einstein in the first
two decades of this century), whereas the behaviour of
a microscopic particle (Le. the diameter of which is in
the order of that of an atom, Le. 10-10 metres) is de-
scribed by quantum mechanics (developed by a large

I twnmeganika (ontwikkel oor die afgelope agi dekades

deur 'n groot oaantal lisici) besliryf word.
0
number of physicists in the past eight decades).

I 62

I
I
I 2.2 NEWTON SE WETTE
Die klassieke meganlka berns in sy gehee1 op drie beweg-
I ingswette wat deur Isaac Newton gestel is In sy Prin-
cipia Mathematica van 1686 (tite1bladsy gereproduseer
In Figuur 2.1). Hierdle wette lui soos volg (ons sal in die
2.2 NEWTON'S LAWS
Classical' mechanics as a whole is based on three laws
of motion postulated by Isaac Newton in his Principia
Mathematica of 1686 (the title page is reproduced in
Figure 2.1). These laws state the following (we shall In

I vervolg kortweg na bv. die eerste wet verwys as NI): future for instance refer to the first law as NI):

Newton I 'n Deeltjie verkeer in rus of beweeg In 'n re- N I A particle remains at rest or continues to
I guit Iyn teen 'n konstante snelheid indien die resultante
krag daarop nul is.
Newton 2 Die versneUing van 'n deeltjie Is eweredig
mo,ve In a straight line with a constant velocity if the
resultant force on it is zero.
Newton 2 The acceleration of a particle is proportional

I aan die resultante krag wat daarop uitgeoefen word en

Is in die rigting van die krag.
Newton 3 Twee 11ggame oefen wedersyds kragte op
mekaar uit wat ewe groot is maar teengesteld in rigting
I is.
Hierdie drie wette is al geverifieer deur 'n magdom van
to the resultant force acting on it and is in the direction
of this force.
Newton 3 Two bodies exercise mutual forces on each
other, equal in magnitude but opposed in direction.
These three laws have been verified by a large number of

I akkurate eksperimente. N2 is die uitgangspunt vir die

analise in die dinamika. Vlr'n deeltjie met massa rn
wat beweeg onder die invloed van 'n krag F, kan sy
versnelling a verkry word uit die algebra.lese formulering
I van hierdie wet:
accurate experiments. N2 forms the basis of the anal-
ysis in dynamics. For a particle with mass rn, which
moves under the influence of a force F, Its acceleration
a can be obtained from the algebraic formulation ofthis
law:

(2.1)

I Dit is be1angrik om te let op die vektoraard van N2: It is important to note the vector nature of N2: not
Nie alleen1ik is die groottes van F en rna dieselfde nie, only are the magnltudes of F and ma the same, but F

I maar F en a het ook dieselfde rigting. Ons sal 'n studie

van die dinamika van deeltjies, en dus ook van N2, in
die TWK1B-kursus maak.
and a also have the same direction. We shall study the
dynamics of particles, and therefore the applications of
N2, in the TWKlB course.

I Waar ons nou die statika gaan formuleer, is NI en N3

van beiang. NI ste1 die vereiste waaraan kragte moet
In order to formulate statics, NI and N3 are Impor-
tant. NI sets the requirements with which forces must
voldoen om 'n deeltjie in ewewig te hou, en vorm dus comply to maintain a particle in equilibrium, so it forms

I die basis van die ondersoek van statiese sisteme. Streng

gesproke is NI 'n spesiale geval van N2: Indien F = 0
in (2.1), volg onmiddelik dat a = O. N3 beskryf op
the basis of the investigation of static systems. Strictly
speaking, NI is a special case ofN2: IfF = 0 in (2.1),
it follows immediately that a = O. N3 describes the mu-

I
sy beurt die wedersydse invloed van twee liggame op
mekaar. Dit stel naamlik die felt dat indien liggaam A
'n krag F uitoefen op liggaam B, sal liggaam B 'n krag
- F uitoefen op liggaam A, d. w.s. 'n krag wat dieselfde
I grootte het as F maar waarvan die rigting teengeste1d
is &an die van F. N3 is daarom van groot belangby die
ondersoek van die ewewig van stelsels van deeltjies of
tual influence of two bodies on each other. This states
the fact that if body A exercises a force F on body B,
body B will exercise a force of -F on body A, i.e. a
force that has the same magnitude as F, but a direction
that is opposed to that ofF. N3 is therefore very impor-
tant in the investigation of the equilibrium of systems
of particles or bodies.

I liggame.

I
I
I 63

I
 I
I
I
I PHILOSOPHIlE
I
·N A T II R A LIS
I
I PRINCIPIA
I MATHEMA l.-'ICA·
I
I Autore J s. NEWToN, 1'rin. ColJ. Calltl1b. Soc. . Machefeos
Profe(fore Luuji,Jno, & Societatis Regalis Sodali.
I
I IMPRIMA TUR·
S. PEP Y S, Keg. Soc. P R .lE S E S.
I 11111i S. 1686.

I
L O·N DIN 1,
I
Jl1ffit Sodelalif :1e Typis Jofopbi Profbt apud
I .plures Bibliopolas. AI/no MDCLXXXVIl.

I
I Figuur 2.1

I 64

I
I
I 2.3 EENHEDE
Vier fundamentele hoeveelhede kom voor in die
I meganika: tyd, afstand, massa, en krag. Die eenhede
wat gebruik word by die meting van hierdie hoeveei·
hede kan nie onafhanklik van mekaar gekies word nie,
2.3 UNITS
Four fundamental quantities occur in mechanics: time,
distance, mass and force. The units used to measure
these quantities cannot be chosen independently be-
cause they must be consistent with (2.1). In this course,

I aangeeien hulle versoenbaar met (2.1) moet wees. In

hierdie kursus sal die moderne metrieke stelsel van een-
hede (die SI-stelsel) deurgaans gebrulk word, waarin die
we shall use the modern metric system of units (the SI
system) throughout, which measures distance in metres,
mass in kilograms, time in seconds and force in Newton.

I eenhede waarin afstand, massa, tyd en krag gemeet word
respektiewe1ik die meter, die kilogram, die sekonde en
die Newton is. Ter wille van interessantheid gee ons
hier die nuutste defiulsie van elk van hierdie eenhede:
I Die sekonde (afkorting s) is die tydsverloop van 9 192
631 770 periodes van die uitstraling gepaardgaande met
die oorgang tussen twee spesifieke hiperfyn vlakke van
I die cesium1SS-atoom.
It is interesting to note the most recent defiultions of
each of these units:
A second (abbreviation s) is the duration of 9 192
631 770 periods of the radiation associated with the
transition between two specific hyper fine levels of the
cesium 133 atom.

Die meter (afkorting m) is die afstand wat lig in vacuo A metre (abbreviation m) is the distance that light

I alii! in 1/299 792 458 van 'n sekonde.

Die kilogram (a.fkorting kg) is die massa van 'n spe-

travels in vacuo in 1/299 792 458 of a second.

A kilogram (abbreviation kg) Is the mass of a specific

I
sifieke silinder, gemaak van 'n platinum-iridium allooi, cylinder, made of a platinum-iridium alloy, which is kept
wat deur die Internasionale Buro van Mate en Gewigte at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
bewaar word in 'n kluis in Sevres, Frankryk. a safe in Sevres, France.

I Die Newton (a.fkorting N) is die krag wat benodig word

om 'n versnelling van een meter per sekonde per sekonde
te verskaf aan 'n massa van een kilogram.
The Newton (abbreviation N) is the force required to
impart an acceleration of one metre per second per sec-
ond to a mass of one kiiogram.

I
2.4 KRAGTE 2.4 FORCES
I 2.4.1 Aangrypingspunt 2.4.1 Point of Application

I Die eksperimentele feit dat krag 'n vektorhoeveelheid

is, is reeds implisiet aanvaar by die formulering van die
Newton-wette. Ons kan dus in die vervolg 'n krag voor-
stel deur 'n gerigte lynetuk; die lengte van die lynstuk
I sal op 'n gekose ska.al die grootte van die krag in Newton
gee en die rigting van die lynstuk sal die rigting van die
krag in 'n gegewe verwysingetelsel aandui. Dit is egter
The experimental fact that force is a vector quantity
has already been accepted implicitly in the formulation
of the Newton laws. Therefore, we can in future rep-
resent a force by means of a directed line segment; the
length of the line segment will give us the magnitude
of the force in Newton on a chosen scale, and the di-
rection of the line segment will indicate the direction of

I be1angrik om daarop te let dat die meganiese effek van

'n krag nie siege afhang van sy grootte en rigting nie.
In Figuur 2.2 word 'n wiel getoon wat vry kan draai om .
the force in a given reference system. It is, however,
important to note that the mechanical effect of a force
. does not depend only on its magnitude and direction.
'n as deur o. Indien die krag F nou agtereenvolgens
I
Figure 2.2 shows a wheel that can turn freely on an axis
uitgeoefen word by die punte A, 0 en B respektiewe- through o. If the force F is applied consecutively at
Ilk, word dade11k ingesien dat die meganiese effek van points A, 0 and B respectively, we see immediately that
die krag in al drie gevalle anders is; die effekte is naam- the mechanical effect of the force is different in all three

I lik respektiewelik 'n kloksgewyse rotasie, geen rotasie

en 'n anti-kloksgewyse rotasie. Hoewel die kragte in
cases; i.e. the effect is a clockwise rotation, no rotation
and an anti-clockwise rotation respectively. Although
the forces are in fact equal in these three cases, they
hierdle drie gevalle wel gelyk is, is hulle nie (meganies)

I ekwivalent nie. are not (mechanically) equivalent.

I 65

I
I
I
I A
I
---t--F
I F
I Flguur 2.2

I Die punt waar 'n krag op 'n liggaam uitgeoefen word

(soos A, B en 0 hierbo) , noem ons die aangryp-
ingspunt van die krag. 'n Reguit lyn deur die aangryp-
The point where a force is applied to a body (like A, B
and 0 above), we call the point of application orthe
force. A straight line through the point of application

I ingspunt en ewewydig aan die krag word die werklyn

van die krag genoem. In Figuur 2.3 word die werklyn
van die krag F met aangrypingspunt by 0, deur 'n stip-
and parallel to the force is called the line of action
of the force. In Figure 2.3, the line of action of force
F with its point of application at 0 is indicated by a
pe!lyn aangedui. dotted line.
I
I F
- - - -- - - •• - - - --- -
I o
Figuur 2.3

I Na aanleiding van die voorafgaande kan ons nou 'n bale In view orthe above, we can now state a very important
be!angrike feit ste!: 'n Krag word alleenlik valledig fact: A force is only specified fully by the provi-
I gespesifiseer deur die opgaaf van sy grootte en
rigting sowel as die posisie van sy aangryp-
sion of its magnitude and direction as well as the
position of its point of application •.
ingspunt.

I 2.4.2 Klassifikasie van Kragte 2.4.2 Classification of Forces

Die ewewig van 'n liggaam wat onderhewig is aan 'n
I steisel van kragte kan alleen bestudeer word as dit
bekend is hoe kragte hul voordoen. Dit is dus nodig om
'n bree k1assifikasie van die verskillende soorte kragte
The equilibrium of a body that is subject to a system of
forces can be studied only if we know how forces occur.
Therefore, it is necessary to undertake a broad classifi-
cation of the different types of force. We shall describe a

I te maak. Ons beskryf hier 'n aantal soorte kragte wat

bale gereeld voorkom in werklike gevalle; eenvoudighei-
dshalwe beperk ons ons voorlopig tot geva1le waar alle
number of forces that occur regularly in actual cases; for
the sake of simplicity, we shall limit ourselves provision-
ally to cases in which all forces occur in two dimensions.

I
kragte in twee dimensies voorkom.

I
I 66

I
I
I (a) 'n Veldkrag Is 'n krag wat 'n liggaam ondervind (a) A field force Is a force that a body experiences
omdat dit in die kragveld van 'n ander voorwerp because it resides in the force field of another body.

I verkeer. Voorbeelde hiervan is die gravitasieveld

van enlge voorwerp met massa, die elektrostatlese
veld van 'n gelaaide liggaam en die magneetveld
Examples of this are: the gravitational field of
any object with mass, the electrostatic field of a
charged body and the magnetic field of a moving

I van 'n bewegende elektriese lading. 'n Belang- .

rike eienskap van hierdie kragte Is dat hulle nie
"afgeskakel" kan word nie; die effek daarvan op
'n liggaam mag nooit geignoreer word nie. In
I hierdle kursus sal ons veral kennls moet neem van
die gravltasieveld van die aarde: enige liggaam
naby die aardoppervlak ondervind altyd 'n krag
electrical charge. An Important characteristic of
these forces Is that they cannot be 'switched off';
the effect thereof on a body may never be Ignored.
In this course, we shall pay special attention to
the gravitational field of the earth: any body near
the surface of the earth always experiences a force
W that Is directed at the centre of the earth [Fig-

I W wat gerig is na die aarde se m1ddelpunt [Figuur

2.4(a)]. Ons sal voortaan na W verwys as die
gewig van die liggaam.
ure 2.4(a)]. We shall in future refer to W as the
weight of a body.

I (b) Kragte kan deur m1ddel van toue of stange op (b) Forces can be exerted on bodies by means ofropes

I liggame uitgeoefen word [Figuur 2.4(b )]. Die tou or rods [Figure 2.4(b)], in which case the rope or
of stang Is in s6 'n·geval die medium wat die krag rod is the medium that transfers the force. The
oordra. Die aangrypingspunt van die krag Is uiter- point of application of the force obviously Is the
aard die punt waar die stang of tou &an die voor- point where the rope or rod Is attached to the

I werp vas Is en die rigting van die krag is nood-

wendig die van die tou of stang.
object, and the direction of the force is that of the
rope or rod.

I (c) 'n Veer wat uitgerek [soos in Figuur 2.4(c)] of (c) A spring that is stretched [as in Figure 2.4(c)] or
saamgepers Is, oefen 'n herstelkrag uit, d.w.s. compressed exercises a restorative force, i.e. one

I een wat poog om die vervorming op te hef. 'n Veer

wat uitgerek is, oefen dus 'n trekkrag uit en een
wat saamgepers Is, oefen 'n drukkrag uit. Ons sal
I
slegs gevalle beskou waar so 'n veer in die lineere
gebied is, d.w.s. Waar die grootte van die krag in
die veer vir 'n deformasie :r: gegee word deur
that attempts to neutralise the deformation. A
spring that Is etretched exercises a "pull" and a
spring that is compressed exercises a "push". We
shall only consider cases in which such a spring Is
in a linear regime, i.e. where the magnitude of
the force in the spring for a deformation :r: Is given
by

I
F=kz , (2.2)

I
waar die veerkonstante (of kragkonstante) k 'n where the spring constant k Is a measure of the
I maat van die styfheid van die veer is. rigidity of the spring.

I (d) Reaksiekragte is kragte wat op 'n liggaam uit-

geoefen word by sy kontakoppervlak met ander
(d) Reaction forces are forces exercised on a
body by its contact surface with other ob-
voorwerpe in sy omgewing. Die liggaam in Fignur jects in its environment. The body in Fig-

I 2.4(d) Hi byvoorbeeld op 'n gladde oppervlak; om

sy gewlg te balanseer by ewewig sal die kontakop-
pervlak noodwendig 'n normale reaksiekrag N
ure 2.4( d) is on a smooth surface, for instance;
to balance its weight in equllibrium, the con-
tact surface must of necessity exercise a nor-

I (d.w.s. een loodregop die kontakoppervlak) op

die voorwerp moet uitoefen. Ander moontlikhede
mal reaction force N (i.e. one perpendicular
to the contact surface) on the object. Other

I 67

I
I
I
I
I
I ,11 -
\./
(a)
I (b)

I
I
I x .
I (c)
.I.1JII/IJIIJ 11

(d)

I
I
I
I
I
(e)
I (f)

I Figuur 2.4

I
I 68

I
I
I kom voor word in Figuur 2.4(e), waar 'n raamwerk
getoon word wat vas &all 'n muur is. Aangesien
I die Bkarnier A op roilere. rue, kan die reaksie N
by A Biege loodreg op die muur uitgeoefen word.
Skarnier B is vas; die reaksiekrag R daarop kan
possibilities are Bhown in Figure 2,4(e), which
Bhows a trues attached to a wall. Since joint A
restB on roilers, the reaction N at A can only be
perpendicular to the wall. Joint B is fixed; the
reaction force R on it can have any direction and

I dus enige rigting he en ea! in die algemeen projek-

Biee R, en R. he wat respektiewelik loodreg op en
ewewydig aan die muur is.
will therefore have general projections RI and B.o,
which are respectively perpendicular and parallel
to the wall.

I (e) Indien die voorwerp in Figuur 2.4(b) op 'n ruwe (e) If the object in Figure 2.4(b) were on a rough Bur-

I vlak le en aan 'n horieontale toukrag (Be) onder-

werp word, weet ons uit ailedaagee ondervinding
dat daar 'n weeretand teen die horisontale beweg-
face and subjected to the horizontal force of a rope
(for instance), we know from everyday experience
that there would be a resistance agalnst the horI-
ing van die voorwerp ondervind word. Die krag zontal movement of the object. The force respon-
I wat hiervoor verantwoordelik iB, word die wry-
wingskrag genoem. Dit het die volgende belang-
rike eienskappe:
Bible for thiB is called the friction force. It has
the follOwing important properties:

I
'I. (i) Die wrywingBkrag is tangensiaal (of rw-
Iynig) &all die kontakoppervlak en is teengeBteld
gerig &all die rigting van beweging of imminente
beweging van die liggaam. (Anders geetel, die
wrywingskrag werk altyd sy ooreaak tee.)
(i) The friction force is tangential to the contact
surface and has a direction that iB 0ppoBed to, the
direction of the movement or imminent movement
of the body (In other words, a friction force always
opposes its cause).
(ii) Net voldoende wrywing tree op om die beweg- (ii) Only sufficient friction acts to prevent the
ing te voorkom eolank dit wel moontlik is. movement for as long as It is pOBBible.

I (iii) Die wrywingskrag C bereik 'n mwi-

mumwaarde op die oomblik dat die voorwerp op
(iii) The friction force rreaches a maximum value
the moment that the object is about to Btart
die punt Is om te beweeg. Uit eksperiment is moving. Experiments have proven that thiB max-

I vasgestel dat hierdie maksimumwaarde eweredig

is &all die grootte van die normale rewiekrag
tussen die voorwerp en die vlak. In figuur 2.4(f)
imum value is proportional to the magnitude of the
normal reaction Corce between the object and
the BUrface. In Figure 2.4(f), the follOwing applies:

I geld dus

I (2.3)

I waar I-'s die BtatieBe wrywingBkoeefBsient g...

noem word. Indien daar beweging van die vlme
ten opsigte van mekaar plaasvind, tree 'n Ideiner
I
wrywingekoilffisient I'k op wat die kinetieBe wry-
wingskoeffisient genoem word. So 'n koiiffisient is
materiaaJafhanklik, d.w.s. dit is 'n eiensksp van
die twee viakke wat in kontak met mekaar is. Tip-
where 1'. is called the static Crictlon coefficient.
If there is movement of the surfacee relative to each
other, a smaller friction coefficient cailed the
kinetic friction coefficient, begins to act. Such
a coefficient is material dependent, i.e. it is a
property of the two surfaces that are In contact
with each other. Typical values are, for instance,

I ieee waardes is bv. I's = 0.78 en I'k = 0.42 vir

BtaaJ op etaaJ en I-'s = 0.04 en I'k = 0.04 vir teflon
1'. = 0.78 and I'l = 0.42 for Bteel on eteel, and
1'. = 0,04 and = 0.04 for teflon on teflon.

I
I
•
69
I
I op tellon. Aangesien ons in die statika slegs Since we are only concerned with the static fric-
gemoeid Is met die statlese wrywlngskoeffisii!nt, sal tion coefficient In statics, we shall indicate the lat-
I ona voortaan laa8genoemde bloot deur 11 aandui.
Vir meeste toestande geld
ter by 11 only. The following applies under most
conditions:

I (2.4)

I (iv) Uit eksperiment is bekend dat 11 konatant is
en dat dit nle afhang van die grootte van die kon-
I takoppervlakte nle. In figuur 2.4(f) Is N die nor-
male reakslekrag en r die wrywlngskrag. Die hoek
</> tU88en die resulterende reaksiekrag R en die
(iv) Experiments have shown that 11 is constant
and that it does not depend on the size of the
contact surface. In figure 2.4(f) N is the normal
reaction force and f is the friction force. Angle </>
between the resultant reaction force R and the

I normale reakslekrag word die wrywingshoek g...

.noem en van die figuur volg
normal reaction force is called the friction angle,
and it follows from the figure that

I tan</>= L
N

I Maar van (2.3) is I = IlN, sodat But from (2.3) I = IlN, so that

I tan</>=Il· (2.5)

I
2.5 AKSIOMAS 2.5 AXIOMS
I Ons wil nou ona aandag vestig op deeltjies en liggame in We shall now focus on particles and bodies in equilib-
ewewig, d.w.s. wat in rus verkeer of 'n unlforme beweg- rium, Le. in a state of rest or uniform motion. According

I ing uitvoer. Van NI sal 'n deeltjie In ewewig verkeer

indien die resultante krag daarop nul is. In die geva1
waar meer as een krag op 'n deeltjie uitgeoe£en word,
to NI, a particle will be in equilibrium if the resultant
force on it is zero. H more than one force is exerted on a
particle, it is essential to establish how these forces add
up to a single force. We do this summation by using two
I
is dit dUB noodsaaklik om vas te stel hoe hierdie kragte
tot 'n enkele krag sommeer. Ona verrig hierdie som- axioms, which can be confirmed through experiment:
masie deur gebruik te maak van twee aksiomas wat
deur eksperiment bevestig kan word:

I Aksioma 2.1 Twee kragte is ekwivalent (d.w.s. hulle Axiom 2.1 Two forces are equivalent (Le. they have
het dieselfde meganiese effek) as en slegs as hulle ge1yke the same mechanical effect) if and only if they are equal
I vektore is waarvan die werklyne saamval. vectors with coinciding lines of action.

Hierdie aksioma impliseer dat die aangrypingspunt van This axiom implies that the point of application of a

I 'n krag op sy werklyn rondgeskuif kan word sonder om

sy meganlese effek te bel'nvloed. In figuur 2.5 is F se
meganlese effek bv. diese1fde indien dit by A of by B
force can be moved along its line of action without af-
fecting its mechanical effect. In figure 2.5, F's mechan-
ical effect is the same whether it is applied at A or at
aangryp. B.
I
I 70

I
 I
I
I
••- - - 4 ) - - - - - . - - - - . - - -' ... ----.
I F 8 F

I Figuur 2.5

I Aksloma 2.2 Indien kragte Fl en F. albei by 'n punt

P aangryp, kan hulle vervang word met die ekwivalente
krag Fl + F. wat by P aangryp.
Axiom 2.2 H forces Fl and F. are applied at point
P, they can be replaced by the equivalent force F 1 + F.
which is applied at P.

I In figuur 2.6 gryp F\ en F2 aan by 0 en 0' respek-

tiewelik. Van aksioma 2.1 kan hulle aangrypingspunte
verskuif word na die snypunt P van hul werklyne en van
I aksioma 2.2 kan hulle dan by P gesommeer word tot die
enkele krag F = F 1 + F.. Ona sal voortaan na F ver-
wys as die resultant van die oorspronklike stelsel van
In figure 2.6 F 1 and F. are exerted on 0 and 0' re-
spectively. According to axiom 2.1, their points of ap-
plication can be shifted to point of intersection P of
their working lines. According to axiom 2.2, they can
be added up at P to the single force F = F 1 + F.. We
shall refer to F as the resultant of the original system

I kragte. Weereena moet daarop klem geieword dat F

slegs volledig gespesifiseer is as sy aangrypingspunt (in
hierdie geval P) se pC)sisie aangegee word.
of forces. It must again be emphasised that F is only
specified fully if the position of its point of application
(P in this case) is given.

I
I
ft
I o/
;
,
I .'

I ,,
,
P _ _--;.'. ___ ._-------. )

I 0'

I Figuur 2.6

I
I
I 71

I
I
I 2.6 EWEWIG VAN 'N DEELTJIE
2.6.1 Ewewigsvoorwaarde
I In die gevai van 'n (punt)deeltjie waarop (se) die n
kragte {Fj; i = 1,2, .. . ,n} inwerk (Figuur 2.7), het ai
I die kragte en dus ook hul resultant noodwendig diese!fde
aangrypingspunt. Na aanieiding van NI en Aksiorna 2.2
kan die ewewigsvoorwaarde vir 'n deeltjie dan soos volg
2.6 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE
2.6.1 Condition of Equilibrium
In the case of a particle acted on by n forces {F j; i =
I, 2, ... , n} (Figure 2.7), ail the forces and hence their
resultant have the same point of application. According
to NI and AxIom 2.2, the condition of equilibrium of a
particle can therefore be formulated as follows:

I geformuleer word:

'n Deeltjie Is in ewewig as en slegs as die vektor- A particle is in equilibrium If only and only If the
som van die kragte wat op die deeltjie inwerk, vector sum of the forces acting on the particle is
I die nulvektor is. the null vector.

I F,
I
I ,,
\
\
,,
I ....

I Figuur 2.7

Vir die kragte wat die dee!tjie in Figuur 2.7 in ewewig Hence for the forces that maintain the particle in Figure
I hou, geid dus
F,+F.+···+Fn=O.
2.7 in equilibrium, the following applies:
(2.6)

I Aangesien alle komponente van die nulvektor gelyk aan

nul is en aangesien die {-komponent (se) van 'n som
van vektore geiyk is aan die sorn van die vektore se {-
I komponente (sien §1.7.3), Is (2.6) ekwivaient aan 'n ate!
van drie gelyktydige vergelykings:
Since all the components of the null vector are equai
to zero and since the { component, for instance, of a
sum of vectors is equai to the sum of the vectors' {
components (see §1.7.3), (2.6) is equivalent to a system
of three simultaneous equations:

I E F. = Fz1 + F•• + ... + F. n = 0

I EF. = F.,+F•• +···+F. n = 0

(2.7)

I
I
I 72

I
I
I In (2.7) is F.k, F •• en
z-komponente van F •.
respektiewelik die X-, y- en In (2.7) F•• , F•• and F.. are the x, y and z components
of Fk respectively.

I In gevalle waar 'n deeltjie in wisse\werking met ander

voorwerpe is, moet daar ten aanvang in 'n gegewe prob-
leem besluit word watter kragte op die dee\tjie uitgeoe-
In cases where a particle is in interaction with other ob-
jects, we must in a given problem decide at the outset
which forces are exerted on the particle by its environ-

I fen word deur sy omgewing (N3 is hier dikwels baie

nuttig): In s6 'n geval word dikwels gese dat die deeltjie
"geisoleer" word, d.w.s. dat sy omgewing vervang word
deur die kragte wat die omgewing op hom uitoefen.
I Voorbeelde
ment. In such cases, we often say we "isolate" the par-
ticle, i.e. that its environment is replaced by the forces
tha.t the environment exerts on it (N3 often is useful in
this regard).
Examples

I V2.6.1 'n Deeltjie is in ewewig onder die invloed van

vyf saamvlakkige kragte. Die eerste vier se groottes is
2,4, 6v'3 en 8 Newton respektiewe\ik en laasgenoemde
drie se rigtings maak respektiewe\ik hoeke van 60·, 150·
I en SOO· respektiewelik met die van die eerste krag. Vind
die vyfde krag.
V2.6.1 A particle is in equilibrium and under the influ-
ence of five coplanar forces. The magnitudes of the first
four are 2, 4, 6 v'3 and 8 Newton respectively, and the
directions of the last three form angles of 60·, 150· and
300· respectively with those of the first force. Calculate
the fifth force.

I Oplo88ing: Die onbekende krag F5 (Figuur 2.8) word

verkry uit NI:
Solution: Unknown force F5 (Figure 2.8) is obtained
from NI:

I d.w.s.
F, + F2 + Fa + F 4 + F5 = 0
i.e.

I
I y

I
I x

I
I Figuur 2.8

I 'n Verwysingstelsel waarvan die X-as saamval met F,

word vervolgens opgeste\; hierdie keuse stel ons in staat
A reference system, the X axis of which coincides with
F, is introduced; this choice enables us to write out the
om die bekende kragte in komponentvorm te skryf: known forces in component form:

I
= [ .A 4(lA v'3 A) 6 '"S( v'3 A lA)
- 8(1A .j3 A)l N·
I F5 2"+TY - 2"-TY

= (x - v'3y) N

I 73

I
I
I Fa kan nou grafies voorgestel word (figuur 2.9) en die
grootte en rigting daarvan volg uit elementere vektoral-
Fa can now be represented graphically (figure 2.9) and
its magnitude and direction follow from elementary vec-
gebra: tor algebra:
I
F5 = J1 3 + (../3)3 N = 2 N
I en and

I ../3
tana=T a =60·

I
y
I
I
•
,'« N

I Figuur 2.9

I V2.B.2 'n Deeltjie (gewig W) hang onder invloed van V2.B.2 A particle (weight W) is suspended in the
die aarde se gravitasieveld soos getoon in Figuur 2.10. earth's gravitational field, as shown in Figure 2.10. Cal-

I Vind die kragte in die toue. culate the forces in the ropes.

I I I

I
To
I
I Figuur 2.10

I Oplo83ing: Ons identifiseer eers die kragte wat inwerk

op die deeltjie. Die gewig W van die deeltjie is be-
kend beide sover dit sy grootte en rigting betref terwyl
die rigtings van die toukragte Tl en T. ook bekend
I is; slegs hul groottes moet gevind word. Ons kan die
groottes van die kragte meklik grafies bepaal dellr die
ewewigsvoorwaarde
Solution: First we identify the forces that are exerted on
the particle. We know both the magnitude and direction
of weight W of the particle as well as the directions of
the forces Tl and T3 in the ropes. We only need to find
their magnitudes. We can determine the magnitudes
of the forces easUy by graphic means by exhibiting the
condition of equilibrium

I Tl +T. +W=O
in die vektordiagram in Figuur 2.11 SaaID te vat. in the vector diagram in Figure 2.11.

I 74

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.11

I Uit die diagram volg direk It follows directly from the diagram that

I Tl
en/a:nd T.
=Wcos300=:!l-W
=W cos 60° =!W .

I V2.6.S In Figuur 2.12 rue die getoonde massa (gewig

W) op 'n ruwe skuinsvlak met wrywingskoeffisient I' en
V2.6.S In Figure 2.12, the Indicated mass (weight W)
rests on a rough inclined surface with friction coefficient
is dit net op die punt om opwaarts te beweeg onder in- 1', a:nd it is just about to move upwards under the

I vloed va:n die eketerne krag F waarva:n die rigting getoon

is. Vind die grootte va:n P.
influence of the external force P, the direction of which
is shown. Calculate the maguitude of P.

I (

I
I y

I
I Figuur 2.12

Op/o8sing: Daar ka:n vier kragte geidentifiseer word wat S o/ution: We ca:n identify four forces acting on the par-

I inwerk op die deeltjie: Sy gewig W en die toegepaste

krag P (beide waarva:n die grootte en rigting bekend
is), die normale reaksiekrag N (waarva:n net die rigting
ticle: its weight W a:nd the applied force P (we know
both their magnitude a:nd direction), the normal reac-
tion force N (of which we know oniy the direction) a:nd

I bekend is) en die wrywingskrag f (wat afwaarts teen

die vlak gerig is omdat dit P opponeer en waarva:n die
grootte bekend is tot op die onbekende waarde va:n N
se grootte: I = j.lN). Die ewewigsvoorwaarde NI slen
I da:n soos volg daaruit:
the friction force f (directed downwards along the sur-
face because it opposes P a:nd the magnitude of which
is known up to the unknown value of N's magnitude:
=
I /IN). The condition of equilibrium NI is then as
follows:

P+W+f+N=O
I
I 75

I
 I
I aIIe koinponente van die nulvektor nul IS, sal
onder andere die 11:- en komponente van boataande
Since all the components of the nuU vector are zero, the
and " components, among others, of the above vector
11:
vektotsom nul weei vir die keuse van sum will be zero for the choice of reference system In
I In Flguur 2.12. Ona kan blerdIe twee komponente
bereklm deur In gedagte te hou clat 1?v. die II:-komponent
Figure 2.12. We can calculate these components by
bearing In mind that the 11: component of the vector sum
van 'n vektorsom gegee word deur die BOlD van die 11:- is given, for Instance, by the sum of the 11: components

I komponente van die vektore In die som: of the vectors In the sum:

I »-komponent/component:
..-komponent/component:
Poos{J-Walna-,.N =0
PaIn{J+N-Wcoea =0
(a)
(6)
U1t Ch) wig: It follows from Ch) that:
I N = W coea;'" Psln{J
0Ds ste\ h1erd1e ultdrukldng vir N In' (a): We substitute this expression for N In (a):
I , Pcos{J - Walna- I'Wcoea + jU'aIn{J = 0

I 0Ds lam dan die V8D die eksterne krag die on-
derwIIrp van die vergelyklng maak om te vind
We can then make the magnitude of the external force
the subject of the equation to find

I P=W (sincoea{J ++I'I'csinosa)

{J
.
I Probleme Pl'ehlems
P2.8.1 Die w1gende kragte werk In op 'n puntdeeltjle: P2.8.1 The following forces are exerted on a particle:

I (a) 10 N, ewewydlg aan! +9.

(b) 1li N, met rigtIftgBkosInU8Se 0.0, -0.8 en 0.6.
(c) (U + 159 +!) N.
(a) 10 N, parallel to! + 9.
(b) 15 N, with dlrect10n coelnes 0.0, -0.8 and 0.6.
(c) (3! + 15g +.i) N.
(d) 5 N ewewydlg aan die negatlewe X-lIB. (d) 5 N para1JaI to the negative X axis.
I (e) 5 N wat respektiewe1lk hoeke van 90', 135' en 135'
met die positIe..-e rigtIBss Y8n die koIIrd1nnatasse maak.
(e) 5 N formlng angles of 90', 135' and 135' with the
positive directions of coordinate axes respectively.
VInd die grootte en rlgtingskosinusse van die resultant Calculate the magnitudes and direction cosines of the
I van bogenoemde kragte.

P2.8.2 In Flguur 2.13 word 'n deeltjle met gewlg W

resultant of the above forces.

P2.8.2 Figure 2.13 shows a particle with weight W

getoOD wat aan twee toue van gegewe lengtes opgehang hung from two ropes, the lengths of which are given.
I is. 'BerekeD dIe
kragte in die toue. Calculate the forces In the ropes.

P2.8.3 In Flguur 2.14 word 'n deeltjle met gewlg W . P2.8.3 Figure 2.14 shows a particle with weight W SUB-

I getoon wat aan drIe staDge van gegewe Iengtes opgehang

is. Die wned1ge meetkunde van die opstelling word
na aanleid1ng van die gekose verwyalngetelsel getoon.
pended from three rods, the lengths of which are given.
The complete geometTy of the setup is shown with rela-
tionship to the chosen reference system. Calculate the

I Bereken die kragte In aI drie stenge.

P2.8.4 In Flguur 2.15 rus 'n massa van gewlg W op
forces In all three rods.
P2.8.4 In Figure 2.15 a maes of weight W rests on a
'n gledde vial< en word dlt In ewewlg gehou deur 'n veer smooth surface and is kept in equilibrium by a spring

I met kragkonatante k. Vlnd die ultrekking van die veer. with force constant k. Calculate the extension of the
sprIDg.

P2.8.6 V1nd die grootte van P In V2.6.3 Indlen die P2.0.6 Calculate the magnitude of P In V2.6.3 If the
I net op die punt Is om afwaarts te gly. maes is juet about to sUde downwards.

I 76

I
I
I
I
I
I
I Flguur 2.13

I Sa.

I
I
I y

I
I Figuur 2.14

I
I
I
Figuur 2.15
I P2.6.6 'n Massa met gewig W rus op 'n ruwe horison- P2.6.6 A mass with weight W rests on a rough hori-

I tale vlak en word deur 'n krag F wat 'n hoek f3 met die
horisontaal maak, getrek. As die wrywingskoeflisient p
is, vind dan vir watter waarde van f3 die grootte van
zontal surface and is pulled by a force F, which forms
angle f3 with the horizontal. If the friction coefficient
is p, establish for which value of f3 the magnitude of
die krag 'n mlnlmumwaarde sal aanneem wanneer die the force will assume a minimum value when the body
I Jiggaam net op die punt Is om te beweeg. (WENK: Be-
nader die probieem grafies.)
is just about to move. (HINT: Approach the problem
graphically. )

I 77

I
 I
I P2.6. '7 Beantwoord P2.6.6 vir die geval waar die vlak
waarop die massa rus, 'n hoek Q mw met die horison-
P2.6. '7 Answer P2.6.6 for the case in which the surface
on which the mass rests forms angle Q with the horizon-
taal en waar die massa op die punt is om tal and the mass is about to move:
I (a) opwaarts en
(I» afwaarts teen die vial< te beweeg.
(a) upwards and
(b) downwards along the surface.

I 2.6.2 Gekoppelde Deeltjies 2.6.2 Coupled Particles

Dikwe1s word deeltjies &aD mekaar gekoppel deur mid-
I del van bv. toue, stange of vere. In so 'n geval moet
die ewewigsvoorwaarde in §2.6.1 uiteraard op elk van
die deeltjies ter spral<e afsonderUk toegepas word. Die
Particles are often coupied to each other by means of
ropes, rods or springs, in which case the condition of
equilibrium in §2.6.1 obviously has to be applied sepa-
rately to each of the particles in question. A further

I verdere komplikasie wat dan teegekom word, is die feit

<!at die betrokke deeltjies kragte op mekaar uitoefen met
die tou of veer as medium en dat hierdie kragte dikwels
a priori onbekend is. Die wyse waarop hierdie komp-
I likasie gehanteer word, is om elke deeltjie te isoleer en
by die hantering van bv. die toukragte, NS in gedagte
te hou. Ons illustreer hierdie proses &aD die hand van
complication which then occurs is that the relevant par-
ticles exert forces on each other with a rope or spring
as the medium, and these forces are often unknown a
priori. The way in which this complication Is handled
is by isolating each particle and by bearing in mind NS
when handling the rope forces, for instance. We ill\1&-
trate this process on the basis of the simple situation in

I die eenvoudige opset in figuur 2.16: figure 2.16:

I
I
I Figuur 2.16

'l'wee deeltjies wat deur middel van 'n tou verbind is, Two particles linked by means of a rope are in equilib-

I ""rkeer in ewewig onder die invloed van die krag F. NI

vereis dan dat A d.m.v. die tou 'n krag -F op B uitoe-
fen. Van NS volg dan dat B d.m.v. die tou 'n krag
F op A uitoefen, ens. Ons kan ook onmiddelik 'n ge-
I volgtrekking oor die krag in die tou mw: die krag moet
oral in die tou dieselfde wees (eike onderdeel van die tou
moet immers ook in ewewig wees). Ons moet ook hier
rium under the infiuence of force F. NI requires that A
exerts a force - F on B by means of the rope. Accord-
ing to NS, it follows that B exerts a force F on A by
means of the rope, etc. We can also immediately draw a
conclusion about the force in the rope: this force must
be the same everywhere in the rope (every part of the
rope must also be in equilibrium). We must also note

I let op 'n belangrike verskU tussen toue, stange en vere:

terwyl stange en vere druk- sowel as trekkragte kan ver-
aka!, kan toue slegs trekkragte verska!.
an important difference between ropes, rods and springs
here: whereas rods and springs can exert both a "push"
and a "pull", ropes can .only exert a "pull" .

I Voorbeelde Examples

I V2.6.4 In figuur 2.17 is die toutjie m8BBaloos en die

katrol glad. Die m8BBa B (gewig W) le op 'n horisontale
vial< waarop die wrywingskoi!ffisient i
is en is op die
V2.6.4 The rope in figure 2.17 has no m8BB and the
pulley is smooth. The m8BB B (weight W) is on a hori-
f
zontal surface on which the friction coefficient is and

I l>11nt om te gly. Wat is A se gewig? .

Op/ossing: Ons isoleer eerstens eIkeen van die twee

is about to slide. What is the weight of A?

Solution: First, we isolate each of the two particles in

deeltjies in die probleem, d.w.s. ons dui op 'n skets the problem, i.e. in a sketch (Figure 2.18) we indicate

I (Figuur 2.18) vir elkeen van die deeltjies aan watter which forces are being exerted on each of the particles.

I 78

I
I
I
I " "
B
"-;'
.k-
,,
I ,
lA
I Figuur 2.1'1'

I kragte daarop uitgeoefen word. Hoewel ons weet dat Although we know that the rope exerts a pull on both
die toutjie trekkragte op die twee deeltjies uitoefen en particles and we know the direction of the rope force

I dUB die rlgtings van die toukrag oral ken, ken ons uiter-
aard nie ten aanvang die groottes van die kragte wat die
toutjie op die twee deeltjies uitoefen nie. Die groottes
everywhere, we do not initially know the magnitudes
of the forces that the rope exerts on the two particles.
The magnitudes of the forces Tl and T. are therefore

I van die kragte Tl en T. is dUB van die onbekendes in

die probleem.
the unknown elements in this problem.

I
-
T,.
I , k
-'
I f -
-
W
'

I
I
Figuur 2.18
I Vervolgens word die ewewigsvoorwaarde vir elkeen van We then write down the conditions of equilibrium of

I die twee deeltjies opgeskryf en die "'- en II-komponente

(in die getoonde verwysingstelsel) van elkeen van die
vektorvergelykings wat verkry word, word neergeskryf:
eacl1 of the two particles as well as the '" and 11 com-
ponents (in the shown reference system) of each of the
vector equations that are obtained:

I Ewewig van/Equilibrium of B:
:z>okomponent/component:
Tl+W+f+N
Tl- iN
=0
=0 (a)

I rrkomponent/component:

Ewewig van/Equilibrium of A:
N-W
T2+ P
=0

=0
(b)

rrkomponent/component: T.-P =0 (c)

I
I 79

I
I
I Die drie vergeiykings (a), (b) en (c) bevat die vier on-
bekendes N, T1 , To en P, en meer inllgting is nodig voor
The three equations (a), (b) and (c) contain the four
unknowns N, T1 , To and P, and more information is
die probleem volledig opgeios kan word. Hierdie inlig- required before the problem can be solved fully. This
I ting word vervat in die feit dat die die trekkrag in die
tou oral dieselfde is, d.w.s. dat die groottes van TI en
information is contained in the fact that the tensile force
in the rope is the same everywhere, I.e. that the magni-
T. dieselfde is: tudes of TI and T. are the same:

I Tl =T. (d)

I Die vergelykings (a) tot (d) kan nou maklik opgelos word
vir al vier onbekendes:
Equations (a) to (d) can now be solved easily for all four
unknown quantities:

I N=W; Tl
1
= T. = -W;
3
P
1
= -W
3

I Probleme Problems
In al die volgende probleme kan toue as massa.ioos en In the following problems, the ropes have no mass and
I katrolle as glad beskou word. the puileys are smooth.

P2.6.8 In Figuur 2.19 is die gewigte van blokke A en P2.6.8 In Figure 2.19, the weight of blocks A and B

I B respektiewellk W en 3W. Die toutjie wat die twee

blokke verbind, gaan by C Oor 'n katroi. As die wry-
wingskoilffisient tussen al die vlakke is, bereken die
are W and 3W respectively. The rope that links the two
blocks goes over a pulley at C. If the friction coefficient
between all the surfaces is !, calculate the magnitude

I grootte van die krag F wat nodig is om blok B net na

regs te laat beweeg.
of force F necessary to make block B just move to the
right.

P2.6.9 Die massas A en B in Figuur 2.20 se gewigte P2.6.9 The weight of masses A and B in Figure 2.20

I is respektiewe1ik W 1 en W•. Die wrywingskoiiflisient I-'

op altwee hellende vlakke is dieselfde. Bereken IJ as die
etelael net op die punt is om te begin beweeg.
is W 1 and W. respectively. The friction coefficient I-' on
both inclined surfaces is the same. Calculate IJ if the
system is just about to start moving.

I P2.6.10 Twee ldentiese masBas rus op die sykante van

'n dubbelhellende vlak waarvan die helllngshoeke 30° en
P2.6.10 Two identical masses rest on the sides of a
double inclined surface, whim forms inclined angles 30°
60° is. Hulle is verbind deur 'n tou wat gaan oor 'n katrol and 60°. They are linked by a rope that goes over a
I by die gemeenskaplike toppunt van die twee vlakke. Die
wrywingskoeeffisient op vlakke is dieselfde. Toon
pulley at the common apex of the two surfaces. The
friction coefficient on both surfaces is the same. Show
aan dat die die massas net op die punt is om te gly as that the masses are just about to slide if I-' = 2 - "ra.
1-'= 2 -"ra.
I
I (
A
r )
I \
8 , F -
, /, -,//'/r","/ " , '".1 , / /. ' ///,'/,//

I Figuur 2.19

I
I 80

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.20

I
I
I
I B
I Figuur 2.21

P2.6.11 In Figuur 2.21 is m8S8BB A en B se gewigte
I respektieweiik W, en W. en die twee vere se kragkon-
stantes is respektieweiik /C, en /C.. Bereken aitwee vere
se uitrekking by ewewig.
P2.6.11 The weight of masses A and B in Figure 2.21
are W, and Wo respectively, and the stiffness constlints
of the two springs are /C, and /co respectively. Calculate
the extension of both springs in equilibrium.

I
2.7 TWEE-DIMENSIONELE STELSELS 2.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS
I VANKRAGTE OF FORCES·
Indlen die fisiese a£m.etings van 'n starre liggaam in 'n IT the physical me.BBurements of a rigid body in a given

I gegewe situBBie In aanmerklng geneem moet word, sa!

kragte wat op die iiggaam inwerk in die aigemeen ver-
skillende aangrypingspunte kan he, en die ewewigsvoor-
waarde van §2.6.1 is dan klaarbiykiik nie meer voldoende
I vir die ontleding van die probleem nie. Ons beperk ons
voorlopig tot die geval waar ai die kragte wat op die
Uggaam Inwerk, vektore is wat In dleselfde vlak (d. w.s.
situation must be taken into account, the forces being
exerted on the body can generally have different points
of application, and the condition of equilibrium of §2.6.1
is then obviously no longer sufficient for the analysis
of the problem. We shall limit ourseives for the time
being to the case in which all the forces being exerted
on the body are vectors lying on the same plane (i.e. a

I twee-d1mensionele ruimte) le. Ons sai sien dat ons

vir hierdie spesiale geval begrippe ontwikkel wat ons in
staat sa! ste! om die algemene probleem op te los.
two-dimensional space). We wili see that we develop
concepts for this special case which wiil enable us to
solve the general probiem iater.

I 81

I
I
I 2.7.1 Resultant
Kragte
van Nie-Ewewydige 2.7.1 Resultant of Non-parallel Forces

I Indien twee nie-ewewydige, saamvlakkige kragte op 'n

liggaam inwerk soos in Figuur 2.22, moet hul werklyne
noodwendig mekaar in 'n punt sny. Van Aksiomas 2.1 en
I 2.2 kan die twee kragte dan by die punt tot 'n enkele krag
sommeer word wat ekwivalent aan die oorspronklike
stelael van twee kragte is. Op hierdie wyse kan 'n stelael
IT two non-parallel, coplanar forces are exerted on a
body, as in Figure 2.22, their lines of action must of
necessity intersect at one point. According to Axioms
2.1 and 2.2, the two forces at thls point can add up to
a single force that la equivalent to the original system
of two forces. In this way, a system of coplana.r forces

I van saamvlakkige kragte in die algemeen deur herhaalde

paarsgewyse optelling gereduseer word na 'n enkele krag.
can in general be reduced to a single force by means of
repeated pairwise addition.

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.22

2.7.2 Resultant van Ewewydige Kragte 2.7.2 Resultant of Parallel Forces

I Die werklyne van twee ewewydige kragte sny mekaar nie
en klaarblyklik kan Aksiomas 2.1 en 2.2 nie in so 'n geval
gebruik word nie. Ons kan egter tog met behulp van 'n
I konstruksie 'n weg uit hierdie skynbare dilemma vind.
The lines of action of two parallel forces do not inter-
sect, in which case Axioms 2.1 and 2.2 can not be used.
We can, however, with the help of a construction find a
solution to this apparent dilemma. .

Ons beskou twee kragte F, en F. waar We consider two forces Fl and F., where

I (2.8)

I en waar A enige skalaar is. In Figuur 2.23 word die aan-

grypingspunte A en B van hierdie twee kragte eerstens
geskuif sodat hulle altwee op 'n lyn le wat loodreg is op
and where A is any scalar. In Figure 2.23 the points of
application A and B of these two forces are first dis-
placed 80 that they both lie on a line that is perpendic-
die rigtings van die kragte. Vervolgens word 'n krag P
I waarvan die rigting ewewydig aan lyn BA la en wat by A
aangryp by die stelsel gevoeg en terselfdertyd word die
ular to the directions of the forces. Then we add to the
system a force P, the direction of which is parallel to
line BA and which acts at A as well as force -P which
krag - P wat by B aangryp ook by die stelsel gevoeg. acts at B. Since these two forces can be added to the
I Aangesien hierdie twee kragte met behulp van Aksiomas
2.1 en 2.2 by enige punt op AB gesommeer kan word tot
die nuikrag, verander hul byvoeging nie die meganiese
null force at any point on AB with the help of Axioms
2.1 and 2.2 their addition does not change the mechan-
ical effect of the original system.

I werking van die oorspronklike stelsel nie.

I 82

I
 I
I
I
I
I ,,
"

I o
:' ,
" "...
+--+ F
I
I
I
I Flguur 2.23

Die kragte F 1 en P gryp belde by A aan en ka.n daar Forces F 1 and P both act on A and can be added there

I gesomnuner word tot Fl + P; eweneens ka.n F. en P

by B gesommeer word tot F. + P. Hierdie twee kragte
is klaarblyklik nie ewewydig nie en met behulp van Ak-
to yield Fl + P; similarly F. and P can be added at
B to yield F. + P. These two forces obviously are not
parallel, and with the help of Axioms 2.1 and 2.2 they

I
siomas 2.1 en 2.2 ka.n hulle dan by die punt 0 waar hul can be summed to a single force at point 0 where their
werklyne sny, gesommeer word tot die enkele krag lines of action intersect:

F = (Fl + P) + (F. - P) = Fl + F. . (2.9)

I Vergelyking (2.9) atel die grootte en rigting van die
resultant F vas. Die werklyn van die resultant volg uit
I die van die konstruksle. Aangesien l:!.AC D
en l:!.BEG respektiewelik gelykvormig is aan l:!.OHA
en l:!.OHB, volg dat
Equation (2.9) determines the magnitude and direc-
tion of the resultant F. The line of action of the re-
sultant follows from the geometry of the construction.
Since l:!.ACD and l:!.BEG are similar to l:!.OHA and
l:!.OH B respectively, it follows that

I Fl q F. q
- - - en/and - - -
I sodat
P - Xl P - X.

so that

I en dus
Pq = FIXl en/and Pq = F.x.
and hence

I (2.10)

I
83
I
I
I Aangesien (2.10) nie vir P 6f q bevat nie, is hierdie re-
sultaat onalbankJik van die besonderhede van die kon-
Since (2.10) does not contain P or q, this result is inde-
pendent of the details of the construction, and the line

I
struksie en is die werklyn van F uniek vasgeste\. of action of F is determined uniquely.

Probleme
I P2.'T.l Teken Figuur 2.23 oor vir die geval waar Fl en
F. se rlgtings teengesteld is en verkry dan 'n resultaat
Problems
P2.'T.l Redraw Figure 2.23 for the case in which the
directions of Fl and F. are opposed, and calculate a

I soortgelyk san (2.10) vir die werklyn van die resultant.

result similar to (2.10) for the line of action of the re-
sultant.

I 2.7.3 Die Koppel

'n Vraag wat onmiddelik opduik, Is of die konstruksie in
§2.7.2 in alle gevalle 'n resultaat lewer. Klaarblyklik kan
I die konstruksie nie slaag nie indien die werklyne van die
kragte Fl + P en F. - P in Figuur 2.23 op hul beurt
ook ewewydig is, d.w.s. indien
2.7.3 The Couple
The question arises immediately whether the construc-
tion in §2.7.2 produces a result in all instances. Ob-
viously the construction cannot succeed if the lines of
action of forces F 1 + P and F. - P in Figure 2.23 are
also parallel, i.e. if

I Fl + P = o(F. - P) .
Van (2.8) het ons dan From (2.8) we then have
I .\F. +P = o(F. - P}

I en dus

(.\ - 0}F2 = -(0 + I}P

and hence

I Aangesien F. en P nie ewewydig is nie, kan laasge-

noemde vergelyking slegs waar wees indien die nulvektor
Since F. and P are not parallel, the last equation can
be true only if the null vector occurs on both sides of
san beide kante daarvan voorkom, d.w.s. indien the equation, i.e. if

I .\ - 0 = 0 en/and 0 +1 = 0

I sodat

'\=0=-1 .
so that

I Vir .\ = -1 het ons in Figuur 2.23 'n stelsel van twee

teengestelde kragte met verskillende werklyne.
For .\ = -1, we have a system of two opposed forces
with different lines of action in Figure 2.23. We
Na s6 'n stelsel (Figuur 2.24) sal ons voortaan verwys shall refer to such a system (Figure 2.24) as a couple.

I as 'n koppel.

I F

I d.
-F-
I Figuur 2.24

I 84

I
I
I 'n Koppel lean noolt na 'n enkele krag gereduseer
word nie.
A couple can never be reduced to a single force.

I 2.7.4 Reduksie van Twee-Dimensionele 2.7.4 Reduction of Two-dimensional Sys-

Stelsel van Kragte tem of Forces
I Uit die voorafgaande volg onmiddelik dat 'n twee-
dlmensionele stelsel van kragte gereduseer kan word na
It follows immediately from the above that a two-
dimensional system of forces can be reduced either to
6f 'n krag 6f 'n koppel. a force or to a couple.
I
I 2.8 MOMENTE
2.8.1 Deflnisie
2.8 MOMENTS
2.8.1 Definition

I Eksperimenteei word gevind dat 'n koppel 'n suiwer

rotasie-effek op 'n liggaam het. Nou weet ons uit on-
Experiments have shown that a couple has a purely
rotational effect on a body. We know from experience
dervinding dat enige krag in die algemeen twee effekte that, in general, any force has two effects on a body:

I op 'n liggaam het: Eerstens neig dit om die liggaam te

laat transleer (of uniform te laat beweeg) in die rigting
van die krag en tweedens neig dit om die liggaam te laat
firstly, it tends to make the body translate (or move
uniformly) in the direction of the force and secondly, It
tends to make the body rotate about an axis. To be

I roteer om 'n 88. Ten einde die ewewigsprobleem vir 'n

starreliggaam verder te analiseer, is dit dan nodig om
die rotasie-effek van kragte kwantitatief uit te druk.
able to analyse the equilibrium problem of a rigid body
further, it is necessary to express the rotational'effect of
forces quantitatively.

I In Figuur 2.25 word 'n moersleutel 08 wat gebruik word

om 'n moer by 0 te draai, skematies voorgestel. Die
krag F is in dieselfde vlak soos die moersleutel. Uit
Figure 2.25 is a schematic representation of a spanner
08 that is used to turn a nut on a bolt at O. Force F is
in the same plane as the spanner. From everyday experi-

I alledaagse ondervinding sowel as uit eksperiment weet

ons dat die rotasie-effek om 0 van die krag F wat op
die moersleutel uitgeoefen word, op twee maniere verg-
ence and from experiments we know that the rotational
effect on 0 of force F heing exerted on the spanner can
be increased in two ways: firstly F can be increased and
root kan word: Eerstens kan F grater gemaak word en secondiy, d, Le. the perpendicular distance between 0
I tweedens kan d, d. w.s. die loodregte afstand tussen 0
en F se werklyn, groter gemaak word. Dit is natuurlik
om die produk van hierdie twee hoeveelhede te gebruik
and F's line of action, can be increased. It is natural to
use the product of these two quantities as a measure of
the rotational effect of F about 0:

I as 'n maat van die rotasie-effek van F om 0:

Mo=Fd (2.11)

I In (2.11) word die moment van F om 0, Mo,
gedefinieer. Die rotasie-effek het egter kJaarblyklik 'n
I voorkeurrigting, en we! om 'n as loodreg op die vlak
wat F en r (die posisievektor van F se aangrypingspunt
m.b.t. 0) bevat. Dit is natuurlik om dan die mo-
The moment of F on 0, Mo, is defined in (2.11). How-
ever, the rotational effect 'has a preferential direction,
which is about an axis perpendicular to the plane that
contains F and r (the position vector of F's point ofap-
plications with regard to 0). Therefore, it is natural to

I ment te heskou as 'n vektor waarvan die grootte gegee

word deur (2.11) en waarvan die rigting die van die
voorkeurrotasie-as is. Aangesien ons (2.11) uit Figuur
regard the moment as a vector, the magnitude of which
is given by (2.11) and the direction of which is that of
the preferential rotational axis. Since we can describe
(2.11) from Figure 2.25 as
I
2.25 kan omskryf as

Mo = Frsin9 = \r x F\,

I
I 85

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I •
- - .. J ......,
I
I
I

R
I , I
I

Figuur 2.25
I volg die volledige definisie van die moment van F om the complete definition of the moment of F about 0
0:
I
is:

IMo=rxFI (2.12)

I
2.8.2 I>itnensies 2.8.2 I>itnensions
I Uit definisie volg onmlddelik dat die dimensies van 'n It follows immediately from this definition that the di-
moment die produk is van die dimensies van krag en ai- mensions of a moment are the product of the dimen-
=
I stand. In die SI-stelse1 het ons dUB [M] Nm. sions of force and distance. In the SI system, we have
[M]=Nm.

I 2.8.3 Motnente van Ekwivalente Kragte 2.8.3 Motnent of Equivalent Forces

Indien die aangrypingspunt van F in Figuur 2.25 geskuif If the point ofapplication ofF in Figure 2.25 is displaced

I word na R, weet ons van aksioma 2.1 dat BY mega-

nies ef£ek diese1fde bly. Van (1.48) volg egter dat
Mo = r x F = d x F, en die moment van F om 0
sal daarom onveranderd bly indien sy aangrypingspunt
I langs sy werkiyn verskuif word. Ons sien dUB dat ek-
wivalente kragte dieselfde moment om 'n gegewe
punt het.
to R, we know from axiom 2.1 that its mechanical effect
remains the same. However, it follows from (1.38) that
Mo =
r x F = d x F, and the moment ofF about 0
will remain the same if its point of application is shifted
along its line of action. Therefore, we see that equiva-
lent forces have the same moment about a given
point.

I 2.8.4 I>ie Vektoraard van Motnent 2.8.4 The Vector Nature of Motnent

I Hoewel die hoeveelheid wat ons in (2.12) gedefinieer het,

wel 'n grootte en rigting besit, kM ons dit slegs as 'n
Although the quantity that we defined in (2.12) has a
magnitude and a direction, we can regard it as a vector
vektorhoevee1he1d beskou indien dit die rekenreels van quantity only if it complies with the algebraic rules of

I §1.5 gehoorsaam. Eksperimenteel kM vasgeste1 word §1.5. Experiment have shown that this is indeed true.

I
86

I
I
I dat dit we! die geVsl is. Wat veral van belang is, is die
feit dat momente 8008 vektore sommeer. Anders gestel:
Of particular Importance is the fact that moments sum
like vectors, in other words: the resultant rotational

I Die resultante rotasie-effek van 'n aantal kragte

om 'n gegewe punt word gegee deur die som van
hul momente om ditS punt. In Figuur 2.26 Is die
effect of a number of forces about a given point
Is given by the sum of their moments about this
point. In Figure 2.26, the total moment about 0 of the
totale moment om 0 van die getoonde stelsel van kragte depicted system of forces Is:
I by.

I Mo =Mo,+Mo2+···+Mo n

= r, x F, + r2 x F2 + ... + rn x F n (2.13)
n
2:r, xF,.
I =
1=1

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.26

I Voorbeelde
V2.S.1 In Figuur 2.27 word 'n krag P op 'n hefboom
Examples
V2.S.1 In Figure 2.27, a force P is applied on a lever.

I uitgeoefen. Bereken P se moment om O. Calculate P's moment about O.

I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.27

87

I
I
I OploBBing: Aangeslen ol'ls hier 'n twee-dlmenslonele Solution: Since we have a two-dimensional problem
probleem het, kan ons Mo direk uit (2.11) bereken; die here, we can calculate Mo directly from (2.11); the di-

I rigtlng van die moment Is noodwendlg loodreg op die

vlak wat P en r bevat en kan van (2.12) m.b.v. die
regterhandreel verkry word.
rection of the moment is perpendicular to the plane that
contains P and r, and can be obtained from (2.12) with
the help of the right-hand rule.

I Mo = Pd = Pasin 20' = .342Pa

I Vir die gekose aaseste1sel In Figuur 2.27 het ons dan Therefore, for the chosen reference system In Figure 2.27
we have:
Mo = .342Pa(-£) .
I V2.8.2 Die mas AB in Flguur 2.28 se lengte Is 6 m en
dit word In ewewlg gehou deur drle kabels soos getoon.
V2.8.2 The length ofma&t AB In Figure 2.28 Is 6 m, and
it is kept in equilibrium by three cables, as shown. The

I Die krag T in kabel BE se grootte Is 840 N. Bereken die

moment van hierdie krag om C.
magnitude of force T in cable BE Is 840 N. Calculate
the moment of this force about C.

I y
B

I
I c
I I
2ml
I

I
I

I •
Figuur 2.28
I OploB.ing: Omdat die vial< waarin s (die poslsievektor Solution: Since the plane in which 8 (the position vector
van T se aangrypingspunt m.b.t. C) en T le nie een of T's point of application with regard to C) and T lie Is
I van die koordinaatvlakke Is nie, moet ons noodwendig
gebrulk maak van die definlsie (2.12):
not one of the coordinate planes, we must use definition
(2.12):

I Mo=sxT

Die vektorproduk kan maldik bereken word Indien 8 en The vector product can be calculated easily if we can

I T in komponentvorm bekend Is. Uit die geometrie van

Figuur 2.28 volg onmiddelik
express 8 and T in component form. It follows immedi-
ately from the geometry of Figure 2.28 that:

I 8 =
=
(3 - O)x + (6 - 2)0 + (0 - 3)£ m
3x+40-3£m .

I Die grootte van T is bekend (T = 840 N) terwyl sy

rigting dieselfde is as die van die verplasing 11E.
We know the magnitude of T (T = 840 N) and its di-
rection is the same as that of displacement BE. The
Laasgenoemde kan ook in komponentvorm geskryf word latter can also be described in component form from the

I uit die geometrie van die opstelling: geometry of the setup:

88

I
I
I 7J1!J = (6 - 3)£+ (0 - 6)0 + (2 - 0)£ m
=
I 3£-6f}+2Zm

Ons konstrueer vervolgens 'n eenheidsvektor 11 met die- We then construct a unit vector iI with the same direc-

I n,
selfde rigting as tion asn,

I
11= 1:1 =

waarna ons dan vir T in komponentvorm kan skryf: after which we can write T in component form:

I
T=TII = B40 (3£ - 60 + 2%) N
I =
7

360£ - 7200 + 240£ N

I Dan voig vir die gevraagde moment, It then follows for the required moment that

I Mc = sxT

£ fj £
=
I 3 4 -3
360 -720 240
Nm

= -1200£ - 1BOOO - 3600£ Nm .

I
I Die grootte van Mc is dUB Mc = 4200 Nm en die
rigting daarvan is die van die eenheidsvektor Mc =
,( -2! - 3y - 6£).
Therefore, the maguitude of Mc is Mc = 2200 Nm and
its direction is that of unit vector Mc =
6£).
H-2£ - 3fj -

I Probleme Problems

I P2.B.l 'n Krag van 400 N word in Figuur 2.29 op die

punt B van 'n pyp uitgeoefen. Bereken
(a) die moment van hierdie krag om A en
(b) die grootte en rigting van 'n horisontale krag, uit-
I geoefen op C, wat dieselfde moment om A het.
P2.8.1 A force of 400 N is applied to end B of a pipe
in Figure 2.29. Calculate
(a) the moment of this force about A, and
(b) the magnitude and direction of a horizontal force,
exerted on C, which has the same moment as A.

P2.B.2 'n Krag F van BO N werk by A in op die hand- P2.8.2 A force F of 80 N is applied to A on the handle

I vstse1 van die papiersnyer in Figuur 2.30.

(a) Bereken die moment van hierdie krag om die sksrnier
o vir 9=60·.
of the guillotine in Figure 2.30.
(a) Calculate the moment of this force about hinge 0
for 9 = 60·.
(b) Vir watter waarde van 9 sal F se (kloksgewyse) mer (b) For what value of 9 wil F's (clockwise) moment on
I ment om 0 'n maksimumwaarde aanneem?
P2.B.3 In Figuur 2.31 word die kruk A deur die sleutel
o assume a maximum value?

P2.8.3 In Figure 2.31, crank A is prevented l?y the key

I by B verhoed om te glip om die vaste as 8. Bereken die

moment van die BOO N krag om B.
at B to slide on fixed azis 8. Calculate the moment of
the BOO N force about B.

I 89

I
I
I
I
I m

I
I . m I
I

I Figuur 2.29

I
I
I
I
I
Figuur 2.30
I
I
I
I
I
I Flguur 2.31

I 90

I
I
I P2.8.4 Die mas in Flguur 2.32 steun 'n verkeerslig met
gewig W. Bereken die moment van die gewig om A.
P2.8.4 The mast in Figure 2.32 supports a traffic light
with weight W. Calculate the moment on the weight
about A.

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.32

I P2.8.5 'n Krag F = P(z + 20 - z) word In Figuur 2.33

by D ultgeoefen. Bereken die momente van hierdie krag
om die laste by B en C.
P2.8.5 A force F = P(z + 20 - z) is exerted on D in
Figure 2.33. Calculate the moments of this force about
the joints at B and C.

I ,

I f------a-------7

I
I
I
I Figuur 2.33

I P2.8.6 Die mas AB in Figuur 2.34 le in die Y Z-vlak

en 'n trekkrag met grootte F = 500 N word deur die
kabel BC daarop uitgeoefen.
I (a) Bereken die moment van die trekkrag om A.
(b) Wat is die kortste afstand vanaf A na die kabel?
P2.8.6 Mast AB in Figure 2.34 lies in the Y Z plane
and a tensile force of magnitude F = 500 N is applied
to it by cable BC.
(a) Calculate the moment of the tensile force about A.
(b) What is the shortest distance from A to the cable?

I
I 91

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.34

I 2.9 KOPPELS 2.9 COUPLES

I 2.9.1 Moment van 'n Koppel 2.9.1 Moment of a Couple

I
A
I
J.
I
B -F
I
I
Figuur 2.35

I Ona het in §2.7.3 'n koppel gedefinieer as twee We defined a couple in §2.7.3 as two opposite forces with
tef\ngeste1de kragte met verskillende werklyne; voortaan different working lines; we shall henceforth for instance
I sal ons byvoorbeeld die koppel in Figuur 2.35 aandui
deur {F, -F}. Beskou ons 'n willekeurige punt P,
sal beide die kragte in 'n gegewe koppel momente om P
indicate the couple in Figure 2.35 by {F, -F}. IT we
consider an arbitrary point P, both the forces in a
given couple will have moments on P. From (2.13), we
he. Van (2.13) kan ons die totale moment Mp van die
I koppe1 om P verkry deur hierdie momente te sommeer,
en in Figuur 2.35 volg dan
can obtain the total moment Mp of the couple about P
by summing these moments, and in Figure 2.35 it then
follows that

I 92

I
I
I Mp = sAxF+SBX(-F)

I =
=
(SA - SB) X F
8xF.

I Aangesien s die verplasing tussen die aangrypingspunte

van die kragte F en -F Is, is Mp dus onafhanklik van P
se posisie. Anders gestel: Die moment van 'n kop-
Since s is the displacement between the points of appll·
cation of the forces F and - F, Mp is independent of
P's position, in other words: the moment of a couple
I pel om alle punte is dieselfde. Ons kan daarom
voortaan die voetskrif P in bostaande weglaat en ons
heef slegs te verwys na "die moment van die koppel".
about all points Is the same. Therefore, we can now
omit the subscript P in the above and we need to refer
only to "the moment of the couple". We can calculate
Ons kan die grootte en rigting van hierdie moment vind
I uit die geometrie in Figuur 2.35 deur gebruik te maak
van (1.48):
the magnitude and direction of this moment from the
geometry in Figure 2.35 by making use of (1.48):

I IM=s xF=d xF=Fdiil (2.14)

In (2.14) is ii loodreg op die vlak wat {F, -F} bevat en
I sy rigting word deur die regterhandreel uit die koppei se
rotasie-sin verkry. Ons sien dus dat die grootte van 'n
koppel se moment die produk is van die grootte van
In (2.14), ii is perpendicular to the plane that containes
{F, -F} and its direction is found by means ofthe right-
hand rule from the couple's sense of rotation. Therefore,
we see that the magnitude of a couple's moment is the

I die kragte in die koppel met die afstand tussen

die kragte terwyl die rlgtlng van die moment lood-
reg is op die vlak wat die twee kragte bevat en
verder deur die regterhandreel uit die koppel se rotasie-
I sin verkry word.
product of the magnitude of the forces In the cou-
ple and the distance between the forces, whereas '
the direction ofthe moment is perpendicular to the
plane that contains the two forces and can be ob-
tained by means of the right-hand rule from the couple's
sense of rotation.

I 2.9.2 Ekwivalensie van Koppels 2.9.2 Equivalence of Couples

K1aarblyklik kan 'n mens meer as een koppei konstrueer
I met 'n gegewe moment. 'n Vraag wat nou onmiddelik
ontstaan, is of M in §2.9.1 'n vrye vektor is, d.w.s. of
aIle koppels met dieselfde moment meganies ekwiva-
One can obviousiy construct more than one coupie with
a given moment. The question that arises immediately is
whether or not M in §2.9.1 is a free vector, i.e. whether
or not all the couples with the aame moment are me-

I lent is. Ons kan hierdie vraag bea.ntwoord deur eerstens

in te sien dat drie operasies op 'n koppel uitgevoer kan
word sander om sy moment te verander:
chanically equivalent. We can answer this question
by realising firstly that three operations can be carried
out on a couple without changing its moment:

I (a) Vergroot die 'kragte in die koppel met 'n faktor Q en

die afstand tussen hulle met die faktor
(b) Roteer die koppel in die vlak waardeur dit bevat
word.
I (c) Tranaleer die hele koppel sonder om die groottes of
rigtings van die kragte te verander.
(a) Increase the magnitude of the forces in the couple by
a factor Q and the distance between them by the factor
l.
a
(b) Rotate the couple in the plane which contains It.
(c) Translate the entire couple without changing the
magnitudes or directions of the forces.

I Ons toon nou &an dat in elkeen van hierdie drie gevalle
'n ekwivalente koppel verkry word.
We now show that in each of these three cases an equiv·
alent couple is obtained.

I
I
I 93

I
I
I (i) Getoon in Figuur 2.36 is die koppel {F, -F} met
aangrypingspunte by A en B; m.b.v. Aksioms 2.1 kan
hierdie punte s6 gekles word dat AB loodreg op beide
(i) Couple {F, -F} with points of application at A and
B is shown in figure 2.36; with the help of Axiom 2.1,
these points can be chosen such that AB is perpendic-
kragte is. Die nuJkrag word nou by die stelae! gevoeg, ular to both forces. The null force is now added to
I en wel deur teengestelde kragte -(o-l)F en (o-l)F op
Q, die middelpunt van AB, te laat inwerk. Van §2.7.2
the system by letting oppessed forces -(0 - l)F and
(0 - l)F act on Q, the midpoint of AB. From §2.7.2,
kan one dan Fen (0 -l)F sommeer tot 'n enkele krag we can then sum F and (0 - l)F to a single force -oF
I of by A' en soortgelyk lean -F en gesommeer
word tot -oF by B'. Van (2.10) volg verder vir A' se
poslsie dat
at B'. It follows from (2.10) for the position of A' that

I
= (o-l)Fa

I en dUB and hence

I d
a=-.
20

I Netso volg vir B' se posisie dat Similarly, it follows for the position of B' that

I b=-,
20
d

sodat die alBtand tussen A' en B' gegee word deur so that the distance between A' and B' is given by
I d
d' =a+b=-.
I One sien dUB dat die operasie (a) hierbo bloot neerkom
o

Therefore, we see that operation (a) above merely

op die byvoeging van 'n nulkrag by die oorspronk- amounts to the addition of a null force to the origi-
I like koppel, en die koppel {oF,-oF} wat d.m.v. die
operasie verkry word, is dUB ekwivalent san die oor-
nal couple, and couple {oF,-oF}, which is obtained
by means of this operation, is equivalent to the original
spronklike een. one.
I
A
F
I -
,
1
1
d. : A'
I 1: """'-"lr-----+o<F
a.
-(0< ·,)F ,,- (,(-1)/=
I -",F
b
IQ
1
1
'8'
: 4?
I -
-F ..
,I .
I
rj, _, ___ •
6
I Figuur 2.36

I 94

I
I
I
-I

I -F

I F

I -F'\ .-; {/\' ",e·

•

f:j'

F-
I 6' .,-
.
• 'It'
., I

-F 9 \-:-,' j!

I •
\ ........... -
I F'-F
Flguur 2.37
I (il) In Figuur 2.37 word die koppe! {F, -F} getoon; die (iI) Figure 2.37 shows couple {F, -F}; the points of
aangrypingspunte A en B word weereens s6 gekies dat application A and B are again chosen 80 that AB Is
I AB loodreg op die kragte is. Die lynstuk AB word nou
deur 'n willekeurige hoek 9 geroteer om sy midde!punt
perpendicular to the forces. Line segment AB is now
rotated through an arbitrary angle 9 about its centre
om die lynstuk A' B' te verkry. Die nulkrag word dan point to obtain line segment A' B'. The null force Is

I by A' en B' gevoeg deur beide F' en ay teengestelde

- F' op elkeen van hierdie punte te laat inwerk, waar F'
=
loodreg op A' B' is en waar IF/I IFI. Aangesien slegs
then added to A' and B' by allowing both F' and its
opposed force - F' to be applied to each of these points,
where F' is perpendicular to A' B' and IF/I = IFI. Since
die nulkrag by die stelae! gevoeg is, is die nuwe .telae! only the null force is added to the system, the new sys-
I van sea kragte ekwivalent aan die oorspronk1ike koppel.
Met behulp van Aksiomas 2.1 en 2.2 kan die kragte F
tem of six forces is equivalent to the original couple.
With the help of Axioms 2.1 and 2.2, forces F at A and
by A en - F' by A' gesommeer word tot die enkele krag - F' at A' Can be summed to a single force F - F' which
I F - F' wat aangryp by C en 800rtgelyk kan die kragte
-F by B en F' by B' gesommeer word tot die enkele
krag F' - F wat Qangryp by D. Uit die konstruksie volg
acts at C. Similarly, forces -F at B and F' at B' can
be summed to a single force F' - F which acts at D.
It now follows from the construction that llOBD and

I nou onder andere dat llOBD en llOB ' D kongruent is,

sodat
llOB ' D is congruent, so that

I • 9
(3 =,),=90 - -.
2

I Vir die volle hoek om D volg dan It then follows for the complete angle about D that

2a + 29 + 2(90· - = 360· ,
I sodat so that

I 9
a=90·--=/3=')'.
2

I 95

I
I
I Ona sien dUB dat et en {3 teenoorstaande hoeke is, wat
beteken dat die krag F' - F dieseJfde rigting het as OD.
Ona kan vervolgens deur 'n soortge1yke argument vassteJ
Therefore, we see that et and {3 are opposite angles,
which means that force F' - F has the same direction
as OD. We can establish through a slIDilar argument
dat die krag F - F' dieselfde rigting het as oe. Aan- that force F - F' has the same direction as oe. Since
I geslen DOe 'n regult lyn is, het F - F' en F' - F dUB
dieselfde werklyn, en ken hulle op hlerdie werklyn ge-
DOe is a straight line, F - F' and F' - F have the same
line of action, and they can be summed on this line of
sommeer word tot die enkele krag (F-F')+(F' -F) = O. =
action to the single force (F - F') + (F' - F) O. The

I Die oorspronkJike koppel is daarom ekwivalent aan die

koppeJ {F', - F'} wat oorbly, en ana het hlermee aange-
toon dat operasie (b) ook 'n ekwivalente koppel lewer.
original oouple is therefore equivalent to the remaining
couple {F', - F'} and we have now shown that operation
(b) also produces an equivalent oouple.

I (ill) Beskou die koppeJ {F, -F} in Flguur 2.38(a) met

aangryplngspunte A en B. By 'n willekeurige punt 0
word nou die nulkrag gevoeg deur die kragte 2F en -2F
I daarop te laat Inwerk. Met behulp van P2.7.1 kan die
kragte F by A en -2F by 0 gesommeer word tot 'n
ellkele krag - F by D. Die posisle van D word aan die
(U) Consider couple {F, -F} In Figure 2.38(a) with
points of application A and B. The null force is now
added to an arbitrary point 0 by applying forces 2F
and -2F to it. With the help of P2.7.1, forces F at A
and - 2F at 0 can be summed to a single force -Fat D.
The position of D is established on the basis of Figure

I hand van Figuur 2.38(b) vasgestel: Van P2.7.1 het ons

dat
2.38(b): According to P2.7.1, we have

F(a + b) = (2F)b
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I .-F

-- -- ---- - ---" -_ ••• ;>'

I A a.
. -:l.F
b

(b)
I Figuur 2.38

I 96

I
I
I en dUB

a=b.
and hence

I Ult gelykvormigheid van die driehoeke In Flguur 2.38(b)

volg dan onmlddelik dat Aa = OD. Op dleselfde wyse
I ke.n ook aangetoon word dat Ba = OC. Aangeslen sy
diagonale mekaar halveer, Is ABDC 'n parallelogram ,
sodat 1JA = re. Deur die hyvoeging van die nulkrag is
die oorspronklike koppel dUB deur die ruimte getransleer,
It follows Immediately from the similarity of tbe trian-
gles in Figure 2.38(b) that Aa = OD. Similarly, It
can also be shown that BO = OC. Since its diagonals
bisect each other, ABDC Is a parallelogram, so that
l1.i[ =re. By adding the null force, the original cou-
ple Is therefore tre.nslated through space, and operation

I en operasie (c) lewer eweneens 'n ekwivalente koppel.

Ons het nou aangetoon dat enlge twee koppels met

(c) also produces an equivalent couple.

We have now shown that any two couples with the

I dieselfde moment ekwlvalent is. Die moment van

'n koppel hevat dUB inderdaad volledlge inllgtlng oor
die koppel se meganiese effek.
same moment are equivalent. Therefore, the mo-
ment of a couple in fact contains complete information
about the couple's mechanical effect.

I 2.9.3 Sommasie Van Koppels 2.9.3 Summation of Couples

I
Slegs een vraag i.v.m. koppels moet nog beantwoord Only one question about couples stili has to be an-
word, naamlik die gesamentlike effek van twee of meer swered, i.e. the joint effect of two or more couples being
koppels wat inwerk op 'n iiggaam. applied to a body.

I
I
I
I - F,

I
I
Figuur 2.39
I Ons beskou enige twee koppels met momente Ml en M. Consider any two couples with with moments Ml en

I respektiewelik, waar hierdle twee momente nie ewewydig

is me. (In die geval van ewewydlge momente word die ar-
gument wat hier volg, triviaal.) Die twee vlakke waarin
die kragte van die twee koppels respektiewelik le, sal
I mekaar in 'n reguit 118 sny. Laat s enige gerigte 118-
stuk op hierdle 118 wees. M.b.v. die operasies (a) -.
(c) in §2.9.2 ke.n die twee koppels nou s6 verskuif word
M2 respectively, where these two moments are not par-
allel. (In the case of parallel moments, this argument
becomes trivial). The two planes in which the forces
composing the two couples respectively lie will intersect
each other in a straight line. Let s be' any directed line
segment on this line. With the help of operations (a) to
(c) in §2.9.2, the two couples can now be translated so

I
I 97

I
I
I dat s die gemeenskaplike skeidingsvektor van die aan-
gryplngspunte van die onderskeie kragtepare in die twee
koppe1s is (Figuur 2.39). Die kragte F, en F. is ulter-
that s is the common separating vector of the points of
application of the respective pairs of forces in the two
couples (Figure 2.39). Forces F, and F. obviously are
aard sodanlg dat M, = s X F, en M. = s X F •. Aange- such that M, = s X F, and M. = s X F.. Since F,
I sien F, en F. nou dleselfde aangrypingspunt B het. kan
hulle vervang word met 'n ekwivalente krag F = F, +F.
and F. now have the same point of application B. they
=
can be replaced by an equivalent force F F, + F. on
by B. Netso kan -F, en -F. by A vervang word deur B. Similarly. - F, and -F. at A can be replaced by
I 'n ekwivalente krag -F. Ons het dus 'n resuiterende
koppel {F. -F} met moment
an equivalent force -F. Therefore. we have a resultant
couple {F. -F} with moment

I M = sxF
= s X (F, + F.)
(2.15)
= s X F, +s X F.
I = M,+M2'

I
Ons het in die derde reel van (2.15) gebrulk gemaak van In the third line of (2.15). we used the well-known prop-
die we1bekende eienskap (1.49) van die vektorproduk. erty (1.49) of the vector product.

Ons kan hierdle be1angrike resultaat soos vol saam- We can summarise this important result as follows: a

I vat: 'n Aantal koppels is saam ekwivalent aan

'n enkele koppel waarvan die moment die vek-
torsom is van die van die onderskeie koppels.
number of couples are jointly equivalent to a sin-
gle couple, the moment of which is the vector
sum of that of the respective couples.

I
2.10 RESULTANT VAN STELSEL VAN 2.10 RESULTANT OF SYSTEM OF
I KRAGTE
Ons het in §2.5 na die vektorsom (op 'n spesifieke werk-
FORCES
In §2.5 we referred to the vector sum (on a specific line

I
lyn) van 'n twee-dlmensione1e stelael van kragte verwys
as die stelael se resultant. Ons wil nou hierdle begrip ult-
brei vir enige stelael van kragte: Die resultant van 'n
stelsel van kragte is die eenvoudigste stelsel wat
of action) of a two-dimensional system of forces as the
system's resultant. We will now expand this concept for
any system of forces: the resultant of a system of
forces is the most simple system that is mechan-

I meganies ekwivalent daaraan is. Ons kan m.b.v.

die resultate in §2.9 'n stelling formuleer wat hierdie
eenvoudlgste stelsel in die algemeen beskryf.
ically equivalent to it. With the help of the results
in §2.9. we can formulate a theorem that describes this
most simple system in general.

I 2.10.1 Reduksiestelling 2.10.1 Reduction Theorem

I In Figuur 2.40 word 'n ste1sel van kragte {Fi; i =

1.2•... , n} met aangrypingspunte A, getoon. Laat P
'n wlllekeurige verwysingspunt wees en laat SI die po-
Figure 2.40 depicts a system of forces {F,; i =
1.2.···.n} with poInts of application A,. Let P be an
arbitrary point of reference and let SI be the position

I sislevektor wees van Ai (i = 1.2.· ". n) m.b.t. P. Vir

die i-te krag word die nulkrag dan by P gevoeg deur
beide F, en - F, daar te laat inwerk. Hierdeur word F,
by A, vervang met 'n ekwivalente stelsel wat bestaan
I ult die krag F, by P en 'n koppel met moment s, X F,.
Hierdle proses word herhaal vir al die n kragte. Die n
kragte by P sommeer dat tot 'n enkele krag by P:
vector of Ai (i = 1.2.···. n) with respect to P. For the
i-th force. the null force is added to P by lstting botb
Fi en -F, act on it. In this way. F, is replaced at A,
by an equivalent system that consists of force F, at
P and a couple with moment Si X F,. This process is
repeated for all the n forces. The n forces at P then add
up to a single force at P:

I
(2.16a)
I
I 98

I
I
I
I
I A,
,;_---+ F,,
1'1....

I S, s;

I
I -F,
t

I Figuur 2.40

I Die n koppels sommeer tot 'n enkele koppel met mo-

ment
The n couples add up to a single couple with moment

I (2.16b)

I Hierdie stelling is van fundamentele belang vir ons
ontleding van stelsels van kragte, en daarom formuleer
I ons dit woordeliks 8008 volg: Die resultant van 'n stelsel
van kragte bestaan in die a1gemeen uit 'n enkele krag
by 'n willekeurige (d.w.s. vryelik gekose) punt Pen 'n
This theorem is very important for our analysis of sys-
tems of forces, so we formulate It in words as follows:
the resultant of a system of forces consists in general
of a single force at an arbitrary (i.e. chosen freely)
point P and a couple, where

I koppel, waar
(a) die krag die vektorsom van die kragte in die
gegewe stelsel is en
(a) the force is the vector sum of the forces in the
given system, and
(b) die moment van die koppel die totale moment (b) the moment of the couple is the total moment of
I van die gegewe stelsel om Pis.

Dit is verder belangrik om daarop te let dst aange-

the given system about P.

It is also important to note that since the null force

I sien die nulkrag by die stelsel gevoeg is om sy resul-

tant te verkry, is die moment van die resultant om
enige punt dieselfde as die van die oorspronklike
is added to the system to obtain its resultant, the mo-
ment of the resultant about any point is the same
as that of the original system.
stelsel.
I Voorbeelde Examples

I V2.10.1 Vervang die stelsel in Figuur 2.41 met 'n krag

by 0 en 'n koppel.
V2.10.1 Replace the system in Figure 2.41 with a force
at 0 and a couple.

I
I 99

I
I
I
I
I
I
I , /
,,
,,
I A (111., 0,0) x
I Figuur 2.41

I Oplo••'ng: Hierdie stelsel bestaan uit die vier kragte
Fl = 4F(-i), F2 = 2P(-z), F3 = 4P(-z) en F4 =
5P( -.e), waarvan die posisievektore m.b.t. 0 respek-
tiewelilt gegee word deur 81 = 0, 82 = 3a.x, 83 =
I 3a.x + 2a17 en 84 = 2al7. Die krag by 0 is dUB
=
Solution: This system consists of the four forces Fl
= =
4P(-z), F2 2P(-z), F3 4P(-z) en F4 5P(-Z), =
the position vectors with respect to 0 of which are given
by 81 = 0, 82 = 3a.x, 83 = 3a.x + 2ay en 84 = 2ay
respectively. Therefore, the force at 0 i8

I terwyl die moment van die koppel gegee word deur whereas the moment of the couple is given by:

I Mo =
=
81XF1+82XF2+83XF3+S4XF4
0 X (-4Fz) + (3a.x) x (-2PZ) + (3a.x + 2ali) x (-4Pz) + (2ali) x (-5PZ)
= 0 + 6Pay + 4Pa(31i - - 10Pa.x
I = + 18y) .

I Mo is dus 'n vektor met grootte 18y2Pa wat in die

XY -vlak lE; en 'n hoek van 1350 mask met die positiewe
X-as.
Therefore, Mo is a vector with magnitude 18y'2Pa,
which lies in the XY plane and forms an angle of 1350
with the positive X axis.

I 2.10.2 Spesiale Geval 2.10.2 Special Case

I Bewering: Indien Statement: If

(2.17)

I in (2.16), kan die stelsel vervang word 6f deur 'n ekwiva- in (2.16) the system can be replaced either by an equiv-
lente krag 6f 'n koppel. alent force or a couple.

I
I 100

I
I
I BetD!l.: Vergelyking (2.17) ka.n op drle wyses bevredig
word:
(a) Indien F = 0, bly net die koppe! oor.
Proof: Equation (2.17) can be satisfied in three ways:

(a) If F = 0, only the couple remains.

I (b) Indien Mp ='0, bly net die krag oor.

(c) Indien belde F en Mp nie nul is nie, is F en Mp
loodreg op mekaar. DIe koppe! en F Ui dus in diese!fde
vlak. In figuur 2.42(a) word bierdie vlak getoon. Aan-
I geslen 'n koppel volledig gespesifiseer word deur die op-
gaaf van BY moment, ka.n ons die koppel beskou as die
steise! {K, -K} met 'n afstand d tussen die twee kragte
I se werklyne sodanlg dat Kd = Mp. D.m.v. die op-
erasles In §2.9, ka.n ons nou die koppe! vervang met 'n
ekwlvalente koppel {F, -F} met 'n afstand Jd tussen
die werklyne van die kragte en waar - F by P aan-
I gryp [Figuur 2.42(b)]. Die twee kragte by P sommeer
dan na die nulkrag en ons bly oor met 'n resultant wat
bestaan uit 'n enkele krag F by Q. Ons let op dat die
(b) If Mp = 0, only the force remains.
(c) If both F and Mp are non-null vectors, F and Mp
are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, the couple
and F lie In the same plane. This plane is shown in figure
2.4.2(a). Since a couple is specified fully by the provi-
sion of Its moment, we can regard the couple as system
{K, -K} with a distance d between the lines of action
=
of the two forces such that K d Mp. By means of the
operations in §2.9, we can now replace the couple by an
equivalent couple {F, -F} with a distance Jd between
the lines of action of the forces and where - F acts at P
(Figure 2.4.2(b)]. The two forces at P then sum to the
null force and we are left with a resultant that consists
of a single force F at Q. We note that the conclusion

I gevolgtrekking wat ons In §2.7.4 gemaak het oor twee-

dimenslonele steise1s van kragte, ook deur bostaande ar-
gument gestaaf word.
that we drew in §2.7.4 about two-dimensional systems
of forces is also supported by the above argument.

I
I Mo
I
I
I
I (a)

I
I -F
'"
p

/KJ.
I Q .:
" F
• f

I (b)

I Figuur 2.42

I 101

I
I
I In die geval (c) hierbo, is dit natuurlik onprakties om
die aangrypingspunt Q van die resultant elke keer d.m. v.
'n konstruksle te verkry. Ons sal eerder gebruik maak
In the case of (c) above, it Is of course impractical to
obtain the point of application Q of the resultant each
time by means of a construction. We shall rather use the
van die felt wat aan die elnde van §2.1O.1 genoem fact mentioned at the end of §2.10.1, i.e. that the mo-
I word, naamlik dat die moment van twee ekwlva-
lente stelsels van kragte om enige punt dieselfde
ment of two equivalent systems of forces about
any point Is the same.
is.

I Voorbeelde Examples

I V2.10.2 In V2.1O.1 geld dat F . Mo = O. Vind die

resultant van die stelae!.
V2.10.2 In V2.10.1 we have that F ·Mo = O. Find the
resultant of the system.

Oplosoing: Ons het in V2.10.1 'n gegewe stelse! van
I kragte gereduseer na 'n krag F = -15P! by 0 en 'n kop-
pe! met moment Mo = 18Pa(-£ + 0) [Figuur 2.43(a)].
Aangesien F "I- 0 en Mo "I- 0 Is die resultant 'n enkele
Solution: In V2.10.1 we reduced a given system of forces
to a force F = 15P! at 0 and a couple with moment
Mo = 18Pa( -£ + 0) [Figore 2.43(a)]. Since F "I- 0 and
Mo "I- 0, the resultant is a single force F with point

I krag F met aangrypingspunt Q [Figuur 2.43(a)]; uiter-

aard moet ons die posisie van Q vind om die resultant
volledig te spesifiseer. Om dit te doen, mask ons ge-
of application Q [Figure 2.43(a)]. Of course, we must
find the position of Q in order to specify the resultant
completely. To do this, we make use of the fact that the

I bruik van die feit dat die twee ste!sels in Figure 2.43(a)
en (b) ekwIvalente stelsels Is en dat die moment van
beide stelaels om (se) 0 dieselfde moet wees. Dan volg:
two systems in Figores 2.43(a) and (b) are equivalent
systems and that the moment of both systems about 0,
for instance, must be the same. It then follows that:

I
I 'I

I
F
I
(a)
I
I y

I
I o X

I (b)

I Figuur 2.43

I 102

I
I "

I O+Mo=sxF
In komponentvorm: In component form:
I 18PB(-t+y) = (d + IIY + z£) X (-15PZ)
= 15P(.,y -lit)

I As ons nou die .,- en II-komponente weerskante van die
vergelyklng aan mekaar ge!yk stel, volg ., = IBen
I 11 = lB. Ons let op dat daar geen beperking op Z
gelltel word deur hierdie opl088ing nie, 'n felt wat nie
ver&88end is nie aangesien (iB, fB,z) die koordinate is
I van 'n reguit lyn wat ewewydig is aan die Z-8S en wat
die XY-vlak any in die punt (lB, lB,O). K1aarblyklik is
hierdie regult Iyn die werklyn van die resultant.
IT we now equate the., and 11 components on both sides
of the equation, it follows that ., = IB and 11 = lB.
We note that no restrictions are placed on z by this SD-
lution, a fact that is not surprising since (fB, fa, z) are
the coordinates of a stralght line that is parallel to the
tB,
Z axis and intersect the XY plane at point (ia, 9).
Obviously, this straight line is the line of action of the
resultant.

I Probleme Problems

I P2.10.1 Die volgende kragte werk in op 'n starre IIg-

gaam: 10K(z - t) by (B, 0, 0); 10K(t - y) by (0, B, 0)
en 10K(y - i) by (0,0, B). Vind hul resultant.
P2.10.1 The following forces are applied to a rigid
body: 10K(z - t) at (a, 0, 0); lOK(t - 0) at (0, a, 0),
and lOK(y - z) at (0,0, a). Find their resultant.

I P2.10.2 Drie kragte 2Kt, 3Ky en 4Ki werk op die-

selfde hoekpunt 0 van 'n kubus (sylengtes B) en langs
sy rante in. Hierdie lltelse! van kragte is ekwivalent aan
P2.10.2 Three forces 2Kt, 3Ky and 4Kz are applied
to the same vertex 0 of a cube (length of sides a) and
along its edges. This system of forces is equivalent to a

I 'n koppe! met moment Mp en 'n krag F wat inwerk op

die punt P wat 0 se diagonaal geopponeerde punt is.
Vind die grootte en rigtingskosinusse van F en Mp.
couple with moment Mp and a force F that is applied
at point P, which is diagonally opposed to O. Calculate
the magnitude and direction cosines of F and Mp.

I P2.10.3 Bereken die afstand tussen A en die werklyn

van die resultant van die drie kragte in Figuur 2.44 vir
P2.10;S Calculate the distance between A and the line
of action of the resultant of the three forces in Figure
=
(a) B 1 m, 2.44 for

I (b) B = 1.5 m en
(c) B = 2.5 m.
(a) a = 1 m
(b) a = 1.5 m and
(c) a= 2.5 m.

I m

I
I
I Figuur 2.44

I P2.10.4 Die krli.g F in Figuur 2.45 se grootte is F =

250 N. Vervang F met 'n ekwivalente lltelse! wat bestaan
uit 'n krag by A en 'n koppel.
P2.10.4 The magnitude of force F in Figure 2.45 is
F = 250 N. Replace F with an equivalent system that
consists of a force at A and a couple.

I
I 103

I
I
I z

I
I
I
I
_ _ _ 5m _ _Y

I Flguur 2.45

P2.10.5 Vind die resultant van die twee koppela wat 2.10.5 Calculate the resultant of the two couples that

I in Figuur 2.46 inwerk op die slinger. acton the pendulum in Figure 2.46.

I y

I 300 N

I
I N

I
I 200N

Flguur 2.46

I P2.10.6 In Figuur 2.47 oefen twee kabela e!k 'n krag

van 90 kN ult op 'n raamwerk met gewig W = 200 kN.
2.10.6 In Figure 2.47, two cables exert a force of 90 kN
each on a truss of weight W = 200 kN. Calculate the
Vind die resultant van die drie kragte. resultant of the three forces.

I P2.10.7 Vervang die stelae! in Figuur 2.48 met 'n krag

by A en 'n koppel.
P2.10.7 Replace the system in Figure 2.48 with a force
at A and a couple.

I P2.10.8 In Figuur 2.49 word twee kragte op 'n mas

uitgeoefen. Vind 'n ekwivalente stelse! wat bestaan uit
P2.10.8 In Figure 2.49, two forces are applied to a
mast. Find an equivalent system that consists of a force
'n krag by 0 en 'n koppeJ. at 0 and a couple.

I
I 104

I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.4'7

I
I y

30.-
P
I IfP
/
I •

I f

I Figuur 2.48

I
I y

I
I
I
•
I Figuur 2.49 I
I
I
I 105
i

I
I
I 2.11 EWEWIG VAN STARRE
LIGGAME
2.11 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID
BODY

I 2.11.1 Algemene Ewewigsvoorwaardes

VIr 'n IIggaa.rn om In ewewIg te wees moet dIe resultant
2.11.1 General Conditions of Equilibrium
For a body to be in equilibrium, the resultant of the

I van dIe kragte wat daarop Inwerk uiteraard 'n nulkrag

wees. As dIe redukslestelUng (2.16) op h1erdle kragte
toegepas word, most belde die krag en dIe moment van
dIe koppel wat verkry word, dus nuivektore wees. Vir
forces being exerted on It must of necessity be a null
force. If the reduction theorem (2.16) is applied to these
forces, both the force and the moment of the couple that
are obtained must therefore be nuil vectors. For a body

I 'n liggasm onderhewlg aan dIe stelselIn Figuur 2.40 kry

ons dan dIe 'lrolgende twee ewewlgsvoorwaardes:
that is subjected to the system in Figure 2.40, we obtain
the followIng two conditions of equilibrium:

I F =
n

LFl=O

I
1=1 (2.18)
n
Mp = LSlXFl=O
1=1

I 'n Starre IIggasm is dus in ewewIg IndIen

(a) die som van die kragte daarop nul is en
A rigid body is therefore in equilibrium if:
(a) the sum of the forces on It Is zero, and
(b) die totale moment van hierdie kragte om enige (b) the total moment of these forces about aOIl
I punt nul is, .

Die twee vektorvergelyklngs in (2.18) lewer in die alge-

point is zero.

The two vector equations in (2.18) In general yield six

I meen ses skalaarvergelykings. Aangesien 'n starre IIg-

gaam sea wybeidsgrade (dIe minimum aantal kOOrdlnate
nodIg om sy posisie en orientasie vas te le) het, is (2.18)
dus beide nodlg en voldoende vir ewewlg.
I 2.11.2 Ewewig in Twee Dimensies
scalar equations. Since a rigid body has six degrees of
freedom (the minimum number of coordInates needed
to specify its position and orientation), (2.18) is both
necessary and sufficient for the equilibrium.
2.11.2 Equilibrium in Two Dimensions

I In 'n groot santal toepassings van (2.17) le aI die kragte

wat op 'n liggasm inwerk In 'n vlak. Ons kan sander
euige verlles aan a1gemeenheid 'n verwysIngstelsel ge-
I bruik wat 80danig is dat die kragte In dIe XY-vlak le
(Figuur 2.50). Die kragte se z-komponente is dan a1mal
In many applications of (1.7). all the forces being exerted
on a body lie In a plane. Without any loss of generality.
we can use a reference system that Is such that the forces
lie In the XY plane (Figure 2.50). The z components of
the forces are then all identically equal to zero, whereas

I
I y

I ,
I F'"
o
I Figuur 2.50

I 106

I
I
I identies geiyk aan nuJ, terwyl hulle momente om enige
punt in die vlak slegs z-komp,onente sal Die sea
their moments about any point in the plane will have
only % components. The six scalar equations in '(2.18)
skalaarvergeiykings in (2.18) verminder dus na drie: are thus reduced to three:

I n n
F. = LF F. = LF•• =0
I
o' =0
1=1
n
.=1 (2.19)
Mp= LM.,=O

I
i=1

In (2.19) is P enige punt in die vlak, F., en F., is In (2.19), P is any point In the plane, F., and

I reapektieweiik die 2)- en II-komponente van F" M •• =

(B' X F,) . .i Is die z-komponent van F, se moment om
P en Mp Is die z-komponent van die totale moment om
P. Om M., te bereken, iB dit slegs nodig om die grootte
I van F, se moment om P m.b.v. (2.11) neer te skryf en
om dan 'npositiewe (negatiewe) teken daaraan toe te
ken indien, vir die in Figuur 2.50, die
F •• are the 2) and 11 components of F, repectlvely,
M., z
= (B' X F,) . Is the z component of F,'s moment
about P and Mp is the z component ofthe total moment
about O. In order to calculate M.h it is only necessary
to calculate the magnitude of F, 's moment about P by
using (2.11) and then to allocate a positive (negative)
sign to it if, for the reference system in Figure 2.50, the

I moment 'n anti-kloksgewyse (kloksgewyse) sin het. moment has an anti-clockwise (clockwise) sense.

Voorbeelde Examples
I Ons sal deurgaans die volgende feit as gegee aanvaar: We shall accept the following fact as a given through-
Die gewig van 'n simmetrlese, uniforme iiggaam gryp out: the weight of a symmetrical, uniform body acts at

I aan by sy simmetrie-punt. (Hierdie resuJtaat sal in die

TWKIB-kursus bewys w()rd in 'n bespreking van mas-
samlddelpunte. )
its point of symmetry. (This result will be proved in the
TWKIB course in a discussion about centres of mass.)

I V2.11.1 'n Uniforme staaf, lengte IGa, rus in ewewig

teen 'n gladde muur en op 'n gladde spyker op 'n afstand
V2.11.1 A uniform rod,length IGa, rests in equillbrlum
against a smooth wall and on a smooth nail at a distance
a vanaf die muur. Bereken die hoek tussen die balk en a from the wall. Calculate the angle between the rod

I die muur. and the wall.

I
I
I ,,

I
I Figuur 2.51
x

I
I 107

I
I
I Op/ossing: Die kragte wat op die staaf inwerk (Flguur
2.51) is sy gewig W (wat aangryp by BY simmetriepunt
Solution: The forces acting on the rod (Figure 2.51) are
its weight W (which acts at its point of symmetry B)
B) en die reaksiekragte N en R; omdat geen wry- and the reaction forces N and R. Since there is no fric-

I wing teenwoordig is nie is laasgenoemde twee kragte

loodreg op die kontakoppervlaktes waarop hulle
inwerk. Vir die gekose verwysingstelsel word die drie
ewewigsvoorwaardes (2.19) nou neergeskry{. Vir die
I berekening van die totale moment van die mlsel word
'n verwysingspunt P s6 gekies dat dit algebraiese
bewerklnge tot 'n minimum beperk, gewoonlik deur dit
tion, the latter two forces are perpendicular to the
contact surfaces on which they are exerted. For the se-
lected reference system, we now write down the three
conditions of equilibrium (2.19). In order to calculate
the total moment of the system, a point of reference P
is chosen such that it reduces algebralc calculations to a
minimum, usually by making it lie on the line of action

I op die werklyn van een of meer van die onbekende kragte

te laat I@.
of one or more of the unknown forces.

I F.=O: R-Ncosa = 0 (a)

F.=O: Nsina-W = 0 (b)

I Mp = 0: N(-!!-) - W(8osina)
sma
= 0 (c)

I Ons let op dat ons drie vergelyklngs het in die drie

onbekendes R, N en a, en die probleem is daarom
We note that we have three equations in the three un-
knowns R, N and a, and the problem is therefore well
goedgedefinieerd. defined.
I Uit (b) volg dat It follows then from (b) that

I W
N=-
sina '

I en as hierdie waarde vir N in (c) gesubstitueer word,

het ons 'n vergelyklng waarin a die enigste onbekende
and if we substitute this value for N in (c), we obtain
an equation in which a is the only unknown:
is:

I
W -8Wosina=0
I Dan volg onmiddelik dat
sm a

It follows immediately that

I sin a = !; a=30·.
2
I Die vergelykings (b) en (a) kan vervolgens gebruik word Equations (b) and (a) can now be used to calculate N
om N en R te vind. and R.

I V2.11.2 'n Uniforme leer rus met sy punte
Ilk op 'n ruwe vloer (wrywingskoliffisiiint 1') en 'n gladde
I muur. Vind die hellingshoek van die leer as dit net op
die punt is om te gly.
V2.11.2 A uniform ladder rests with its ends respec-
tively on a rough floor (friction coefficient 1') and a
smooth wall. Find the slope angle of the ladder if it
is just about to start sliding.

I
I 108

I
I
I
y
I
I
I
I N

x
I Flguur 2.52

I Oplo•• ing: Die kragte wat inwerk op die leer word

getoon in Figuur 2.52. Aangesien die leer op die punt is
om te gly, geld dat I = p.N en is f s6 gerig dat dit die
I imminente beweging van die leer opponeer. Van (2.19)
volg dan
Solution: The forces being exerted on the ladder are
shown in Figure 2.52. Since the ladder is about to slide,
I =
p.N and f is directed such that it opposes the
imminent movement of the ladder. It follows from (2.19)
that

I F. = 0: R- p.N = 0 (a)

I F.

MA
= 0:

= '0 :
N- W

Wa cos a - R(2a sin a}

=

=
0

0
(b)

(c)

I Weereens het ons vergelyldngs in die drie on-

bekendes R, N en a. Van (b) volg dat
Once again we have three equations in the three un-
knowns R, N and a. It then follows from (b) that

I N=W (d)

I en (d) kan dan in (a) ingestel word:

R=p.W
and (d) can be substituted into (a):

(e)

I Indien (e) nou in (c) gestel word, word 'n vergelyklng

verkry waarin a a1 onbekende is,
If (e) is now substituted in (c), we obtain an equation
in which a is the only unknown,

I Wa cos a - 2p.Wasina = 0,

I waarna ons kan oplos vir a: after which we can solve for a:

= -2p.1
I
tan a

I 109

I
I
I V2.11.3 'n Bol, straai a en gewig W, rus op 'n gladde
vla.k wat 'n hoek van 60· met die horisontaai maak.
'n Toutjie van lengte a waarvan die een punt san die
V2.11.3 A sphere, beam a and weight W, rests on a
smooth surface that forms an angle of 60· with the hor-
izontal. A rope of length a, the one point of which is

I boloppervla.k en die ander punt aan die hellende vla.k

verbind Is, hou die bol in poslsie. Bereken die hoek wat
die tou met die hellende vla.k mw en vind die spanning
tied to the surface of the sphere and the other point of
which Is tied to the incllned surface, holds the sphere in
position. Calculate the angle that the rope forms with
in die tou. the incllned surface as well as the tension in the rope.
I
I
I
I y
I
Figuur 2.53

I Oplo ••ing: Die drie kragte wat op die bol inwerk, word
getoon in Flguur 2.53. Die gewig W gryp aan by
I die simmetrie-punt 0 van die bol, en ult e1ementere
meetkunde weet ons dat die normale rea.ksiekrag N se
werklyn ook deur 0 gaan. Van die laaste ewewigsvoor-
Solution: The three forces being exerted on the sphere
are shown in Figure 2.53. Weight W acts at the point
of symmetry 0 of the sphere, and we know from ele-
mentary geometry that the line of action of the nor-
mal reaction force N also passes through O. It follows

I waarde in (2.19), Mo = 0, volg dan onmiddelik dat die

toukrag T se werklyn ook deur 0 moet gaan. Uit die
geometrie van 6.0AB het ons dan
immdlately from the iast condition of eqUilibrium in
(2.19), Mo = 0, that the line of action of force T in
the rope must also pass through O. From the geometry
of 6.0AB, we then have:
I . a 1
sma=-=-
I 2a 2

en dus and therefore

I £>=30· .

I Die grootte van die toukrag word direk ult die eerete
voorwaarde in (2.18) verkry:
We obtain the magnitude of the force in the rope directly
from the first condition in (2.18):

I Dan volg
F. =0: Teas£> - Wsin60· = 0

It then follows that

I T=W.

I
I 110

I
I
I V2.11.4 Die uniforme betonbalk (gewig 2.5 x loa N)
getoon in Figuur 2.54 word stadlg laat sak met behulp
V2.11.4 The uniform concrete beam (weight 2.5 x
lOG N) shown in Figure 2.54 is lowered slowly with the
van twee kabels, elk met 'n breekkrag van 5 X lOG N. help of two cables, each of which can yield a maximum

I (a) Sal die kabels hou, en Indien nie, watter oon sal oorste
breek?
tensile force of 5 X lOG N.
(a) Will the cables resist the weight, and if not, which
one will break first?
(b) Indien 'n kabel brook, op watter stadium sal dit (b) If a cable breaks, at which stage will this happen?
I gebeur?
(Gegee: AB = 6 m, AC = 6 m, CE = 2 m) (Given: AB = 6 m, AC = 6 m, CE = 2 m).

I E

I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.54

= = Solution: Let a = 2 m and W = 2.5 X lOG N in Fig-

I Oplo88ing: Laat a 2 m en W 2.5 X lOG N in Figuur
2.54. Die kragte wat inwerk op die balk is sy gewig W,
die kragte T, en To in die kabels en die normale reak-
ure 2.54. The forces being exerted on the beam are its
weight W, forces T 1 and To in the cables and the nor-
siekrag N by A. Ons beskou die ewewig van die balk mal reaction force N at A. We consider the equilibrium

I wanneer dit 'n hoek 9 met die horisontaal maak. Ons

hOO slegs twee van die ewewigsvoorwaardes (2.19) neer
te skryf: .
of the beam when it forms an angle 9 with the horizon-
tal. We need to write down only two of the conditions
of equilibrium (2.19):

I
F. = 0: To - T, cos £ = 0 (i)
I MA = 0: T, (3asin!) - W(2acos9) = 0 (il)

I Van (i) het ons dat To = T, cos

vir O· !> 9 !> 180· sal T,
t.
Aangesien cos S 1
To en kabel BC sal dus
! From (i) we have To = T, cos
O· S 9 !> 180·, it follows that T,
t. t
Since cos S 1 for
To and cabie BC
die eerste een wees om te brook. Die kabel sal natuurJik will be the first to break. The cable will break if there is
I breek indien daar 'n waarde van 9 bestaan waarvoor
T, = 5 x loG = 2W. Om vas te stel of daar wel 80 'n
a value of 9 for which T, = 5 X lOG = 2W. To calculate
whether or not there is such a value of 9, we put T, =
=
waarde van 9 is, stel ons dan T, 2W in (iI): 2W in (ii):

I - 2Wacos9 = 0

I
I 111

I
I
I Vervolgens ste! ons vas of hierdie verge!yking opgelos
kan word vir (J. Eerstens skryf ons die hele vergelyking
We then establish whether or not this equation can be
solved for (J. We first write the whole equation in terms
. terme van 1i'
In 6 oq.
I 3sin - (1- = 0
2 2
I Ons verkry dus 'n kwadratiese verge!yking in sin !, We then obtain a quadratic equation in sin;,

I + 3 sin -1 = 0,

I met oplossings with solutions

I • (J _
Sln2'- -3±4 v'I7 -
_ 0. 281 6flor -1.781.

I t
Aangesien Isin I :5 1 is die tweede oplossing nie ge!dig
nie. Die eerate oplossing bepaal egter die waarde van
£
Since Isin I :5 1 the second solution is not valid. How-
ever, the first solution determines the value of (J for
(J waarvoor kabe! BC sal breek. Ons kan nou die hele which cable BC will break. We can now answer the
I vraag beantwoord:
(a) Die kabel BC sal eerste breek, en wel vir
whole question:
(a) Cable BC will break first, for
(b) (J = 32.61°. =
(b) (J 32.61°.

I Probleme Problems

I P2.1l.1 'n Uniforme staaf van lengte 2a word binne in

'n ruwe, hol sfeer met straal v'2a geplaas. As die staaf
P2.1l.1 A uniform rod of length 2a is placed in a
rough, hollow sphere with radius J2ii. If the rod is just
net in ewewig is in 'n vertikale vlak deur die middelpunt in equilibrium in a vertical plane through the centre of

I van die sfeer, toon dan san dat dit 'n hoek van 2), met
die horisontaal maak waar ), die wrywingshoek by albei
die eindpunte is.
the sphere, show that it forms an angle of 2), with the
horizontal, where ), is the angle of friction at both end
points.

I P2.1l.2 'n Bol, straal a en gewig W, rus teen 'n gladde

vertikale muur en word deur 'n toutjie, lengte (v'2 -1)a
P2.1l.2 A sphere, radius a and weight W, rests against
a smooth vertical wall and is held in position by a rope,
wat met die een endpunt san die muur en die ander end- length (v'2 - 1 )a, attached with the one end to the wall

I punt op die boloppervlak bevestig is, in posisie gehou.

Bereken die hoek wat die tou met die muur maak sowel
as die spanning in die tou.
and the other end to the surface of the sphere. Calculate
the angle that the rope forms with the wall as well as
the tension in the rope.

I P2.1l.S 'n Uniforme balk (gewig W) kan vry om een

endpunt skarnier terwyl die balk in posisie gehou word
teen 'n hoek van 60° met die opwaartse vertikaal deur
I 'n tou wat 'n hoek van 45° met die balk maak en in
dieselfde vertikale vlak as die balk is. Vind die spanning
in die tou en die reaksiekrag by die skarnier.
P2.1l.S A uniform rod (weight W) can rotate freely
around one end while the rod is held in position at an
angle of 60° with the upward vertical by a rope that
forms an angle of 45° with the rod and is in the same
vertical plane as the rod. Calculate the tension in the
rope and the reaction at the joint.

I P2.1l.4 'n Staaf AB, gewig W, kan vry om 'n skarnier

in 'n muur by A draai en word verder deur 'n horisontale
tou BC wat by 'n punt C in die muur vasgemawc is,
I gesteun. BC = 4a en AC = a. Bereken die krag T in
die tou en die rewie R by die skarnier.
P2.1l.4 Rod AB, weight W, can rotate freely around
a hinge in a wall at A and is further supported by a
horizontal rope BC that is tied to a point C in the wall.
BC = 4a and AC = a. Calculate force T in the rope
and the reaction R at the hinge.

I 112

I
I
I P2.11.& 'n Uniforme balk rus met een end op 'n ruwe
horisontale vlak, wrywingskoeffisient 1', en die ander end
2.11.5 A uniform rod rests with one end on a rough
horizontal surface, friction coefllcient /J, and the other
word deur 'n krag wat loodreg op die balk werk, onder- end is supported by a force that is exerted perpendicu-

I steun. Bewys dat as Q die maksimum hellingshoek van

die balk Is wanneer gly nog net nle optree nie, Q deur
die vergelyking 21' tan' Q - tan Q + I' = 0 gegee word.
larly to the rod. Prove that If Q is the maximum angle
of inclination of the rod just before it starts sliding, Q Is
given by the equation 21' tan' Q - tan Q + I' = O. What
1
I Wat kan u dei vir die geval I' =

P2.11.6 'n Uniforme leer rus met een end op 'n ho-
can you deduce for the case /J = 2?

P2.11.6 A uniform ladder rests with one end on a

I rlsontale vloer en met die ander ,d t"'in 'n vertikale

muur. Die wrywingskoeHlsiiinte is '5 en 2 respektlewe-
Ilk. Bepaal die hellingshoek van die leer as dit op die
horizontal floor and with the other end against a vertical
wall. The friction coefllcients are and respectively.
Calculate the angle of inclination of the ladder if it is

I punt is om te gly.

P2.11.T 'n Uniforme staaf AB, lengte t en gewig W,

about to start sliding.

P2.11.T A uniform rod AB, length t and weight W,

wat 'n hoek van 30· met die opwaartse vertikaal maak,
I rus met een end A teen 'n gladde vertlkale muur. 'n
Toutjle wat by 'n punt C op die staaf vas is met AC =
hou dit in poslsie. Die ander endpunt van die tou is by
I 'n punt D vertikaal bokant A vasgemaak. Vind die hoek
wat die tou met die vertlkaal maak en die krag in die
tou.
which forms an angle of 30· with the upward vertical,
rests with one end A against a smooth vertical wall.
A rope that Is attached to a point C on the rod with
AC = keeps it in position. The other end of the rope
Is tied to a point D vertically above A. Calculate the
angle that the rope forms with the vertical as well as
the force in the rope.

I P2.11.8 'n Dun uniforme staaf rus in ewewig met een

endpunt op 'n gladde hellende vlak met hellingshoek 60·
en met die ander punt op 'n ruwe horlsontale vlak; die
I vertikale vlak deur die staaf any die hellende vlak in 'n
Iyn van grootste helling. As die staaf op die punt is om
te g1y wanneer dit 'n hoek van 30· met die horisontaal
2.11.8 A thin uniform rod rests In equilibrium with one
end point on a smooth inclined surface, with angle of
Inclination 60·, and the other end on a rough horizontal
surface. The vertical plane through the rod intersects
the inclined plane in a line of largest inclination. If
the rod is about to slide when it forms an angle of 30·

I maak, bewys dat die wrywingskoef!lsiiint tussen staaf en

vIak
1 .
v'3 18.
with the horizontal, prove that the friction coefllcient
between the rod and surface is .Ja.
I P2.11.9 'n Uniforme leer, lengte 13a en gewig W, rus
met ay een punt teen 'n gladde vertikale muur op 'n
P2.10.9 A uniform ladder, length 13a and weight W,
rests with one end against a smooth vertical wall at a
. hoogte 12a bokant 'n gladde horisontale vloer en met sy height 12a above a smooth horizontal floor and with its

I ander punt op die vloer. Die leer word verhoed om te

gllp deur middel van 'n horisontale tou waarvan die een
punt vas is aan die onderpunt van die leer en die ander
other end on the floor. The ladder is prevented from
sliding by means of a horizontal rope, the one end of
which is tied to the bottom of the ladder and the other

I punt aan die muur vas is. 'n Man met gewig 9W k1im
versigtig teen die leer ult, maar die tou breek wanneer
hy die middelste sport van die leer bereik. Wat is die
end to the wall. A man weighing 9 W climbs up the
ladder carefully, but the rope breaks when he reaches
the middle rung of the ladder. What is the maximum
tou se breekkrag? tensile force that can be supplied by the rope?
I P2.11.10 Die hoepel in Figuur 2.55, gewig W en
deursnit 4a, word in ewewig gehou deur twee g1adde
P2.11.10 The hoop in Figure 2.55, weight W and di-
ameter 4a, is held in equilibrium by two smooth nails

I spykers wat op 'n vertikale Iyn le. Watter krag word op

elke spyker uitgeoefen?
lying in a vertical line. What force is exerted on each
nail?

P2,.11.11 Die uniforme staaf AB In Figuur 2,56 le in P2.11.11 The uniform rod AB in Figure 2.56 lies in
I 'n vert\kale vlak met sy endpunte teen die gladde opper-
v1aktes AC en BC. Vind die hoek 9 vir ewewig indien
(a) Q = 30·,
a vertical plane with its end point against the smooth
surfaces AC and BC. Calculate the angle 9 for equilib-
rium if

I (b) Q = 40· en
(c) Q = 60·.
(a) Q = 30·'
(b) Q = 40· and
(c) Q = 60·.

I 113

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.55

I
I A

-..
I " B :,'i

I C ,r
a

I Figuur 2.56

I P2.11.12 'n Motorhuis se deur (gewig 900 N) word

getoon In Figuur 2.57. Dit bestaan uit 'n uniforme
regboeklge panool AC, 2.4 m hoog, geateun deur die
P2.11.12 A garage door (weight 900 N) is shown In
Figure 2.57. It consists of a uniform right-angled panel
AC, 2.4 m high, supported by caPle AB, which is tied

I
kabel AB wat vasgemaak is aan die rniddelpunt van
die boonste rand van die deur en deur twee stelle wry-
wlngslose rollers by by A en B. Elke atel bestaan ult
twee rollers aan weerskante van die deur. Die rollers A
to the centre point of the topmost edge of the door and
by two sets of frictionless rollers at A and B. Each set
consists of two rollers on opposite sides of the door. The
rollers A are free to move in horizontal grooves and the

I is vry om In honsontale kanale te beweeg en die rollers rollers B move In vertical grooves. If the door is held

I
E D

I O.Sm

I 2.4 m

I
I
Flguur 2.57

I 114

I
 I
I B beweeg in vertlkale kanale. As die deur In die poslsie
gehou word waarvoor BD = 1.2 m, bepaal
a position where BD = 1.2 m, calculate:
(a) the tension in cable AE and
(a) die spanning in die kabel AE en (b) the reaction on each of the four rollers.

I (b) die reaksle by e1keen van die vier rollers.

P2.1l.1S 'n Verkeerslig kan ondersteun word op drie
wyses soos getoon In Figuur 2.58; in die geval (c) word
I die spanning in kabel BC gemeet as 1950 N. Bepaal die
reaksles by A vir elk van die drie geval!e.
P2.1l.13 A traffic Ught can be supported In three ways,
as shown in Figure 2.58. In the case of (c), the tension in
cable BC Is measured as 1950 N. Calculate the reactions
at A for each of the three cases.

I 2.1 m 2.1 m

I N
811==_'
N

I 4000N

I
I
I (a) (b)
Figuur 2.58
(c)

I P2.11.14 Terwyl die enjin van die vliegtulg in Figuur 2.11.14 While the engine of the aircraft in Figure 2.59
2.59 loop, word die vertikale reaksie wat die grond op is running, the vertical reaction that the ground exerts

I wiel A uitoefen, deur middei van 'n skaal gemeet as 5 kN.

As die enjin afgeskakel word, word die vertikale reaksies
by A en B egter gemeet as 3.75 kN elk. Die verskil in die
lesings by A word veroorsaak deur 'n koppel wat op die
I
skroef uitgeoefen word wanneer die enjin loop. Hierdie
koppel neig om die vliegtuig anti-k1oksgewys om te keer,
wat teenoorgesteld Is &an die k10ksgewyse rotasie van
on wheel A is measured to be 5 kN. If the engine is
switched off, the vertical reactions at A and B are mea-
sured to be 3.75 kN each. The difference in the readings
at A Is caused by a couple that Is exerted on the screw
when the engine is runuing. This couple tends to turn
the aircraft anti-clockwise, which opposes the clockwise
rotation of the screw. Calculate the magoitude of this

I die skroef. Bereken die grootte van bierdie koppel en

die grootte van die vertikale krag wat op B uitgeoefen
word wanneer die enjin loop.
couple and the maguitude of the vertical force exerted
. on B when the engine is running.

I
I
\

I A

fo---2m
B

I Flguur 2.59

I 115

I
I
I P2.11.15 Bereken die gl'ootte en rigtlng (J van die
beenkrag FB en die grootte van die splerkrag T wat
P2.11.15 Calculate the magnitude and direction (J of
the bone force F B and the magnitude of the muscle force
nodlg is om die bal, gewlg 100 N, In ewewig te hou T required to maintain a ball of weight 100 N (Figure

I (Figuur 2.60). Die bal se gewlg gl'YP aan by G. 2.60) in equilibrium. The weight of the ball acts at G.

I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.60

I P2.11.16 Die missiel in Figuur 2.61 se gewig Is 15 kN

en Sl'YP aan by G. Dit word na die lanseerposisie gehys
deur middel van 'n hidrouliese silinder wat gehulsves is
I
In arm AB. As die die lanseerbalk CD 'n gewig van 8
kN het wat aangryp by G' , bereken die krag wat in AB
ontwikkel word wanneer die balk in die getoonde posisie
P2.11.16 The weight of the missile in Figure 2.61 Is
15 kN and is exerted at G. It is lifted to the launching
position by means of a hydraulic cylinder that is housed
in arm AB. If the launching pad CD has a weight of 8
kN, which is exerted at G' , calculate the force that de-
velops in AB when the pad is in the indicated position.

I Is.

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.61

I P2.11.17 Die selfaangedrewe hyskraan AB in Figuur

2.62 se gewig is 500 kN en Sl'YP aan by G. Bepaai die
gewig van die swaarste massa wat by C gesuspendeer
P2.11.17 The weight of the self-propelled crane AB in
Figure 2.62 is 500 kN and Is exerted at G. Calculate the
weight ofthe heaviest m88S that can be suspended at C
kan word sonder dat die hyskraan omslaan. without tipping the crane.
I 116

I
I
I
B
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 2.62

I 2.11.3 Ewewig in Drie Dimensies 2.11.3 Equillbrium in Three dimensions

I
In die algemenoa geval waar kragte in willekeurige rig-
tings gerig is, moet die volledige ste! voorwaardes in
(2.18) afgedwlng word. Dit impliseer dat al die 81 en FI
in komponentvtlrm geskryf moet word en dat die al die
I komponente van die twee vektorvergelykings dan aan
nul gelyk geatel moet word.
Generally, if forces are directed in arbitrary directions,
the complete set of conditions in (2.18) must be en-
forced. This implies that all the 81 and F I must be
written in component form and that al the components
of the two vector equations must be set equal to zero.

I Voorbeelde
V2.11.5 Die moor E (gewig W) in Figuur 2.63 word on-
I dersteun deur 'n mas wat rus op 'n bal-en-potjie skarnier
en wat ondersteun word deur die kabe!s AB en AC. Die
gewlgte van mas en kabe!s is weglaatbaar klein in
Examples
V2.11.5 Sphere E (weight W) in Figure 2.63 is-sup-
ported by a mass that rests on a ball-and-socket joint
and is supported by cables AB and AC. The weight of
the mass and the cables is negligible in comparison with

I vergelyk1ng met die van die sfeer. Vind die reaksie by

D en die kragte in die kabels.
that of the sphere. Calculate the reaction at D and the
forces in the cables.

Oplo8sing: Die eerste ewewlgsvoorwaarde in (2.18) sien Solution: The first condition of equilibrium in (2.18) is
I in hierdie geval BOOS volg daaruit:
Tl+ T.+ R + W =O
as follows in this case:
(a)

I In (a) is W 'n krag met bekende grootte en rigting: In (a) W is a force, the magnitude and direction of
which are known:

I W=W(-z)

Die reaksie R by die skarnier is 'n krag waarvan die aan-

(b)

The reaction R in the hinge is a force, the point of

I grypingspunt bekend is (D) maar waarvan die grootte

en rigting onbekend is; ons kan dit dus beskou as 'n krag
met drle onbekende komponente:
application of which is known (D), but the magnitude
and direction of which are unknown. Therefore, we can
regard this as a force with three unknown components:

I 117

I
I
I z

I A

I
I
7. O.sm

I 10m

I 4m
7
I
0.5 m
I
I x

I Figuur 2.63

(c)

I Die krag T 1 in !tabel AC se grootte Tl is onbekend maar The magnitude Tl offorce T 1 in cable AC is unknown,
sy rigting is we! bekend; dit is naamUk dieseJfde as die but its direction is known, i.e. It is the same as that of

I van die lynstuk F. Ona kan dUB skryf dat line segment F. Therefore, we can write that

I
I Vir A(O, O,10} en C( -4,
102 en IFI =!
O} volg F
v' 465, en ons het
= -4% - For A(O,a,la} and C(-4, -!,O} it follows that AV =
=
-4% - !" ... 102 and IAVI !v'465, and we have

I Tl = ;;;"'(-80: -" - 202}.

v465
(d)

I Soortgelyk het ona vir die krag in !tabel AB Similarly, we have the following for the force in cable
AB that

I
I 118

I
1
-t£ - =
1 Vir A(O,O, 10) en B(-f, -!,O) voIg AB =
10.. en IFI = iv' 426, en dus
For A(O, 0, 10) and B(-i,-!,O) It follows that AB
- i£ - ;0 - 10.. and IFI = iv' 426, and therefore

1 T. = ....!!...(-£ -
v'426
50 - 20.. ) (e)

I Die ultdrukklngs (b) tot (e) word nou in (a) geste! en

ge!yksoortige komponente word versame!:
Equations (b) to (e) are now substituted in (a) and sim-
ilar components are collected:

1
1 Aangesien elke komponent van die vektor aan die
lInkerkant van bostaande vergeiyldng nul moet wees, het
Since each component of the vector on the left hand side
of the above equation must be zero, we have the three
ons die drie skalaarvergelyklngs scalar equations
I
I- (f)

(g)

I (h)

I in die vyf onbekendes R., R", R .. Tl en To- Die ander in the five unknowns R., R", R .. Tl and T.. The other
twee verge!yldngs wat nodlg is om die probIeem op te two equations required to solve this problem are ob-

1 los, word verkry uit die tweede eis In (2.18): tained from the second condition In (2.18):

MD=O
I D word hier as 'n verwyslngspunt gekies omdat R nie 'n D is chosen as a reference point because R does not
have a moment about it. The three unknowns R., R"
I moment daarom het nie; die drie onbekendes R., R. en
R. sal dus nie In hierdle ewewigsvergeIyking voorkom
nie. Ons bereken nou die totale moment om D:
and R. will therefore not occur found in this equation of
equilibrium. We now calculate the total moment about
D:
1
1 = 10.. x .2L(-8£ -0 - 20.. ) + 10.. x .2L(_£ -
v'465 v'426
50 - 20 ..)

I +(2£ + +z) x (-W")

I
I
I 119

1
I
I Aangesien al die komponente van MD nul moet wees,
verkry ona die twee skalaa.rvergelykings wat benodig
word om die oplOBBing te verkry:
Since all the components of MD must be zero, we obtain
the two scalar equations required to obtain the. solution:

I 50T.
(i)
+ v'426 = 2

I lOT.
ff26
= 2W (j)

I Laasgenoemde twee vergelykings kan onmidddelik opge-

lOB word vir die kragte in die kabela,
The last two equations can be solved immediately for
the forces in the cables,

I Tt =
v'465
52
W = 0.4l5W

I T. =
3v'426
65
W = 0.953W,

I en hierdie waardes kan in die regterkant van vergelykings

(f), (9) en (h) vervang word om die komponente van die
reaksie by die skarnier te vind:
and these values can be substituted in the rIght hand
side of equations (f), (9) and (h) to find the components
of the reaction on the joint:

I
I Die grootte van die reaksiekrag is dus R = 2.330W en The magnitude of the reaction force is therefore R =
dit is 'n drukkrag. 2.330W, and is a compressive force.
I Vraag: Hoekom is daar slegs vyf onbekendes in hierdie
probleem?
Question: Why are there only five unknowns in this
problem?

I Probleme Problems

I P2.11.1S 'n Krag van 8.4 kN werk in op 'n 10 m-paal

BOOS getoon in Figuur 2.64. Die paal word gesteun deur
'n bal-en-potjie skarnier by A en deur die twee kabela
P2.11.1S A force of 8.5 kN is exerted on a 10 m pole,
as shown in Figure 2.64. The pole is supported by a
ball-and-socket hinge at A and by two cables BD and

I BD en BE. Die gewig van die paal is ignoreerbaar.

Bereken die kragte in die twee kabels Bowel as die reaksie
byA.
BE. The weight of the pole is negligible. Caiculate the
forces in the two cables as well as the reaction at A.

I P2.11.10 Die balk AO in Figuur 2.65 word ondersteun

deur 'n bal-en-potjie skarnier by A en deur twee kabela
BDO en OE. Kabel BDO gaan oor 'n wrywingslose
P2.11.UI Beam AC in Figure 2.65 is supported by a
ball-and-socket joint at A and by two cables B DC and
CE. Cable BDC moves over a frictionless pulley at D.

I katroI by D. Bereken die kragte in die kabels en die

reaksie by A indien 'n masBa met gewig W by C aan die
balk vas Is.
Caiculate the forces in the cables and the reaction at A
if a mass of weight W is attached to the beam at C.

I P2.11.20 DIe starre L-balk in Figuur 2.66 word on-

dersteun deur 'n bal-en-potjie skarnier by A en die drie
kabels DB, EB en FC. Bereken die krag in elke kabel
P2.11.20 The rigid L-beam in Figure 2.66 is supported
by a ball-and-socket joint at A and the three cables
DB, EB and FC. Calculate the force in each cable and

I en die reaksie by A indien die balk by G met 'n gewig

van 5 kN belas word.
the reaction at A if the beam is loaded with a weight of
5 kN at G.

I 120

I
I
I y

8.4 kN

rr
c
I B
I !Om
7m D

I %

I 6m
:

I Figuur 2.64

I
I
I
I
I
Figuur 2.65
I
I y

I
I .A/
c

1 G 0,75 m
0.75 m

/B
%

I
\.25 m. D

Jm
z 5kN

I Figuur 2.66

I 121

I
I
I 2.12 STATIESE BEPAALBAARHEID
IN TWEE DIMENSIES
2.12 STATIC DETERMINACY IN TWO
DIMENSIONS
Laat die kragte wat op 'n liggaam Inwerk, 800sln §2.11.2 Let the forces acting on a body, as in §2.11.2, lie in the
I in die XY-vlak le. Die ewewigsvoorwaardes word dan
deur (2.19) geatel:
XY p1a.ne. The conditions of equilibrium are then set
by (2.19):

I Mp=O (2.20)

Aangesien (2.20) beataan uit drie skslaarvergelykings,
I ka.n dlt gebruik word om vir drie en slegs drle onbek-
endes op te los. Omdat 'n twee-dlmenslonele liggaam In
'n vial< drie vryheidsgrade het (m.a.w. daar is drie en
Since (2.20) consists of three scalar equations, it can be
used to solve for three and only three unknown ele-
ments. Because a two-dimensional body In a plane has
three degrees of freedom (I.e. three and only three coor-

I slegs drie kOOrdlnate nodlg om die posisle en orliintasle

van die liggaam vas te stel) , is (2.20) nodlg en voldoende
vir die ewewlg van 'n liggaam. Hlerdle ewewigsverge-
dinates are required to determine the position and ori-
entation of the body), (2.20) is necessary and sufficient
for the equilibrium of a body. However, these equations

I
Iykings bied egter nie noodwendlg al die Inligting wat
nodlg is om al die onbekende kragte te vind wat ult-
geoefen word op 'n liggaam in ewewlg nie. Die beperk-
Ings (van beweging) op 'n liggaam bepaal naamlik of dlt
of equilibrium do not necessarily supply all the Infor-
mation required to find all the unknown forces that are
exerted on a body in equilibrium. The constraints (of
movement) on a body namely determine whether this is

I moontlik is of nie. Ons lig hlerdie aspek toe na aanleld-

ing van die voorbeelde in Figuur 2.67. In al vier gevalle
beskou ons 'n liggaam wat op 'n gegewe wyse geateun
possible or not. We hlghlight this aspect on the basis
of the examples in Figure 2.67. In all four instances,
we consider a body that is supported in a given way

I word en wat onderhewig is aan 'n wlllekeurige belasting

R + S. (In Figuur 2.67 word 'n konvensle gebruik wat
hlerna deurgaans gehandhaaf sal word: Skarnlere word
aangedui met 'n klein sirke!.)
I In Figuur 2.67(a) word 'n liggaam getoon wat onders-
teun word deur 'n vaste punt A en 'n gladde roller B.
and that is subject to an arbitrary load R + S. (In Fig-
ure 2.67 we use a convention that will be maintained
throughout: joints are indicated by a small circle.)
Figure 2.67(a) depicts a body that is supported by a
fixed point A and a smooth roller B. The conditions of

I Die ewewlgsvoorwaardes (2.20) kan dan gebruik word

om volledig op te los vir die reaksie-komponente p., p.
enQ:
equilibrium (2.20) can be used to solve completely for
the reaction components p .. p. and Q:

I F. = 0: p.+S = 0; p. = -S
MA = 0: Qb-Sc-Ra = 0; Q = f(cS + aR)

I F. = 0: Q+p. -R = 0; p. = R - Q = f[(b - a)R - cS]

In hlerdie geval se ons die Iiggaam is volledig begrens In thls case, we say that the body is completely con-

I en die reaksiekragte is staties bepaaIbaar.
In Figuur 2.67(b) word 'n Iiggaam getoon wat beide by
I A en B aan vaste ateunpunte bevestlg is. Daar is vier
onbekendes p., p., Q. en Q. en (2.20) dus bied nie 'n
volledige oplossing van die probleem nie:
strained and the reaction forces are staticaIly deter-
minate.
Figure 2.67(b) depicts a body that is attached at both
A and B to fixed points. There are four unknowns
p., p., Q. and Q. and (2.20) does not offer a full
solution to the problem:

I
bQ. - Sc - Ra . = 0;
I MA
F.
F.
= 0:
= 0:
= 0:
P,,+QJI-R
p.+Q. +S
=
=
Dj
0;
Q. =
p.
p.
=
+
HcS+aR)
R - Q. = t[(b - a)R - cS]
Q. =-S

I
I 122

I
I
I
I
I
I p.
p.
6
q.

I
11
(a) (b)

I i>X
l.

I
I
(c) (d)
I Figuur 2.67

I Klaarblykllk kan daar nie uit die laaste vergelyking

opgelos word vir beide p. en Q. nie. In hiertlie geval is
Apparently, the last equation cannot solve for both p.
and Q.. In this case, the body is overconstrained and
die Iiggaam oorbegrens en die reaksiekragte is staties the reaction forces are statically indeterminate.

I onbepaalbaar.

Die voorwerp in Figuur 2.67(c) rus op twee gladde
rollers, sodat daar slegs die twee onbekendes P en Q
I in die probleem is. Vergelyking (2.20) lewer dan die
volgende:
The body in Figure 2.67(c) rests on two smooth rollers
so that there are only two unknowns in the problem.
Equation (2.20) yields the following:

I MA = 0: Qb - Ra - Sc = 0; Q = f(cS + aR)
= 0: P+Q-R = P = S - Q = t[(b - a)R - cS]
I F. 0;
F. = 0: Slegs as/only if S = 0

I Die Iiggaam is gedeeltelik begrens en die reak-

siekragte is daarom staties onbepaalbaar.
The body is partially constrained and the reaction
forces are therefore statically indeterminate.

Hoewel dit nodig is om drie reaksiekomponente te he
I vir ewewig, is die bestaan van drie sulke komponente
nie voldoende nie, soos blyk uit Figuur 2.67(d). Daar
is wel die drie reaksies P, Q en T wat inwerk op die
I liggaam, maar weereens kan die verelste F. = 0 nie
bevredlg word tensy S = 0 nie. In hierdie geval is die
Although it is necessary to have three reaction compo-
nents for equilibrium, the existence of three such com-
ponents is not sufficient, as is apparent from Figure
2.67(d). Though three reactions P, Q and T are exerted
=
on the body the requirement F. 0 cannot be satisfied
uuiesB S = O. In this case, the body is improperly

I 123

I
I
I liggaam onvoldoende begrens en is die reaksiekragte
weereens staties onbepaalbaar.
constrained and the reaction forces are statlcally in-
determinate.

I Probleme
P2.12.1 Nege Identlese reghoeklge plate, almal met
Problems
P2.12.1 Nine identical right-angled plates, with wieght

I gewlg W, word soos getoon In Flguur 2.68 in 'n vertikale

vlak gehou. AlIe verbindings bestsan uit wrywingslose
skamlere, wrywingslose rollers of kort stawe. Bepaal vir
W, are held In a vertical plane, as shown In Figure 2.68.
All the connections consist of frictionless joints, friction-
less rollers or short rods. Determine for each case if:
elke geval of
I (a) die plaat volledig, oor-, gedeeltelik of onvoldoende
begrens is,
(a) the plate is completely, over, partially or improperly
constrained
(b) of die reakslekragte staties bepaalbaar of onbepaal- (b) the reaction forces are statica1ly determinate or in-

I baar is en
(c) of ewewig behou word in die getoonde posisie.
determinate and
(c) equilibrium is maintained in the shown position.

I
I
(i) (iI) (iii)

I
I (iv) (v) (vi)

I
I (vii) (viii) (ix)

I Figuur 2.68

I 2.13 TWEE-DIMENSIONELE RAAM-

WERKE
2.13 TWO-DIMENSIONAL TRUSSES

I Ons beskou slegs volledig begrensde strukture wat

bestaan uit ligte stange wat aanmekaar geheg is
d.m. v. skarniere. Sulke stange kan interaard slegs ak-
We consider only completely constrained structures
that consist of light rods (called members) that are
attached to each other by means of joints. Obviously

I siale druk- of trekkragte uitoefen op knooppunte. Vir

starheid moet s6 'n struktuur noodwendig opgebou word
uit driehoekige elemente soos in Figuur 2.69.
such members C/Ul only exert axial forces of compression
or tension on joints. For rigidity, such a structure must
be built up from triangular elements as in Figure 2.69.

I Twee vrae moet vir so 'n struktuur beantwoord word:

(a) Watter kragte hou die struktuur as geheei in
ewewig?
I (b) Hoe groot is die kragte in die stange en is hulle druk-
of trekkragte?
Two questions must be answered for such a structure:
(a) What forces maintain this structure as a whole
in equilibrium?
(b) How large are the forces in the rods, and are they
compressive or tensile forces?

I 124

I
I
I
I
I Flguur 2.69

I Ons beskryf twee metodes wat gebruik word om hierdie

vroo te bea.ntwoord.
We describe two methods that are used to &D8wer these
questions.

I 2.13.1 Knooppuntmetode 2.13.1 Method of Joints

I Die koooppuntmetode best&&ll daaruit

dat die ewewigsvoorwaardes vir elke knooppunt (of
sk&roier) bevredig word.
The method of joints consists of satisfying the condi-
tions of equilibrium for each joint (or node).

I
I
I
lV\. 5

Figuur 2.70

I Beskou 'n etruktuur met n sta.nge, 'n gedeelte w&&rV&ll

in Figuur 2.70 getoon word. Die &&IIt&l ewewigsverge-
Consider a structure with n members, part of which
is shown in Figure 2.70. The number of equations of
lykings vir knooppunte 1 tot 3 is da.n 3 x 2 =6. equilibrium for joints 1 to 3 then is 3 x 2 = 6. For

I Vir elke twee stange wat bygevoeg word, kom een

knooppunt en dus twe..- vergelykings by. Die &ant&l
ewewigsvergeiykings is da.n
every two members that &re added, we add one joint
and thus two equations. The number of equations of
equilibrium then is

I -3) =n+3.
m=6+2 ( n
-2-

I Daar ka.n dus opgei08 word vir die kragte in die n st&oge Therefore, we can solve for the forces In the n members
sowel &8 die drle onbekende kragkomponente wat die &8 well &8 the three unknown components of force, which

I struktuur as geheel in ewewig hou.

In die praktyk word hierdie prOBeS soos volg gesistem&-

ma.intain the structure as a whole in equilibrium.

In practice, this process is systematised &8 follows:

I tiseer:
(1) Beha.ndei eers die ewewig van die hele struktuur.
(2) Beskou dan telkens 'n knooppunt waarop twee
I . onbekende kragkomponente inwerk.
(1) Firstly, treat the equilibrium of the whole struc-
ture.
(2) Then iteratively consider a joint on which two un-
known components of force are exerted .

Ons s&! in die vervolg &lie kragte in etange ten aan- We will Initially consider &11 forces in rods &8 com-

I vans &8 drukkragte beskou; 'n. negatiewe teken voor 'n

st&ogkrag Sal dus net &andui dat die kragin werklikheld
'n trekkrag is.
pressive forces; a negative. sign in front of a member
force will therefore indicate that the force is in reality a
tensile force.

I 125

I
I
I Oos U1ustreer die prosedure san die hand van 'n voor-
beeld.
We illustrate the procedure on the basis of an example.

I Voorbeelde Examples
V2.13.1 In Flguur 2.71 word 'n raamwerk getoon wat V2.13.1 Figure 2.71 depicts a truss supported at A and

I by A en D respektlewellk deur 'n gladde roller en 'n vaste

punt gesteun word en wat by E en G respektiewellk be-
!as word met gew1gte 2W en 3W. Vind die reakslekragte
by A en D sowel as die kragte in al die stange. Se ook
I vir elke stang of dlt 'n druk- of trekstang is.
D by a smooth roller and a fixed point respectively, and
loaded with weights 2W and 3W at E and G respec-
tively. Calculate the reaction forces at A and D as well
as the forces in all the rods. State also whether each rod
.is a compressive force or a tensile force.

I
I
I 50.

I
I
Figuur 2.71
I Oplossing: Ons dui voortsan bv. die krag in stang AE Solution: We will indicate the force In rod AE as FAE
san as FAE (6f FEA) en beskou dlt ten aanvang as 'n (or FEA) and consider it initially as a compressive force.
I drukkrag.

(a) aDS beskou eersteDS die ewewig van die struktuur as (a) Firstly, we consider the equilibrium of the structure

I geheel: as a whole:

MD = 3W(3a) + 2W(9a) - R(12a) = R = tw

I
0: 0;

F. = 0: Q+R-SW = 0; Q = SW-R=¥-W

I F. = 0: P = 0

I (b) Vervolgens beskou oos die ewewigsvoorwaardes vir

elke knooppunt. Oos sal deurgaans drukstange sandui
as OS en trekstange as TS. Eersteos beskou oos die
(b) We subsequently consider the conditions of equi-
librium for each joint. We will indicate compressive
members as OS and tensile members as TS throughout.
ewewig van knooppunt A: Firstly, we consider the equilibrium of joint A:
I
I F.

F.
=

= 0:
0: R- FABsin,8 = 0;

I 126

I
I
I Waar ons nou in verdere berekenlnge vir FAE benodig,
kan ons een van twee werkswyses volg: ons kan FAE 88 'n
trekkrag beskou (en dlt so op Figuur 2.71 aandui) 6f ons
Where we now need FAE for further calculations we can
follow either of two methods: we can regard FAE 88 a
tensile force (and indicate this on Figure 2.71) or we can
regard FAE 88 a compressive force (88 in Figure 2.71)
I kanFAE beskou 88 'n drukkrag (soos in Flguur 2.71) met
'n negatlewe drukkomponent. In hierdie aantekenlnge
sal die tweede alternatlef deurgaans gevolg word.
with a negative compresslve component. In these notes,
we shall follow the second alternative throughout.

I (c) Ewewlg van knooppunt E: (c) Equillbirium of joint E:

F. = 0: FEO = FAE = -NW -TS

I -FEB-2W = 0; FEB = -2W -TS

I (d) Ewewig van knooppunt B: (d) Equilibrium of joint B:

I F. = 0: FBosina+ FBE +FAB sint/ = 0 ;

FBO = + mW)) = ! -:.:f!w -TS

I F. = 0: FAB cost/- FBO C08a - FBC = 0 ;

F BC _.
- i (llW)
,. - • ( - iITW)
• -- 10
.SW -DS

I (e) Ewewlg van knooppunt C: (e) Equilibrium of joint C:

I F. = 0: FBC -FDCCOSt/ = 0; FDC = i mW) = -DS

Foc + FCD sint/ = 0; Foc = -! mW,) = -¥W -TS

I
(f) Ewewig van knooppunt G: (f) Equilibrium of joint G:

I FEO+FBocosa-'FDo =0;
FDO = -NW + J,s -TS
I = -MW

(g) Die ewewlg van knooppunt D kan 88 kontrole gebruik (g) The equilibrium of joint D can be used 88 a check:

I word:

F. = P+FOD +FDCCOSt/ = 0+ + Hm = 0

I F. = '

I Probleme Problems
Gebruik die knooppuntmetode om die kragte P2.13.1 Use the method of joints to calcuiate the forces

I in elke stang van die raamwerke in Figuur 2.72 te

bereken. Me1d vir elke etang of dit in kompressie of
onder uitrekking verkeer.
in each member of the truss in Figure 2.72. State for
each member if it Is being compressed or stretched.

I
I 127

I
I
I
I 2 kN 2kN

I J J

I
... .3 In -l- .3 111

I (a)

I
I lOO :'.J :'.J -tOO N ·lOO :'.J ·100 N

I cl
B C D E
ta
I G H I
U
I 'La-La I a-LaJ
I (b)

I 5kN

I
I
I
I (c)

I Figuur 2.72

I 128

I
I
I 2.13.2 Snitmetode 2.13.2 Method of Sections
Aangesien elke onderdeel van 'n struktuur in ewewig Since each part of a structure is in equilibrium, such

I Is, Iran s6 'n gedee1te geisoleer word en as 'n Iiggaam

in ewewig beskou word. Aangeslen drle ewewigsverge-
Iyklngs hesklkbaar is vir 'n starre liggaam, word sorg
parts can be isolated and regarded as a body in equi-
librium. Since three equations of equilibrium are avail-
able for a rigid body, care Is taken that only three
gedra <!at hoogstens drie onbekende kragkomponente unknown force components are exerted on the isolated
I op die gei80leerde gedeelte uitgeoefen word. Hierdle
metode Is vera! nuttig as slegs die krsgte in enkele
structure. This method Is particularly useful if only the
forces in some members are required.
stange \'ereis word.

I Voorbeelde Examples
V2.1S.2 Bereken die krag in stang BC van die raam- V2.13.2 Calculate the force in rod BC of the truss in
I werk in V2.13.1. V2.13.1.

I
I
,f
____-<Mc.
L X

,
I
"

I
44 I
,I
I R
,0. I
"a.
E
: pI
I
1'1',,1"" '

J.W

Flguur 2.73
I Oplossing: Soos in V2.13.1 bereken ons eers die ek-
steme reakaiekrsgte. Vervolgens word die liggaam ABE
I d.m.v. snit PP' geisoleer. ABE Iran dao beskou
word as 'n starre liggaam wat in ewewig gebou word
deur krllgte 2W, FEG, FBG en FBo. Aangesien
Solution: As in V2.13.1, we first calculate the external
reaction forces. Then we isolate body ABE by means
of section PP'. ABE can then be regarded "as a rigid
body that is maintained in equilibrium by forces W, .
2W, FEG, FBG and FBo. Since three of these forces

I drie van hierdie krsgte onbekend is, is die probleem

goedgedefinieerd. Om FBO te verkry, gebruik ons 'n
ewewigsverge1yking waarin dit die enigste onbekende
are unknown, the problem is well defined. In order to
calculate FBo , we use an equation of equilibrium in
which it is the only unknown:

I is:

9 33
+ 2W(6a) - 4W(9a) =
I MG=O: FBo(4a) 0; FBo= -W -DS
16

I
I
I 129

I
I
I V2.1S.S Bereken FOH vir die raamwerk in Flguur 2.74. V2.1S.S Calculate FOH for the truss in Figure 2.74.

I IS
I G
I E
I
I a. L y;
B C.
I A
c.. 0-
:s' c...
j)

w IN W
I Flguur 2.74

I Oplouing: Isoleer CDEG d.m.v. snit 8S': Hierdie

gedeelte word In ewewig gehou deur W, W, FHO, FHo
8olution: Isolate CD EG by means of section S8': this
part is kept in equilibrium by W, W, FHO, FHO en
enFBo, FBO.·

I
-Foo -2W=0; Foo = -2J2W -TS

I
Probleme Problems
I Gebrulk in al die volgende probleme die snitmetode om Use the method of sections in all the folIowing problems
elke gevraagde krag direk te bereken. to calculate each required force directly.

I P2.13.2 Bereken die kragte in stange CE, CD en BD

van die raamwerk in Figuur 2.75.
P2.1S.2 Calculate the forces in members CE, CD and
BD of the truss in Figure 2.75.

I
15kN A B 5kN
•
I 3m
15kN j:
I .
3.m

I 3m
I
I
I Flguur 2.75

I 130

I
I
I P2.13.3 Bereken die kragte in stange DF, CD en CE
van die raamWllrk in Figuur 2.76.
P2.13.3 Calculate the forces in members DF, CD and
CE of the truss in Figure 2.76.

I
I 30 kN 20 kN

I A B

I Ilml
I

I
I Figuur 2.76

P2.13.4 Bereken die krag in stang GJ van die raamw- 2.13.4 Calculate the force in member GJ ofthe truss

I erk in Figuur 2.77. in Figure 2.77.

I A 15kN

I -+
I.
2m

-+
B

I 2m

--a
I 2m
I

I
Figuur 2.77

I
I
I
I
I 131

I
I
I HOOFSTUK 3 CHAPTER 3
I KINEMATIKA VAN 'N
PUNTDEELTJIE
KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE

I 3.1 KINEMATIKA 3.1 KINEMATICS

Die kinematika is di6 afdeling van die dinamika waar
I die beweglog van liggame beskryf word sonder verwys-
log na die kragte wat die beweging veroorsaak of wat
deur die beweging veroorsaak word, en Is dus 'n studie
Kinematics is the branch of dynamics in which the
movement of a body is described without reference to
the forces caUsing the movement or caused by the move-
ment. Therefore, It is the study ofthe geometric aspects

I van die meetkundige aspekte van beweging. Afgesien

van die fundamentele belang van die kinematika vir die
basiese wetenskaplike, is dit ook van groot belang by
logenieurstoepassings. Enkele voorbeelde hiervan is die
I ontwerp van elemente van masjiene wat 'n gevraagde be-
weging moet produseer of bebeer, soos bv .. ratte, nokke
en koppelstukke; sowel as die berekening van die vlug-
of motion. Apart from the fundamental importance of
kinematics to the basic scientist, it is very important for
engineering applications. Some examples of this include
the design of parts of machines that produce or control a
required movement, such as gears, cams and drag-links
as well as the calculation of the flight path of aircraft,
missiles and spacecrafts. .

I paaie van vliegtuie, vuurpyle en ruimtetuie.

In hierdie hoofstuk sal ons ons beperk tot die beweging
van puntdeeltjles. Hierdie beperking is nie bale ernstig
I nie - as ons by. die vlug van 'n vliegtuig beskou is die
afmetings van die vliegtuig ignoreerbaar in vergelyking
met die krommingstraal van sy baan.
In this chapter, we shall limit ourselves to the motion
of particles. This restriction Is not very serious - if we
consider the flight of an aircraft, the dimensions of the
aircraft are negligible in comparison with the radius of
curvature of its path

I
3.2 BAANVERGELYKING 3.2 PATH EQUATION
I
I
I fU)

I y
I Figuur 3.1

I Die posisievektor van 'n deeltjie wat beweeg met be-

trekking tnt 'n vaste verwysingstelsel is tydafhankllk,
The position vector of a particle that moves with respect
to a fixed reference system is time dependent, i.e.

I d.w.s.

r = r(t) , (3.1)

I
I 132

I
I
I waar t die tyd is. Indien die funksionele verband in
(3.1) bekend is, is die baan waarin die deeltjie beweeg
where t is time. 1£ the functional relation in (3.1) is
known, the path in which the particle moves is also
bekend; die posisie daarvan kan vir elke waarde van t known. We can calculate its position for each value of

I bereken word en die baan van die deeltjie kan dan in

beginsel "geteken" word soos in Figuur 3.1 .
t and 'draw' the path of the particle, in principle, as in
Figure 3.1.

I Voorbeelde Examples
V3.2.1 Ons beskou as voorbeeld die baanvergelyking V3.2.1 As an example we consider the path equation

I r = t:i! + (t' - l)fj . (3.2)

I Aangesien koordinate van die deeltjie uit (3.2) be-

= =
kend Is as funltsies van die tyd, t.w. z t; 11 t' - 1;
z = 0, kan t geelimineer word:
Since we know the coordinates of the particle from (3.2)
= = =
as functions of time, i.e. z t; 11 t' - 1; z 0, we
can eliminate t:

I 11 = z' - 1; z = 0 (3.3)

I Die baan Is dus 'n parabool in die XY -vlak (Figuur

3.2).
Therefore, the path is a parabola in the XY plane
(Figure 3.2).

I 'f
I
I
o
I ri.)
1'(' )
x
-I

I Figuur 3.2

I
3.3 SNE;LHEID 3.3 VELOCITY
I 3.3.1 Gemiddelde Snelheid 3.3.1 Average Velocity
In Figuur 3.3 word 'n deeltjie getoon in baan r(t). Oor Figure 3.3 depicts a particle in path r(t). In the course
I 'n tydverloop sal die posisievektor van die deeltjie
verander met 'n hoeveelheid waar
of time the position vector of the particle will change
by a quantity where

I =r(t + - r(t) . (3.4)

Die gemiddelde tempo waarteen die deeltjie verplaas The average rate at which the particle is dispiaced in
I word oar word die gemiddelde snelheid van die
deeltjie tussen Pi en P, genoem:
is called the average velocity of the particle between
P, and P,:

I 133

I
I
I 6.r
Vg:=- (3.5)

I 6.t

I Po

I
I
I y
x
I Figuur 3.3

I Voorbeelde
V3.3.1 Ons beskou weer die baanvergelyking (3.2) en
I bereken aan die hand van Figuur 3.4 Vg in die omgewing
van t. Van (3.4) en (3.5) volg da,t
Example
V3.3.1 We consider the path equation (3.2) again and
calculate Vg in the vicinity of t on the basis of Figure
3.4. It follows from (3.4) and (3.5) that:

I 6.r = [(t + 6.t)x + {(t + 6.t)2 - I} 0]- [tx + (t' - 1)0]

I en dus
= 6.tx + [2t6.t + (6.t)2]O
and hence

I V. = = x + (2t + tJ.t)0 • (3.6)

I y
I
I
o
I x
I
Figuur 3.4

I 134

I
I
I 3.3.2 Oombliklike Snelheid
'n K1aarblyklike beperking in die definisle (3.5) van die
I gemiddelde snelheid Is die verlies van inligting oor die
gedeelte van die baan tussen P, en p.; daar is immers 'n
groet aantal bane wat gekonstrueer kan word sodat hulle
almal deur beide P, en FJ gaan en dieselfde gemlddelde
I snelheid tussen die twee punte lewer. Dit is egter dade-
lik duidelik dat hierdie verlies minder word namate
kleiner word. Inderdaad sou ons dit heeltemal kon uit-
I skakel deur t na nul te laat streef, d. w.s. deur P, en p.
in 'n punt SaaID te trek. Daarom word die oombliklike
snelheld op tydstip t gedefinieer as
I v=limvg
At-+O
I Van (3.5) volg nou vir definisie (3.7):
I v = lim
I Daar word na :
torfunksie r(t}.
verwys as die afgeleide van die vek-
I Voorbeeld
VS.S.2 In V3.3.l volg van (3.6) dat
I v = At-+D
lim [f + (2t +
I Ona sal voortaan aanvaar dat die limiet in (3.7) in alle
fisiese gevalle bestaan. (Indien dit vir 'n gegewe waarde
van t nie sou bestaan nie, sou dit onfisiese effekte toelaat
I soos die verdwyning van 'n deeltjie.)
3.3.3 Dimensies
I Van definisie (3.8) volg dat snelheid in die SI-stelsel in
ms-' gemeet word.
I 3.3.4 Grootte en Rigting van Snelheid
I Uit definlsie (3.8) volg onmiddellik dat snelheid 'n vek-
tor is, en soos alle vektore het dit dus 'n grootte en 'n
rigting.
I In die limiet as -+ 0 sal P, en. Po saamval in Figuur
3.3 en raak v dus raaklynig aan die baan, soos getoon
I
in Figuur 3.5.
I 135
I
3.3.2 Instantaneous Velocity
An apparent restriction in definition (3.5) of the aver-
age velocity is the losS of Information about the part
of the path between P, and FJ; there are in fact nu-
merous paths that can be constructed so that they all
pass through both P, and Po and yield the same average
velocity between the two points. However, It Is imme-
diately clear that this loss decreases as decreases.
We would in fact be able to eliminate it completely by
making tend to zero, Le. by drawing P, and Po
together Into one point. Therefore, the instantaneous
velocity at time t is defined as
, (3.7)
It now follows from (3.5) for definition (3.7) that:
:= dr .
dt
(3.8)
We refer to :
r(t}.
as the derivative of the vector function
Example
VS.S.2 It follows from (3.6) in V3.3.l that
= f + 2tli .
We shall henceforth accept that the limit in (3.7) exists
in all physical cases. (If it were not to exist for a given
value of t, it would allow non-physical effects, such as
the disappearance of a particle.)
3.3.3 Dimensions
It follows from definition (3.8) that velocity in the SI
system is measured in m s-'.
3.3.4 Magnitude
Velocity
and Direction of
It follows from definition (3.8) that velocity is a vector.
Therefore, like all vectors, it has magnitude and direc-
tion.
In the limit if -+ 0, P, and Po will coincide In Figure
3.3, and v will become tangential to the path, as shown
in Figure 3.5. .
I
I
I o

I
I
I Figuur 3.5

008 het dus <!at Tberefore, we bave

I v = tJT 1 (3.9)

I waar f 'n eenheidsvektor tangensiaal {raakJynig} aan

die baan is.
where f is a unit vector that is tangential to tbe path.

From Figure 3.5 we can olso write tbe magnitude of v

I
Uit Figuur 3.5 volg ook onmiddellik vir v se grootte
as

I tJ =
.
Ivl = .!l.t->o
hm - = lim -
.
.!l.t->o
= -,
d.
dt
(3.10)

I waar • 'n booglengte Is wat langs die baan gemeet

word. Ons sal na tJ verwys as die spoed van die deeltjie.
where 8 is an are length that Is measured along the
path. We shall refer to tJ as the speed of tbe particle.

I 3.4 .. VEKTOR-DIFFERENSIASIE- 3.4 VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION

REELS RULES
I Ten einde snelhede te kan bereken, Is dit nodig dat ons
in staat moet wees om vektorfunksies te kan differen-
1n order to calculate velocity, it Is necessary for US to
be able to differentiate vector functions: Tberefore, we .
sieer. Daarom berlei ons nou die differensiasiereiils vir now derive the differentiation rules for vector functions.
I vektorfunksies.
3.4.1 Afgeleide van Tydkonstante Vektor 3.4.1 Derivative of Time-constant Vector
I Laat e{t) dieselfde waarde he vir alle waardes van t. Dan
volg
Let c(t) bave tbe same value for all values of t. It tben
follows that

I de lim e{t + - e(t) = lim =0 (3.11)

dt - .!l.t->o . .!l.t->o

I 3.4.2 Afgeleide van Som van Vektor- 3.4.2 Derivative of the Sum of Vector
funksies Functions
I Deur die eienskappe van die limiet te gebruik vind ons
vir die Bom van die twee vektorfunksies r(t) en s{t},
By using tbe properties of the limit, we find for the sum
of the two vector functions r(t) and s(t) tbat

I 136

I
I
I
d . k\(r + s)
I dt(r+s) = Ilm -'-.,....,.....!.
", ... 0 k\t

I =
lim [r(t + k\t) + set + k\t)]- [r(t) + set)]
" .... 0 k\t

I =
lim r(t + k\t) - r(t) + lim set + k\t) - set)
", ... 0 k\t ",...0 k\t

I Van (3.8) volg da.n It then follows from (3.8) that:

I
I 3.4.3 Afgeleide van Produk van Skalaar-
en Vektorfunksies
3.4.3 Derivative of the Product of Scalar
and Vector functions
Vir die produk van die skalaarfunksie J(t) en die vek- It follows for the product of a scalar function J(t) and
I torfunksie r(t) volg a vector function r(t) that:

I d
dt (lr) =
lim J(t + k\t)r(t + k\t) - J(t)r(t)
" .... 0 k\t

I =
lim [/(t + k\t)r(t + k\t) -/(t)r(t + k\t) + I(t)r(t + k\t) -/(t)r(t)]
", ...0 k\t k\t
I = lim I(t + k\t) -/(t) lim r(t + k\t) + llm I(t) lim r(t + k\t) - r(t)
" ....0 k\t " ....0 " ....0 ", ...0 k\t
I Ons verkry dus 'n reel soortgelyk aa.n die vir die produk Therefore, we obtain a rule simlar to that for the prod-
van twee skalaarfunksies: uct of two scalar functions:
I d d,f dr
-(lr) = -r+ 1- (3.13)
dt dt dt

I 3.4.4 Afgeleide van Vektorfunksie in 3.4.4 Derivative of Vector Function in

Cartesiese Komponentvorm Cartesian Component Form

I Van (3.12) en (3.13) volg It follows from (3.12) and (3.13) that:

I
I
I 137

I
I
I Aangesien :t, g, z tydkonBtante vektore is, volg van
(3.8) dat : = 0 ens., en ons Blen dat indien ons 'n vek-
tor in Cartesiese komponentvorm het, word die funksie
I se koml>onente afsonderlik gedifferensieer:
Since:t, g, and z are time-constant vectors, it follows
d:t
from (3.8) that dt = 0 etc., and we see that if we have
a vector in Cartesian component form, the components
of the function are differentiated individually:

I c/r
dt
dr. _ dr. _ dr••
- = -:1:+ - I I + - Z
dt dt dt
(3.14)

I 3.4.5 Afgeleide van Skalaarproduk van

Vektorfunksies
3.4.5 Derivative of the Scalar Product of
Vector Functions
Deur gebruik te maak van die identiteit (1.41) en die By using identity (1.41) and the differentiation rules for
I differensi88iereills vir skalaarfunksies, het ons scalar functions, we have:

I d
-(r. &)
dt

I
I
I
I Van (3,14) volg dan 'n reel soortgelyk aan die vir die
produk van twee skalaarfunksies:
A rule similar to that for the product of two scalar func-
tions then follows from (3.14):

I d c/r
-(r· B) = - . s + r· -
dt dt dt
ds
(3.15)

3.4.6 Afgeleide van Vektorproduk van

I Vektorfunksies
Deur die produk r x s met behulp van (1.50) in kom-
I ponenh'orm te skryf en dan met behulp van (3.14) en
die differensiasiereels vir skalaarfunksies te differensieer,
vind ons
3.4.6 Derivative of the Vector Product of
Vector Functions '
By writing the product r x s in component form with
the use of (1.50) and then differentiating it using (3.14)
and the differentiation rles for scalar functions, we find
that:

I
I dr. dB. dr. dB.).
= ( - B . +rll - - - 8 J1 -r.- x
I dt dt dt dt

I
I 138

I
I
I Ons herrangskik die terme: We rearrange the terms:

I
I
I
I
I Met behulp VQn (1.50) en (3.14) verkry ons weereens With the use of (1.50) and (3.14), we obtain a rule sim-
'n reeI soortgelyk aan die vir die produk van twee ilar to that for the product of two scalar functions, but

I skalaariunksies, maar in hierdie geval is dit belangrik

om daarop te let dat r en s in dieselfde volgorde
voorkom 88ll beide kante van die vergelyking:
in this case it is important to note that r and s occur
in the same order on both sides of the equation:

I d
-(r X
dr
s) = - X s +r
ds
X - (3.16)
dt dt dt

I 3.4.7 Kettingreel 3.4.7 Chain Rule

I Laat r = r(u) en u = u(t). Dan volg van (3.14) en die

kettingreel vir skalaarfunksies dat
Let r = r(u) and u = u(t). It follows from (3.14) and
the chaln rule for scalar functions that:

I
I
I
I Die vir vektorfunksies sien dus daaruit net
soos die vir ska.laarfunksies:
Therefore, the chain rule for vector functions is the same
as that for scalar functions:

I dr dr du
dt = du dt
(3.17)

I
I
I 139

I
I
I 3.4.8 Notasie 3.4.8 Notation

Ons het totdusver die Leibnitz-hotasie : gebruik om We have so far used the Lelbnitz notation': to in-

I die tydafgeleide van die funksle r(t} aan te duI. Aang....

slen hierdie notasle die limietproses simboliseer waarmee
dicate the time derivatives of function r(t). Since this
notation symbolises the limit process whereby a deriva-
'n afgeleide verkry word, is dit 'n bale natuurlike een om tive is obtained, it is a very natural one to use. However,

I te gebruik. Soma is dit egter gerieflik om van 'n bondi-

ger notasie gebrulk te maak, en dan word die Newton-
notasie veral gebruik: Die tydafgeleide van 'n funksie
it is sometimes more convenient to us a more concise n()o
tation, in which case we use the Newton notation: the
time derivative of a function Is indicated by a dot above
word aangedul deur 'n punt bo die funksie. Die snelheid the function. Therefore, velocity can be indicated in the
I kan dus bv. op die volgende twee maniere aangedul
word:
following two ways:

I v=-=r
dt
dr .
(3.18)

I In hierdle notasie sien (3.15) SOos volg daaruit: In this notation, (3.15) would be indicated as follows:

I -d (r'B )
dt
'
=r·s+r·s.

I Ons sal voortaan hierdie twee soorte notasie in kombi-

nasie met mekaar gebruik sooa ons dlt geriefiik ago
We shall henceforth use combinations of these two types
of notation in any way we find convenient.

I Voorbeeld Example
V3.4.1 As 'n toepassing van (3.14) beskou ons die baan V3.4.1 As an application of (3.14), we consider the path

I van V3.2.1: of V3.2.1:.

r = tz + (t' - 1}0 ;
I v = dr = dtdt z+ dt _ l}y =z + 2ty
dt
I Hierdie resultaat is natuurlik dleselfde soos die een wat This result obviously is the same as the one obtained in
in V3.3.2 verkry is ult definisie. V3.3.2 from definition.
I
I 3.5 VERSNELLING
3.5.1 Definisie
3.5 ACCELERATION
3.5.1 Definition

I Soos getoon in Figuur 3.6 sal v in die algemeen veran-

der terwyl 'n deeltjie van P 1 !la Po beweeg. Die tempo
As shown in Figure 3.6, v will change in general while
a particle moves from P1 to Po. The rate at which v
waarteen v verander word die gemiddelde versnelling changes is called the average acceleration between

I tussen P 1 en Po genoem: Pl and Po:

t1v
I a,:= t1t (3.19)

I 140

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I y
x
I Figuur 3.6

I Die oombliklike versnelling is die limiet van hierdie

verhouding:
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of this
ratio:

I •
a:= lim a = lim -
.0.1-+0'
• /:;.V
.0.1-+0 /:;.t
dv
= -
dt
(3.20)

I 3.5.2 Notasie
Ons kan die versnelling op verskillende wyses skryf
3.5.2 Notation
We can denote acceleration in various ways with the
m.b. v. die notasie tot ona beskikking: help of the notation at our disposal:
I
(3.21)
I
3.5.3 Dimensies 3.5.3 Dimensions
I Van definisie (3.20) volg dat versnelling in SI-eenhede It follows from definition (3.2) that acceleration is given
aangegee word in m s-·. in m s-' in SI units.

I Voorbeeld Example

I V3.5.11n V3.4.1 is gevind V3.5.1 In V3.4.1 we found that

v= Z + 2tli
I M.b.v. (3.14) vind ons dan die versnelling: With the use of (3.14), we calculate the acceleration:

I a =dv d()_
-=-
dt dt
l x + d(2)-
- ty= 2-y
dt

I 141

I
I
I Die baanvergelyklng (3.2) I. dus die van 'n deeltjie wat
'n konstante versnelling van 2 m .-. in die Y -rlgting
The equation of trajectory (3.2) is therefore that of a
particle that experiences a constant acceleration of 2
ondervind. m s-' in the Y direction.

I 3.6 REGHOEKIGE KOMPONENTE

VAN SNELHEID EN VERSNELLING
3.6 RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
OF VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

I Indien die poslsle P van 'n deeltjie op enige tydstip

gedefinleer word in terme van sy reghoekige kOOrdinate
If position P of a particle is defined at any time in terms
of its rectangula coordinates z, 11 and z, it is convenient
Z, 71 en z, is dit gerieflik om.y snelheid v sowel as sy ver- to compose its velocity v and its acceleration a in terms

I snelling a in reghoekige komponente te ontbind (Figuur

3.7).
ofrectanguiar components (Figure 3.7).

Die posisievektor word in terme van die reghoekige The position vector is written in terms of the rectangular
I koordinate van die deeitjie geskryf as coordinates of the particle as

r=d+lID+zi . (3.22)
I Omdat die Carteslese eenheidsvektore per definisie tyd- Since the Cartesian unit vectors are time constant by

I konstant is, het ons in §3.4.4 die resultaat (3.14) verkry.

Ona gebruik nou hierdie te8ultaat om (3.22) twee keer
m.b.t. die tyd te differensieer:
definition, we obtained result (3.14) in §3.4.4. We now
use this result to differentiate (3.22) twice with respect
to time:

I v =xx +!iO + iZ (3.23)

a =xx + vg + zz (3.24)

I
I
I
... "
I
I A
@
Y
"
I Figuur 3.7

I Die reghoekige komponente van die snelheid en ver-

snelling word dus respektiewelik gegee deur
The rectangular components of velocity and acceleration
are thus given respectively by

I tJz=z
oz=%
v,,=iJ
Il,,=ii
tJ ..

a..
= .i
=z
(3.25)
(3.26)

I Ona het reeds van hierdie resultate gebruik gemaak by

ons analise van die baanvergelyklng (3.2). As verdere
We have already· used these results in our analysis of
the equation of trajectory (3.2). We shall now consider
illustrasie beskou ons nog 'n paar voorbeelde. further examp'es as illustration.

I 142

I
I
I Voorbeelde Examples
VS.6.l Die kromlynige beweging van 'n deeltjie word VS.6.l The curvilinear movement of a particle is given
I gegee deur z = 3t' , 11 = 4t + 2 en z = 6t" - 8, waar die
Z-, 11- en z-koordinate in meters gegee word en die tyd
in sekondes. Bereken die grootte en rigting en rigting
by z = 3t', 11 = 4t + 2 and z = 6t 3 - 8, where the z, 11
and z coordinates are given in metres and the time in
seconds. Calculate the magnitude and direction of both

I van beide die snelheid en die versnelling van die deeltjie

op tydstip t=2 s.
the velocity and the acceleration of the particle at time
t = 2 s.

Oploaaing: Die posisievektor van die deeltjie word op Solution: The position vector of the particle at time t
I tydstip t gegee deur
r = 3t'x + (4t + 2)i/ + (6t 3 -
is given by:
8)£ .

I Van definisies (3.8) en (3.20) volg dan It follows from definitions (3.8) and (3.20) that

I v=: =6tx+40+18t'"

en and

I dv 6'z+ 36'
a=dt= tz.

I In die besonder voig vir t=2 s: It follows in particular for t = 2 s that

I v
a
= (12x + 4y + 36£) ms- 1
= (6x + 18£) m s-,

I Ons gebruik dan die resultate (1.1) om vas te stel dat
v 'n vektor is met grootte tI = 4v'9I m S-1 wat respek-
tiewelik hoeke van er = 71.67°, fJ = 83.98° en 'Y = 19.36°
I met die X-, Y- en Z-asse maak. Netso vind ons vir a dat
Cl = 6v'IO m s-, en er = 71.57°, fJ = 90° en 'Y = 18.43°.
We then use result (1.1) to establish that v is a vector
with magnitude tI = 4v'9I m S-l, forming angles of er =
71.67°, fJ = 83.98° and 'Y = 19.36° with the X -, Y - en Z
axes respectively. Similarly, we find for a that Cl = 6JIO
m s-, and er = 71.57°, fJ = 90° and 'Y = 18.43°.

I VS.6.2 As die snelheid van 'n deeltjie gegee word deur

v(t) = 0.8t'x + 12ttO + 5%, vind die grootte en rigting
=
van die deeltjie se versnelling vir t 2 s.
VS.6.2 If the velocity of a particle is given by v(t) =
0.8t'x + 12tty + 5£, calculate the magnitude and direc-.
tion of the particle's acceleration at t = 2 s.

I Oplosaing: Van definisie (3.20) volg Solution: It follows from definition (3.20) that

I dv =1. 6
a= Tt ' 6t-'1/.
tz+ '-'

I In die besonder geld vir t = 2 s: In particular we have for t = 2 s:

I a = {3.2x + m s-'

Ona gebruik dan (1.1) om te vind dat = 5.31 m s-' en We then use (1.1) to find that = 5.31 ms- 2 and er =
I
Cl Cl
er = 52.97°, fJ = 37.03°, 'Y = 90°. 52.97°, fJ = 37.03°, 'Y = 90°.

I 143

I
I
I Probleme Problems
Die argument van trigonometriese funksies word deur- The argument of trigonometric functions is given in ra-

I gaans in radiale aangegee. So bv. is sin t op tydstip t

sekondes geiyk aan die sinus van t radiale.
dians throughout. Thus e.g. sin t at time t seconds is
equal to the sine of t radians.

P3.6.1 Vind die sneiheid en versnelling op tydstip t vir P3.6.1 Calculate the velocity and acceleration at time
I e!keen van die volgende twee bane. t for each of the foHowing paths.

I (a) r = 2t'x + 4tO + 8£

(b) r=4sintx+4costy+t'z

I P3.6.2 Die
tydstip t word gegee deur
van 'n bewegende deeltjie op P3.6.2 The position vector of a moving particle at time
t is given by

I r = costx + sinty + tZ .

I (a) Maak 'n skets van die baan van die deeltjie.
(b) Vind die grootte en rigtingskosinusse van die snei-
heid op tydstip t = i s.
(a) Draw a skets of the path of the particle.
(b) Calculate the magnitude and direction cosines of hte
velocity at time t = i s.

I P3.6.3 Die baan van 'n projektiel word gegee deur

r = votcosOx + (votsinO - 4.9t')0 ,

P3.6.3 The path of a projectile is given by

I waar die beginsnelheid Vo in die XY-vlak ie en 'n hoek where the initial velocity Vo lies in the XY piane and
o met die X-as maak. . forms an angle 0 with the X axis.

I (a) Maak 'n skets van die baan en

(b) as Vo = 103 ms- 1 en = f, bereken die spoed en
die bewegingsrigting van die deeltjie op tydstippe t =
(a) Draw a sketch of the path.
(b) If Vo = 10· m S-1 and 0 = f, calculate the speed
and direction of the movement of the particle at time

I 1, 5, en 20s.

P3.6.4 Die beweging van 'n deeitjie word gegee deur die
t= 15, and 20s.
V3.6A The movement of a particle is given by the
vergeiykings:J: = e i , 11 = e- i en z = 0 vir sy k05rdinate, equations :J: = e!- , 11 = e - i and z = 0 for its coordinates,

I waar :J: en 11 in meter en t in sekondes gegee word.

(a) Skets die baan van die deeltjie en
(b) bereken die snelheid en versneiling van die deeitjie
where :J: and 11 are given in metres and t in seconds.
(a) Draw a sketch of the path of the particle and
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceieration of the parti-
=
I op tydstippe t = 0 en 1 s.

PS.6.S 'n Deeltjie volg 'n baan gegee deur r =

cle at time t 0 and Is.

PS.6.5 A particle follows a path given by r =

(Acospt)x + (Bsinpt)y, where A, B and p are con-
(Acospt)x + (B sinpt)y, waar A, B en p konstantes is.
I (a) Toon aan dat die baan 'n ellips is en maak 'n skets
daarvan.
stants.
(a) Show that the path forms an ellipse and draw a
sketch thereof.
(b) Toon aan dat die versnelling deurgaans na die oor-
I sprong gerig is en dat die grootte daarvan eweredig is
aan die afstand tussen die oorsprong en die deeltjie.
(b) Show that the acceleration is directed at the origin
throughout and that its magnitude is proportional to
the distance between the origin and the particle.

I
I
I 144

I
I
I P3.6.6 'n Deeltjle P is vasgemaak op die omtrek van
'n hoepel met straal R. Die hoepel rol sonder om te glip
P3.6.6 A particle P is attached to the circumference of
a hoop with radius R. The hoop rolls without slipping
op 'n horisontale vlak, en wel so dat die hoepel self deur- on a horizontal plane and remains in the same vertical

I gaans in dieselfde vertikale vlak bly en dat die sentrum

van die hoepel teen 'n konstante spoed V beweeg.
(a) Verkry die baanvergelyking van die deeltjie en maak
'n skets van sy baan.
I (b) Vind die snelheid van P (i) wanneer dit raak aan die
horisontale vlak en (il) wanneer dit op 'n maksimumaf-
stand van die horisontale vlak is.
plane throughout. The centre of the hoop moves at a
constant speed V.
(a) Calculate the equation of the trajectory of the par-
ticle and draw a sketch of its path.
(b) Calculate the velocity of P (i) when it touches the
horizontal plane and (il) when it is at a maximal dis-
tance from the horizontal plane.

I
3.7 VLAKJ;JEWEGING IN TERME VAN 3.7 PLANAR MOTION IN TERMS OF
I POOLKOORDINATE POLAR COORDINATES

y
I
I
I o
Figuur 3.S

I ODS beperk ons in hierdie afdeling tot die beweging In this section, we shall restrict ourselves to the move-
van 'n deeltjie in 'n plat vlak. In 'n groot aantal van ment of a particle in a plane. In many of these cases

I hierdie gevalle (soos by. planetare beweging om die

son) word die beweging van die deeltjie bepaal deur sy
afstand vanaf 'n spesifieke punt in sy vlak van beweging.
As ons die punt kies as die oorsprong van ons verwys-
I ingstelsel en die ko1irdinaatasse so rig dat die beweging
in die XY-vlak plaasvind, is dit gerieHik om die deeltjie
se beweging te beskryf Lt.v. sy poolkoordinate r en 8
(as in planetary motion around the sun), the motion of
the particle is determined by its distance from a specific
point in its plane of motion. 1f we choose this point as
the origin of our reference system and direct the coordi-
nates axes so that the movement occurs in the XY plane,
it is convenient to describe the movement of the particle
in terms of its polar coordinates r and 8, as defined in

I soos gedefinieer in Figuur 3.S.

Dit is dan ook gerieHik om die beweging van die deeltjie

Figure 3.8.

It is also convenient to describe the movement of the

te beskryf Lt.v. komponente respektiewelik ewewydig
I
particle in terms of components that are parallel and
aan en loodreg op die lyn OP. Met die oog daarop word perpendicular to line OP. In view of this, we define
daar in figuur 3.9 twee onderling loodregte eenheidsvek- two mutually perpendicular unit vectors f and 8 in Fig-
tore r en 9 gedefinieer. Die radiale eenheidsvektor r ure 3.9. The radial unit vector r has the same direc-
I het dieselfde rigting as r en dui die rigting aan waarin
P sou beweeg indien r vergroot sou word en 8 konstant
gehou sou word. Die transversale eenheidsvektor 9
tion as r and indicates the direction in which P would
move if r were increased an B remained constant. The
transversal unit vector 8 is obtained by rotating f
word verkry deur r anti-kloksgewys deur 90· te draai en
I dui die rigting waarin P sou beweeg indien 8 vergroot
sou word en r konstant gehou sou word.
anti-clockwise through 90· and indicates the direction
in which P would move if B were increased and r re-
mained constant.

I Van figuur 3.9 volg nou

r = cosBx + sin8y
It follows from Figure 3.9 that

(3.27)

I
I 145 i

I I
I
I
I
I
I o
I en
Figuur 3.9

and

I 8 = -sinex + cosey. (3.28)

I Anders as die Cartesieae eenheidsvektore, is die ra-

diale en transversale eenheidsvektore in die a1gemeen
tydathanklik: hul rigtings sal in 'n gekromde baan van
punt tot punt verskil. Met behulp van die kettingreei
I (3.17) en die (3.14) kan ons hul tydafgeleides soos volg
omskryf:
Unlike the Cartesian unit vectors, the radial and
transversal unit vectors are time dependent in gen-
eral: their directions in a curved path will vary from
point to point. With the help of the chain rule (3.17)
and (3.14), we can write their time derivatives as fol-
lows: .

I di' di'de ( . e- e-)8

dt = d8 dt = -sm x+cos y

I db= -
-
dt
db-de= ( -cos e-X-Bm
de dt
. e-)e'
11

I Ons verkry dus die simmetriese verbande Thus, we obtain the symmetrical relations

I di'
-=oe
dt
.-
-
db
dt
= -81'
.
'
(3.29)

I waar die hoeveelheid 8 =

deeltjie genoem word.
die hoekspoed van die where the quantity 8 = :
of the particle.
is called the angular speed

I Ona kan nou die deeltjie se beweging beskryf in terme

van die radiale en transversale rigtings. Vir die deeltjie
We can now describe the movement of the particle in
terms of the radial and transversal directions. For the
se posisievektor het ons van Figuur 3.9: position vector of the particle, we obtain the following

I from Figure 3.9:

r = rr (3.30)

I Die snelheid word verkry deur differensiasie, The velocity is obtained through differentiation,

I dr
v=-=-r+r-,
dt
dr _
dt
di'
dt

I 146

I
I
I en met behulp van (3.28) volg dan and with the help of (3.28), it follows that

v = ff + rOB. (3.31)
I Dos let op dat It I = Ivl = ..;v:v = Jr> + (r9)2 'i' f. We note that It I = Ivl =..;v:v = Jr> + (r9), 'i'r.
I Die versnelling word deur verdere differeosiasie verkry: The acceleration is obtained through further differenti-
ation:

I a= -
dv
dt
df..
= ff+r- +f98+r89 +r8-
dt
..• .dO
dt

I Met behulp van (3.29) volg dan With the help of (3.29), it then follows that:

a = (f - riP)f + (re + 2fiJ)B . (3.32)

I Die radiale en transversale kom ponente van die snelheid The radial and transversal components of acceleration
en versnelling is dus therefore are

I v,. = r V9 = r9 (3.33)

I ar = r-rlP
Dit is belangrik om hier op te let dat Or Die gelyk is &an
09 = re + 2f9 (3.34)

It is important to note here that Or is not equal to the

I die tydafgeleide van Vr nie en dat 09 nie die tydafgeleide

is van V9 nie.
time derivative of v. and that 09 is not the time deriva-
tive of V9.

I Voorbeelde
VS.T.I As 'n toepassing van die resultate in hierdie
Examples
V3.T.1 As an application of the results in this section,
I afdeling, beskou ODS nou die baie belangrike geval van
'n deeltjie wat 'n slrkelbeweging uitvoer. In hierdie
geval is die radiale koordinaat r' van die deeltjie kon-
we now consider the very important case of a particle in
circular motion. In this case, the radial coordinate r
of the particle is constant, i.e. r = R, where R is the
stant, d.w.s. r = R waar R die straal van die sirkel is
I (Figuur 3.10).
radius of the circle (Figure 3.10).

y
I
I
I
I Figuur 3.10

I Dan velg f = 0; r == 0 en van (3.31) en (3.32) word die

snelheid en die versnelling van die deeltjie respektiewelik
It follows then that f = 0; r, = 0, and from (3.31) and
(3.32) for the velocity and acceleration of the particle
gegee deur , are given by

I 147

I i
I
I (3.35)

I en and

(3.36)

I Ons let op dat ons die u1tdrukking (3.35) vir die snelheid
ook maklik m.b. v. die resultate in §3.3.4 kon verkry het:
Van Figuur 3.10 volg dat die booglengte,
I 8=R8 .
We note that we can obtaln expression (3.35)' for the
velocity with the help of the results in §3.3.4: It follows
from Figure 3.10 that the arc length,
(3.37)

I
Die spoed word dan m.b.v, (3.10) verkry: The speed is then obtained with the help of (3.10):

ds .
v= -=R8 (3.38)
I dt

Aangesien die snelheid raak1ynig aan die sirkel is, moet Since the velocity is tangential to the circle, it must also

I dit verder loodreg op 'n straal van die sirkel wees en dus
gerig in die rigting van {j (natuurUk vir 8 > 0).
be perpendicular to the radius of the circle and thus
directed in the direction of {j (of course for iJ > 0).

Sover dit die versneUing betref, is dit belangrik om With regard to acceleration, it is important to note that
I daarop te let dat dit altyd 'n negatlewe radiale kom-
ponent het. Beskou in die besonder die geval waar die
deeltjie teen konstante spoed beweeg, se v = "0' Dan,
it always has a negative radial component. Consider
in particular the case in which the particle moves at a
constant speed, say v = I}o. It then follows from (3.38)

I van (3.38):
•
6=- ;
I}o
that

R
I Vergelyking (3.36) word: Equation (3.36) becomes:

I a = 0 - R ( VO)2
R f = R (-f)

I Hierdie Is die sogenaamde sentripetale versnelling en

is altyd na 0 gerig.
This is called the centripetal acceleration and is always
directed at O.

I V3.1.2 Die rotasie van die 1 m-lange stang OA in V3.1.2 The rotation of a 1 m rod OA in Figure 3.11 is

I
I
I
I Figuur 3.11

I 148

I
I
I Figuur 3.11 word gedefinieer deur die vergelyking defined by the equation

9 = 0.15t' , (a)

I waar 9 in radiale gegee word en t in sekondes. Blok B where 9 is given in radians and t in seconds. Block B
gly langs die arm op 80 'n manier dat sy afstand vanaf slides along the arm in such a way that its distance from
I o gegee word deur o is given by

r = 1- 0.10t' , (b)

I waar r in meter en t in sekondes gegee word. Vind die where r is given in metres and t in seconds. Calculate
grootte en rigting van beide die snelheid en versnelling the magnitude and direction of both the velocity and

I van B vir 9 = 30·.

Oplo88ing: Ons vind eers die tyd t1 waarvoor 9 = 30·.
acceleration of B for 9 = 30· .
Solution: First, we calculate the time t1 for which 9 =
lndien ons in (a) ste! dat 9 = =
91 30· =
0.524 rad , 30·. H we substitute 9 91 = = =
30· 0.524 rad in (a),
I vindons we find:

0.524 = ; t1 = 1.868 s . (c)

I Van (a) en (b) vind ons verder die eerste en tweede From (a) and (b) we also find the first and second time
tydafgeleides van r en 9: derivatives of r and 9:

I r = 1- 0.10t' 9 =
iJ = 0.30t
0.15t'
" = 0.20t

I i' = -0.20 8 = 0.30

Ons bereken vervolgens die waardes van hierdie hoeveel- We then calculate the values of these quantities at 9 =91
I hede by 6 = 91 deur t = h daarin te stel: by substituting t = t1:

r1 = 0.651 m 91 = 0.524 rad

I "1
i'1
=
=
-0.374 ms- 1
-0.20 m S-2
iJ
91
=
=
0.556 rads- 1
0.30 rad s-'

I Ons kan dan die uitdrukkings (3.31) vir die snelheid

en (3.32) vir die vemnelling van die deeltjie op tydstip
t = h neerskryf.
We can then write down the expressions (3.31) for the
veiocity and (3.32) for the acceleration of the particle at
time t = t1

I
I
I Beide hierdie vektore word voorgestel in Figuur 3.12.
Uit hierdie figuur voig dan
Both vectors are represented in Figure 3.12. It then
follows from this figure that:

I tJ :: + tJ: - 0.523 ms-1 et = bgtanl:: 1= 44.3·

P = bgtan I:: I
= 29.0·
I
I 149

I
I
I
I :J e :O'3I.S9 ",S-r
.'
A
A

9
1'.
I '\T, cf,---""":W'
, 6

I 11,

I
Figuur S.12

I Probleme Problems

I PS.7.1 Die posislevektor van 'n deeltjie word as 'n

funksie van die tyd gegee deur r = 6tx + tOO, waar alle
hoeveelhede in SI-eenhede gegee word.
P3.7.1 The position vector of a particle is given as a
function of time by r = 6tx+t"0, where all the quantities
are given in SI units.

I (a) Maak 'n skets van die baan en vind dan vir t = 4 s
(b) r, v en R,
(c) r, vena,
(a) Draw a sketch of the path and then for t = 4 s
calculate
(b) r, v and R,
(d) f' en 9, (c) r, 11 and a,
I (e) die radiale en
en
komponente van v en R (d) f' and 9,
(e) the radial and transversal oomponents of v and R,
(f) die hoekspoed 8. and

I P3.7.2 Die twee-dimensionele beweging van'n deeltjie

(f) the angular speed 8.

P3.7.2 The two-dimensional movement of a particle is

word gedefinieer deur r = - 20t3 en 9 = 2t", waar r
I gegee word in millimeter, t In sekondes en 9 in radiale.
Vind die snelheid en die versnelling van die deeltjie vir
(a) t=O en (b) t=l s.
I PS.7.S 'n Vuurpyl word vertikaal afgevuur van 'n
lanseerbasis by B (Figuur 3.13). Dit word gevolg deur
defined by r = 60t" - 20," and 9 = 2t" , where r is given
in millimetres, t in seconds and 9 in radians. Calculate
=
the velocity and acceleration of the particle for (a) t 0
and (b) t =1 s.
PS.7.S A missile is fired vertically from a launching
platform at B (Figure 3.13). It is tracked by a radar

I
I It
v a

I
I
I Figuur S.13

I 150

I
I
I die radarstel by A. Vind die snelheid van die vuurpyl in
terme van b, 9 en 9.
system at A. Calculate the velocity of the missile in
terms of b, 9 and 9.

I P3.7.4 In Figuur 3.14 verbind 'n draad OA die glystuk

A en 'n tol by O. Die glystuk beweeg na regs met kon-
stante spoed Vo. Vind die hoekspoed van A om 0 in
P3.7.4 In Figure 3.14, a wire OA connects a slider A
and a bobbin at O. The slider moves to the right at a
constant speed 1Jo. Calculate the angular speed of A at
terme van tJo, b, en 9. . o in terms of 1Jo, b and 9.
I
I
I r
I
I Figuur 3.14

P3.7.5 Soos die staaf OA in Figuur 3.15 roteer, beweeg
I die pen P langs die parabool BCD. As die vergelyking
van die parabool gegee word deur r = 2b/(1 + COB 9) en
as 9 = kt, bereken die snelheid en versnelling van P vir
PS.7.5 As the rod OA in Figure 3.15 rotates, pin P
moves along the parabola BCD. If the equation of the
parabola is given by r = 2b/(1 + cos9) and if 9 = /et,
calculate the velocity and acceleration of P for (a) 9 = 0

I (a) 9=Oen (b) 9=90·. and (b) 9 = 90·.

I
I
I o

I
I Figuur S.15

I PS.7.0 Die pen B in Figuur 3.16 is vry om langs die

sirkelvormige gleuf sowel as langs die roterende stang
PS.7.0 Pin B in Figure 3.16 is free to slide along the
circular groove as well as the rotating arm OC. If B
OC te gly. As B anti-kloksgewys in die sirkelvormige moves anti-clockwise in the circular groove at a constant

I gleuf beweeg teen 'n konstante spoed vo, vind die hoek-
spoed van B om 0 sowel as die radiale komponent tJ r
van B se snelheid (a) vir = O· en (b) vir 90·.
speed vo, calculate the angular speed of B at 0 as well
as the radial. component Vr of B's. velocity (a) for = O·
and (b) for = 90·.

I
I 151

I
I
I
I
I 24() 111m

I L
I c

I Figuur S.16

I PS.T.T Die slrkelvormige skyf Bin Figuur 3.17 rol80n-

der om te glip op die vaste skyf A. Die punt P op
B se omtrek beskryf dan 'n kardioied gedefinieer deur
r = 2b(1 + cos 9) en 9 = 27rt. Vind die snelheid en
I versnelling van P vir (a) t = 0.25 en (b) t = 0.50 s.
PS.T.T The circular disct B in figure 3.17 rolls without
slipping on fixed disc A. Point P and B's circumference
then describes a cardioid defined by r = 2b(1 + cos 9)
and 9 = 2".t. Calculate the velocity and acceleration of
P for (a) t = 0.25 and (b) t = 0.50 s.

I
I
I p

I
I Figuur S.17

I
I
I
I
I 152

I
I
I 3.8 TANGENSIALE EN NORMALE
KOMPONENTE
3.8 TANGENTIAL
COMPONENTS
AND NORMAL

I Ons beperk ons weereens tot die geval van vlakbeweg·

Ing en Ides ons verwysingetelsei s6 dat die beweging In
die XY-vlak plaasvlnd (Flguur 3.18). Van (3.9) kan 'n
We shall again restrict ourselves to the case of planar
movement and choose a reference system such that the
movement Is In the XY plane (Figure 3.18). From (3.9),
tangensiale eenheidsvektor f, d. w.s. een raaklynlg we can obtain a tangential unit vector 1', i.e. one that
I aan 'n deeltjie se baan op tydstlp t, S008 volg verkry
word:
Is tangential to the path of a particle at time t, as
follows:
_ V

I T=-
V
(3.39)

I
I
I
I
I o X
I Figuur 3.18

I Ona sal sien dat die rigtlng loodreg op l' van groot
meetkundige belang is. Met die oog hierop, deflnieer ons
nou aan die hand van Figuur 3.18 die normale eenhei-
We shall see that the dlrectio perpendicular to l' is of
great geometric importance. In view of this, we now
define the normal unit vector /\ on the basis of Figure

I dsvektor i\ as 'n eenheidsvektor wat loodreg op f staan

en wat gerig is in die rigting waarheen die baan
krom. Ons kan 'n onderllnge verband tussen die tan-
gensla1e en normale eenheidsvektore verkry deur beide
I te omskryf In terme van t/J, die hoek wat l' met (se) die
vaste X-rigtlng mw:
3.18 as a unit vector that Is perpendicular to l' and
is directed in the direction in which the path
curves. We can obta.in a mutual relation between the
tangential and the normal unit vectors by describing
both in terms of .p, the angle that l' forms with the
fixed X direction (for instance):

I l' = cos.p X+ sin .p ii

i\ = - sin .p x+ cos .p ii
(3.40)
(3.41)

I Dan volg It then follows that

'.1._ .1.-"
df = -Sln",z+cos",II="
I d.p (3.42)

= ._cos.px _ sint/J ii = -1'

I d/\
d.p (3.43)

I 153

I
 I
I Ona sou egter graag net soos In §3.7 die afgeleldes van
f en ii met betrekking tot t wou he. Om dit te doen, Is
However, as In §3. 7, we would prefer to have the derlva-
tl vas f and ii with respect to t. To be able to do
'n baie belangrlke meetkundige Inslg nodig, een wat In this, we need one very important geometric Insight, one

I Figuur 3.19 genIustreer word: Die gedee\te PQ van die

baan waarlangs die deeltjie beweeg oor 'n kiein tydsver-
loop At kan tot 'n goeie benadering beskou word as
that illustrated in Figure 3.19: the portion PQ of the
path along which the particle moves over a short period
At can be regarded approximately as an arc of clr-

I 'n airkelbogie. (Hierdie benadering word natuurlik

prosies indien At -+ 0.) In figuur word die mid-
deipunt van hlerdie sirkelbogie (die krommlngsmid-
cle. (Naturally, this approximation becomes exact If
At -+ 0.) In the figure, the centre of this arc (called
the centre of curvature) Is indicated by M, the ra-
delpunt genoem) aangedul deur M, die straal daar- dius (called the radius of curvature of the path) Is
I van (die krommingstraal van die baan genoem) word
aangedul deur p en ay lengte word aangedui deur AB.
Aangesien 'n straal van 'n sirkel loodreg Is op 'n Iyn
indicated by p and the length of the arc Is indicated by
AB. Since the radius of a circle Is perpendicular to a
line that Is tangential to the circle at the point where

I raak\ynig aan die sirkel by die punt waar die straal die
omtrek van die slrkei sny, Is ii noodwendig gerjg na
M. Indien die boek waardeur f vanaf P na Q roteer
the radius intersects the circumference of the circle, ii Is
of necessity directed towards M. If the angle through
which f rotates from P to Q Is glven by A1/!, the line
aangegee word deur A1/!, sal die lyn wat M met die that connects M with the particle and is perpendicular
I deeltjie verblnd en wat loodreg staan op f, ook deur
A1/! roteer.
to f will also rotate through A1/!.

I M

I
I
I
I Figuur 3.19

I Die sirkeiboog PQ onderspan dus 'n hoek A1/! by M wat

benaderd in radiale gegee word deur A1/! '" AB. Dan
The arc PQ subtends an angle A1/!, at M given approx-
imately in radians by A1/! '" AB. It then follows that
p p

I volg dat

A1/! 1
I -AB "'-p'
en OnB maak dan hierdie verband presies deur te eis dat and then we make this relation exact by letting AB -+ 0:
I A. -+ 0:

d.p 1

I ds = P (3.44)

Die tydafgeleides van f en ii word nou verkry deur die The time derivatives of f and ii are now obtained by

I kettingreel soos volg toe te pas: applying the chain rule as follows:

I 154

I
I
I
I df
dt
=
df drfJ dB
drfJ ds dt

dfl dfl drfJ d.

I dt
=
drfJ ds dt

I Ons kan e1keen van die afgeleides aan die regterkant

van hierdie Yergelykings omskryf m.b.v. (3.10), (3.42),
(3.43) en (3.44) om twee simmetriese verbande tussen f
We can describe each of the derivatives on the right side
of these equations with the help of (3.10), (3.42), (3.43)
and (3.44) in order to obtain two symmetrical relations
en fI te verkl'y.
I
between f and fI:

df tI. dfl tI •
-=-n -=--T
I
(3.45)
dt p dt p

Dit is inter...sant om te let op die ooreenkoms met It is interesting to note the similarity to (3.29).

I (3.29).

Belde die snelheid en versnelling kan nou omskryf word Both the velocity and acceleration can now be written in

I in terme van hulle tangensiale en normalekomponente.

Van (3.9) het ons eerstens vir die snelheid
terms of their tangential and normal components. From
(3.9), we first obtain the velocity:

I
V=VT. (3.46)
Ons differeneieer (3.46) om die versnelling te verkry: We differentiate (3.46) to obtain the acceleration:

I a=-=-T+V-
dv
dt
dtl.
dt
df
dt

I Die afgeleide van fI word uit (3.45) verkry, en ons het The derivative ofn is obtained from (3.45), and we have:

I (3.47)

I Die tangensiale en normale komponente van die snelheld

en versnelling is dus
=tI
The tangential and normal components of the velocity
and acceleration hence are
tlr tin = 0 (3.48)

I ar = dt
dtl
an =
tl2
(3.49)
p

I Die normale komponent van die snelheid is dus altyd nul The normal component of the velocity therefore always
en die normale komponent van die versnelling is altyd is zero and the normal component of acceleration always

I poSItief. Die resultate (3.48) en (3.49) stel ons nou onder

andere in stQat om op enige tydstip die kl'ommingstraai
sowel88 die kl'ommingsmiddelpunt van 'n gegewe baan
is positive. Results (3.48) and (3.49) now enabie us to
calculate the radius of curvature 88 well 88 the centre of
curvature of a given path at any time.

I
te vind.

I 155

I
I
I Voorbeeld Example

I V3.8.1 Die baanvergelyldng van 'n deeltjie word gegee

deur r = 4t'z - 6tY, waar alle hoeveelhede in SI-
eenbede gegee word.
V3.8.1 The equation of the trajectory of a particle is given
by r = 4t'z-6tg, where all the quantities are given
in SI units.
(a) Draw a sketch of the path and then for t 2s =
I (a) Maak 'n skets van die baan en vind dan vir
t = 2s
(b) r, ven a,
ca.lcu1ate
(b) r, v and a,
(c) Ten 11, (c) T and 11,

I (d) die tangensiale en normale komponente van v

en a ,
(e) die krommingstraa.! p en
(d) the tangential and the normal components of
v and R,
(e) the radius of curvature p and

I (f) die kOOrdinate van die krommingsmiddelpunt.

Oplo8Bing: (a) Die koordinate van die deeltjie
(f) the coordinates of the centre of curvature.
Solution: (a) The coordinates of the particle are
word as funksie van die tyd gegee dour z = given as a function of time by z = 41'; 11 =

I 41'; 11 = -6t; z = O. Die tyd t kan geillimineer

word om
-6t; z = O. Time t can be eliminated in order
to obtain:

I Z
1
=-11
9
2
z=o
I te verkry, en die baan is dus 'n parabool in die Therefore, the path is a parabola in the XY plane,
XY-vlak soos getoon in Figuur 3.20. Omdat 11 as shown in Figure 3.20. Since 11 decreases as t in-
I k1elner word as t grnter word, Is die bewegingsrig-
ting van die deeltjie in die baan soos aangedui dour
creases, the particle's direction of movement in the
path is as indicated by the arrow.
die pyltjie.

I
I y

I
I o x
I
I
I (b) Van die baanvergelyklng
Figuur 3.20

(b) It follows from the equation of the trajectory

I volg
r = 4t'z - 6tY
that

I 156

I
I
I
v= dr =8tz-6ji
I en
dt

and

I dv
a=-=8z.
dt

I Vir t = 2s volg dan For t = 2 s, it then follows that:

I r = (16z - 12ji) m
(c) Van (I) volg dat
v = (16z - 6y) m S-l a = (8z) m s-· .
(c) It follows from (i) that
(i)

I en ons kan T konstrueer m.b.v. (3.39):

" = J(16)2 + (6)' - 2y'73 m S-l , (iI)
and we can construct T with the help of (3.39):

I (iii)

I z
Omdat T, n en drie onderling loodregte eenheidsvek-
tore is (sien Figuur 3.20), lam ons die normale een-
z
Since T, n and are three mutually perpendicular unit
vectors (see Figure 3.20), we can obtain the normal unit
heidsvektor vir t = 2 s verkry soos volg: vector for t = 2 s as follows:
I
_ .. _ (iv)
I
n=ZXT=
J73
(d) Van (i), (iii) en (iv) volg (d) It follows from (I), (iI) and (iv) that:

I "n = v ./\ = 0 m S-l (v)

en and
I • 64 _. 24 _.
a,.=a.r=y'73ms Bn=a·n= y'73ms (vi)

I (e) Van (3.49) volg vir die krommingstraai dat (e) For the radius of curvature, it follows from (3.49)

I ,,'
that

p=-,
an
I en van (iI) en (vi) volg dan vir t = 2. and from (iI) and (vi) for t = 2 s that

I p=
6
m • (vii)

I (f) In Figuur 3.20 het ons vir die posisievektor van die
krommingsmiddelpunt
(f) In Figure 3.20 we have for the position vector of the
centre of curvature,

I 157

I
I
I R=r+pfi,

I en van (i), (iv) en (vii) volg dan and it follows from (i), (iv) and (vii) that:

R = (16f _ 12y) + !(73) I (3f + 8Y) ,;, {105 f + 256 0} m .

I 6 v'73 2 3

Die krommingsmiddelpunt is dus die punt Therefore, the centre of curvature is point

I ·M(52.5, 85.333, 0). M(52.5, 85.333, 0).

Probleme Problems
I PS.8.l Die baanvergelyking van 'n deeltjie word gegee PS.8.l The equation of the trajectory of a particle
deur r = 4 eos(2t)f + 4 sin(2t)y , waar alle hoeveelhede is given by r = 4eos(2t)f + 4sin(2t)y, where all the

I in SI...nhede gegee word.

(a) Maak 'n skats van die baan en vind dan vir t = is
(b) r, vena,
quantities are given in SI units.
(a) Draw a sketch of the path and then for t = is
calculate '
n,
I (c) f en
(d) die tangensiale en normale komponente van vena,
(e) die krommingstraal p en
(b) r, v and a,
(c) f and n,
(d) the tangential and the normal components of v and
(f) die koiirdinate an die krommingsmiddelpunt. a,
I (e) the radius of curvature p, and
(f) the coordinates of the centre of curvature.

I PS.8.2 Vind die minimum krommingstraal van die

baan van die projektiel in P3.6.3.
PS.8.2 Calculate the minimum radius of curvature of
the path of the projectile in P3.6.3.

PS.8.S Skryf die baanvergelyking neer van die deeltjie PS.8.S Write down the equation of the trajectory of

I P in P3.6.6 en vind
(a) f·en n,
(b) die tangensiale en normale komponente van v en a,
particle P in P3.6.6 and calculate
(a) f and n,
(b) the tangential and normal components of v and a,

I (c) die krommingstraal p, en we! (i) wanneer P raak aan

die horisontale vlak en (ii) wanneer P op 'n maksimu-
mafstand van die horisontale vlak is.
(c) the radius of curvature p (i) when P touches the hor-
izontal plane and (ii) when P is at a maximum distance
from the horizontal plane.

I PS.8.4 'n Deeltjie beweeg in 'n sirkelbaan met straal

2 m op s6 'n wyse dat die die afstand wat hy is vanaf 'n
spesifieke vaste punt, gemeet langs die sirkelboog, as 'n
I
funksie van die tyd gegee word deur 8 = 0.5t" + t' (8 in
meter en t in sekondes). Vind an en a,. vir t = 2 s.
P3.8.4 A particle moves in a circular path with radius
2 m such a way that its distance from a specific fixed
point, measured along the circle, is given as a function
of time by 8 = 0.5t" + t' (8 in metres and t in seconds).
Calculate an and a,. for t = 2 s.

I PS.8.5 Die posisievektor van 'n ossilerende deeltjie

word gegee deur r = sin tf + to.
Vind die normale en
tangensiale komponente van sy versnelling vir t = 1.571
PS.8.5 The position .vector of an oscillating particle is
given by r = sintf + to.
Calculate the normal and the
tangential components of its acceleration for t = 1.571 s.

I s.
PS.8.6 Die verband tussen die spoed " en die afstand P3.8.6 The relation between speed" and the distance
• wat 'n deeltjie langs 'n gekromde baan a.fiii word gegee 8 that a particle travels along a curved path is given by

I deur v = 3.' - 128. Vir watter waarde van 8 is die tan-

gensiale komponent van die versnelling gelyk aan nul?
v = 38' - 128. For what value of 8 is the tangential
component of the acceleration equal to zero?

PS.8. T Bereken die krommingstraal van die baan in PS.8.T Calculate the radius of curvature of the path in
I P3.6.S (a) vir pt = 0 en (b) vir pt = P3.6.5 (a) for pt = 0 and (b) for pt =

I 158

I
I
I HOOFSTUK 4 CHAPTER 4.
I DINAMIKA VAN 'N DEELTJIE DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE

I 4.1 NEWTON SE TWEEDE

BEWEGINGSWET
4.1 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF
MOTION

I Die beweging van alle deeltjies en liggame word beskryf

deur Newton se Tweede Bewegingswet, waarna ons
hierna kortweg as N2 sal verwys. Hierdie fundamentele
natuurwet is reeds in §2.2 geformuleer, en ons herhaal
I daardie formulering hier:
The motion of all particles and bodies is described by
Newton's Second Law of Motion, to which we subse-
quently will refer to as N2. This fundamental law of
nature was formulated in §2.2, and the formulation is
repeated here.

Die versnelling van 'n deeltjie is eweredig Mn die re- The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the

I sultante krag wat daarop uitgeoefen word en is in die

rigting van die krag. Wiskundig is die formulering
van N2 op die oog af dUB eenvoudig:
resultant force acting on it and is in the direction
of this force. Mathematically, the formulation of N2
seems simple:

I IF=mal (4.1)

I In (4.1) word die eweredigheidskonstante m die massa

van die deeltjie genoem.
In (4.1), the constant of proportionality m is called the
mass of the particle.

I Eenhede: In §2.3 is die eenhede van die SI-stelsel

gedefinieer. In (4.1) is die eenhede van waarin F, m
en a gemeet word dus respektiewelik Newton (afkort-
Units: The units of the SI system were defined in §2.3.
In (4.1), the units in which F, m and a are measured
therefore are Newton (abbreviated N), kilogram (abbre-

I
ing N), kilogram (afkorting kg) en meter per sekonde
kwadraat (afkorting ms- 2 ). Daar is in die SI-stelsel
geen omsettingskonstantes nodig nie; 'n krag van IN
wat uitgeoefen word op 'n massa van 1 kg sal dit dus
I versnel teen 1 ms- 2 .
Die kompleksiteit wat in N2 verskuil kan word, kom
na vore sodra ons besef dat die versnelling a in (4.1) in
I werklikheid die tweede afgeleide van die posisievek-
tor is. [Sien (3.21)J. Ons kan dus (4.1) skryf as
viated kg) and metre per second squared (abbreviated
ms- 2 ) respectively. In the SI system, no conversion con-
stants are necessary; a force of IN being exerted on a
mass of 1 kg will therefore accelerate it at 1 ms-'.
The complexity that can be implicit in N2 is revealed
as soon as we realise that the acceleration a in (4.1) is in
reality the second derivative of the position vector
[see (3.2.1)J. Therefore, we can write (4.1) as

I F-m-
- dt'
d'r
(4.2)

I Aangesien die oplossing van 'n gegewe probleem daarin

le dat ons die baanvergelyking
Since the solution of a given problem lies in calculating
the path equation

I r = r(t) (4.3)

moet vind, sien ons dat (4.2) in beginsel altyd die oplos- we see that (4.2) is in principle always the solution of a

I sing van 'n tweede-orde differensiaalvergelyking

behels. Daar is veral twee komplikasies wat in (4.2) kan
voorkom:
second-order differential equation. There are two
complications, in particular, that can occur in (4.2):

I
I 159

I
I
I (1) F se tydafuanklikheid kan ingewikkeld wees of selfs
nie eksplisiet gegee wees nie.
(1) F's dependence can either be complex or not be
given explicitly.
(2) Various particles can be involved in the problem:
I
(2) Verskeie deeltjies kan in die probleem betrokke
wees; hul interakeies met mewr word deur N3 their interactions with each other are determined
bepaal (sien §2.2). by N3 (see §2.2).

I 4.2 TRAAGHEIDSTELSELS 4.2 INERTIAL SYSTEMS

I
In hoofstuk 3 het ons die keuse van 'n verwysingstelsel
oop gelaat. In die geval van toepassings van N2 is
hierdie keuse egter kritiek. Gestel bv. die krag op 'n
deeltjie is nul (iets wat gemeet kan word!) en ons
I vind dat die versnelling van die deeltjie m.b.t. ver-
wysingspunt 0 ook nul is, soos ons verwag. In terme
van hierdie verwysingspunt stem ODS waarnemings dan
In chapter 3 we left the choice of a reference system
open. However, in the case of applications of N2, this
choice is crucia)' If the force on a particle is zero (some-
thing that can be measured), for instance, we find that
the acceleration of the particle with regard to reference
pont 0 is also zero, as expected. In terms of this ref-
erence point, our observations correspond to N2. How-

I ooreen met N2. As ons egter die deeltjie se beweging

meet t.o.V. 'n verwysingspunt 0' wat op sy beurt t.O.V.
o versnel, vind ons dat die versnelling nie nul is nie.
M.b.t. 0' sal N2 dus nie die korrekte voorspelling maak
I nie. In Soortgelyke argument sluit ook 'n roterende
assestelsel uit vir gebruik in (4.1).
ever, if we measure the motion of the particle we re-
gard to a reference point 0', which in turn accelerates
with regard to 0, we find that the acceleration is not
zero. Therefore, with regard to 0', N2 will not make
the correct prediction. A similar argument also excludes
a rotating system of axes for us in (4.1).

I Newton het dit self gestel dat N2 uitgedruk moet word

in terme van 'n nie-roterende assestelsel wat nie
versnel t.o.v. die "v8ste sterre" nie - 'n soge-
naamde traagheidstelsel. Hoewel dit moeilik is om
I s6 'n "absolute verwysingstelsel" te vind, kan ons nog-
tans in gegewe gevalle 'n benadering tot een vind wat
baie goed is. 56 bv. sal 'n voorwerp wat oor 'n afstand
Newton himself stated that N2 must be expressed in
terms of a non-rotating system of axes that does
not accelerate with regard to the "fixed stars" -
a so-caned inertial system. Although it is difficult to
find BUch an "absolute reference system" , in given cases
we can still find an approximation of one that is very
good. For instance, an object that moves over distances

I van 'n paar meter beweeg naby die aardoppervlak nie

beduidend deur die aarde se rotasiebeweging belnvloed
word nie en kan ons dan die aarde self as In goeie vel-
of a few metres close to the surface of the earth is not
influenced significantly by the rotation of the earth, so
that we can use the earth as a good reference system.
wysingstelsel gebruik.
I
I 4.3BEWEGING VAN DEELTJIE
ONDER INVLOED VAN BEKENDE
KRAG
4.3 MOTION OF A PARTICLE UN-
DER THE INFLUENCE OF A KNOWN
FORCE

I Indien die krag wat op 'n deeltjie uitgeoefen word

eksplisiet bekend is, kan ons die uitdrukking vir die krag
instel aan die Iinkerkant van (4.2) en dan in beginsel die
I vergelyking twee keer integreer om die baanvergelyking
(4.3) te vind. Ons bespreek hier 'n paar tipiese gevalle.
If the force that is exerted on a particle is explicitly
known, we can enter the expression for the force on the
left of (4.2) and, in principle, we can integrate the equa-
tion twice to find the path equation (4.3). We shan now
discuss a few typical examples.

I 4.3.1 Beweging in een dimensie onder in-

vloed van 'n konstante krag
4.3.1 Motion in one dimension under the
influence of a constant force

I Ons beskou 'n deeltjie van mass a rn wat beperk word

om in een dimensie te beweeg en wat onderhewig is aan
'n konstante krag. Ons kies die", -rigting (se) van
We consider a particle of mass rn, which is constrained
to move in one dimension and is subject to a constant
force. We choose the", direction (for instance) of our

I
ons verwysingstelsel in die deeltjie se bewegingsrigting reference system in the particle's direction of motion
(Figuur 4.1), Die krag op die deeltjie word dan gegee (Figure 4.1). The force on the 'particle is then given by
deur

I 160

I
 I
I
I 0
I
f
,,"" / )
: , ;t.

I ./
:ae

Figuur 4,1
'j

I F=Fi, (4.4)

I met F konstant. Omdat die deeltjie slegs in die "'-

rigting kan beweeg, het ons verder dat (sien Figuur 4.1)
with F constant. Since the particle can move only in
the", direction, we also have that r =
",f, (see Figure
r = zi en dUB 4.1) and hence

I r = xx. (4.5)
Ons stel (4.4) en (4.5) in (4.2): We substitute (4.4) and (4.5) in (4.2)
I Fa: = mxi

I Die ",-komponente &an beide kante van die vergelyking

is gelyk aan mekaar:
The", components on both sides of the equation are
equal to each other:
F = m;;
I Die versnelling van die deeltjie is dus Thus, the acceleration of the particle is

I ..
z= - :=a,
F
m
(4.6)

I wasr a 'n konstante waarde het. Vergelyking (4.6) is 'n

differensiaalvergelyking wat opgelos kan word deur twee
keer te integreer. Ons herskryf (4.6) in die geriefliker
where a has a constant value. Equation (4.6) is a dif-
ferential equation that can be solved by integrating it
twice. We rewrite (4.6) in the more convenient form

I varm

d:i:
-=a
I of
dt

or

I d:i:=adt.
Integreer: Integrate:

I J =J d:i: adt + A =a J+dt A (4.7)

I A is 'n integrasiekonstante wat ingevoer moet word A is an integration constant that must be hitroduced
vanwee die onbepaalde integrale in (4.7). Deurvoering because of the indefinite integral in (4.7). The impl-
I van die integrasie lewer die spoed v
van tyd:
=
:i: as 'n funksie =
mentation of the integration produces the speed v :i:
as a function of time:

I 161

I
I
I v=;,=at+A (4.8)

I GeBtel die beginvoorwaarde v =

Vo vir t 0 is
bekend. Vervang t = 0 en v = Vo in (4.8) om sodoende
Ate bepaal:
= If the initial condition v = Vo for t = 0 is known,
substitute t = 0 and v = Vo in (4.8) in order to calculate
A:

I Vo = O+A
Dus word (4.8): Therefore, (4.8) becomes:

I . d.,
.,= dt =vo+at (4.9)

I Die voorafgaande prosedure word herhaal om die posisie The preceding procedure is repeated to obtain the posi-
as funksie van tyd te vetkry: tion as the function of time:
I d., = (vo + at)dt

I J d., = J(vo+at)dt+B

I Ons het dus We then have

I (4.10)

Laat die verdere beginvoorwaarde ., =

"0 vir t = 0 We assume the initial condition '" = "'0 for t = 0 and

I bekend wees en bepaal die integrasiekonstante B deur

die beginvoorwaarde in (4.10) te vervang:
determine the integration constant B by substituting
the initial condition in (4.10):

I Vergelyking (4.10) word

"0 =B
Equation (4.10) becomes

I 1 2
" = "0 + vot + 2at (4.11)

I Indien die verplasing s = ., -

"'0 op tydstip t in (4.11)
ingevoer word,lewer elhninasie van t uit (4.9) en (4.11)
If the displacement at time t, s = '" - "'0, is introduced
in (4.11), the elimination of t from (4.9) and (4.11) pro-
die bekende verband duces the familiar result
I v2 = + 2as. (4.12)

I Die vergelykings (4.9), (4.11) en (4.12) is aan die meeste

van u bekend, mMr moet sterk beklemtoon word
Most of you know equations (4.9), (4.11) and (4.12), but
it must be emphasised that these equations are valid
dat hierdie slegs vir 'n konstante krag only for a constant force.

I geldig is.

I
I 162

I
I
I 4.3.2 Deeltjie wat vertikaal beweeg naby
aardoppervlak
4.3.2 Particle that moves vertically near
the surface of the earth

I Dis bekend dat 'n deeltjie wat naby die aardoppervlak

is, 'n konstante afwaartse krag, bekend as sy gewig
W, ondervind. Indien 'n deeltjie dus vertikaal beweeg
soos in Figuur 4.2, geld dieselfde analise soos in §4.3.1
I met F = W. AI die result ate in §4.3.1 kan dus net so
oorgeskryf word met a vervang deur
It is known that a particle moving near the surface of the
earth experiences a constant downward force, known
as weight W. Therefore, if a particle moves vertically,
as in Figure 4.2, the same analysis as in §4.3.1 with
F = W applies. Therefore, all the results in §4.3.1 can
be rewritten with a replaced by

I W
g:=- .
m
(4.13)

I
o
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.2

Daar word na 9 verwys as die gravitasieversnelling We refer to 9 as the gravitational acceleration on the

I by die aardoppervlak. Hierdie hoeveelheid kan eksper-

imenteel bepaal word. Die waarde van 9 varieer effens
oor die oppervlak van die aarde en we} tUssen uiterste
waardes van 9.78039 ms- 2 by die ewenaar en 9.83217
I m .-2 by die pole. 'n Gemiddelde waarde van
surface of the earth. This quantity can be determined
experimentally. The value of 9 varies slightly over the
surface of the earth, between extreme values of 9.78039
ms- 2 at the equator and 9.83217 ms- 2 at the poles.
An average value of

9 = 9.81 ms- 2 (4.14)

I is voldoende vir meeste toepassings. is sufficient for most applications.

I 4.3.3 Projektielbeweging 4.3.3 Projectile motion

I Ons beskou nOll 'n geval wat meer algemeen is as

die in §4.3.2, nl. die van 'n projektiel wat naby die
aardoppervlak afgevuur word met 'n beginsnelheid Vo.
Ons kies gerieflikheidshalwe ons verwysingstelsel met sy
We now consider a case that is more common than that
in §4.3.2, viz. that of a projectile that is launched close
to the surface of the earth with an initial velocity of
Vc. For convenience, we choose a reference system with

I oorsprong by die afvuurpunt, die y·as vertikaal opwaarts

en die ",-rigting so gekies dat Vo in die ",y·vlak le (Figuur
its origin at the launching point, the y axis vertically
upwards and the", direction chosen so that Vo lies in
the "'y plane (Figure 4.3). During the flight of the the
4.3). Tydens die vlug van die projektiel is daar net een

I krag wat op horn inwerk (indien lugweerstand ignoreer-

baar is), en wel sy gewig. Van (4.13) word dit gegee
deur
projectile there is only one force being exerted on it (if
air resistance is negligible), viz. it weight. From (4.13),
this is given by:

I Vergelyking (4.15) word dus

F = mg =mg(-ii) . (4.15)
Therefore, equation (4.2) becomes

I 163

I
I
I mg=mr

I of

g=r.
or

(4.16)

I
I
I
I
Figuur 4.3

I Aangesien g 'n konstante vektor (beide in grootte en Since g is a constant vector (both in magnitude and
rigting) is, kan hierdie vergelyking op soortgelyke wyse direction), this equation can be integrated in the same

I SODS (4.6) geintegreer word. Ons skryf dit eerstens as way in which (4.6) is integrated. We first write it as

I
I Vermenigvuldig met dt en integreer: Multiply by dt and integrate:

! ! gdt+A
I
dt=

r=gt+A (4.17)

I [Hier het ons gebruik gemaak daarvan dat die integraal [Here we have made use of the fact that the integral on
aan die linkerkant die vorm ! du het, en dat ons dit the left-hand side has the form ! du, and that it can
I kan skryf as therefore be written as

I
I Aangesien die drie Cartesiese eenheidsvektore konstante
vektore is, kan hulle uit die betrokke integrale geneem
Since the three Cartesian unit vectors are constant vec-
tors, they can be taken out of the given integrals, so
word, sodat that we have

I
! du = x! du.+y Jdu.+z J du.

I =
=
xU z +yull +zuJ:
u,

I 164

I
I
I en ons het dieselfde resultaat as in (4.17).J

Aangesien die integrande vektore is, moet die inte-

and we have the same result as in (4.17).J

Since the integrands are vectors, the integration con-

grasiekonstante oak 'n vektor wees. As beginvoorwaarde
I aanvaar ons dat die tyd gemeet word vanaf die afvuur
van die projektiel, d.w.s.
stant must also be a vector. As an initial condition,
we assume that the time is measured from the moment
when the projectile is fired, i.e.

I Gestel in (4.17) lewer dit

t = OJ r = Vo .
If we substitute this in (4.17) we have

I sodat (4.17) geskryf word as

Vo = O+A,
and (4.17) then becomes

I .
r
dr
= - = gt+vo .
dt
(4.18)

I Die baan van die deeltjie volg uit vermenigvuldiging met

dt en 'n verdere integrasie:
The path of the particle is found by multiplying with dt
and a further integration:

I J dr= j(gt+vo)dt+B

I 1
r = 2gt2 + vot + B (4.19)

I Vit ons keuse van verwysingstelsel volg die beginvoor-

waarde
The initial condition follows from our choice of reference
system:
t = 0; = O.
I Gestel in (4.19), lewer dit
r

If we substitute this in (4.19), we have

I en (4.19) word dus

O=O+O+B,
and (4.19) becomes

I r(t) = 2gt2
1
+ vot . (4.20)

I [Let op die ooreenkoms met (4.11).J In terme van die

gekose assestelsel (Figuur 4.3), is g = -gy en Vo =
[Note the similarity with (4.11).J In terms of the cho-
sen system of axes (Figure 4.3), g =
-gfj and Vo =
vo(cosD,;; + sin Dy), sodat die baanvergelyking van die vo(cosOx + sinOy), so that the projectile's path equa-

I projektiel gegee word deur tion is given by

I r = vot COB Ox + (- gt 2 + vot sin O)fi (4.21)

Soos in hoofstuk 3 kan ons die geometrie van die baan- As in Chapter 3, we can analyse the geometry of the _
I vergelyking analiseer deur die tyd te elimineer. Van
(4.21) het ons naamlik vir die projektiel se Cartesiese
koordinate
equation of the trajectory by eliminating the time. We
note that from-(4.21) we have for the projectile's Carte-
sian coordinates that

I
I 165

I
I
I " = votcosO
Y = vot sin 0 - tgt' (4.22)
I z = O.

Van (4.22) sien ons dat die projektiel in 'n vertikale From (4.22) we Bee that the projectile moves in a ver-
I =
vlak beweeg (z 0), en wel die een wat die beginsnel-
heid bevat. Sy baan in hierdie vlak word verkry deur
tical plane (z = 0) - the one containing the initial
velocity. Its path in this plane is obtained by writing
die eerste vergelyking in (4.22) te skryf as the first equation in (4.22) as

I t=--
:c
vd cos 0

I en dit in die tweede vergelyking van (4.22) te stel:

9 2
and sUbstituting it in the second equation of (4.22):

Y = '" tan 9 - 2( Vo casu")2"" (4.23)

I
Hierdie is die vergelyking van 'n parabool (Figuur 4.4). This iB the equation of a parabola (Figure 4.4). From

I Van (4.18) [of deur differensiasie van (4.21)] word die

snelheid as funksie van tyd gegee deur
(4.18) [or through the differentiation of (4.21)] the ve-
locity is given as a function of time by

=r(t) = vocosOi+
I vet)

Die krag mg op die projektiel het geen horisontale kom-

(VD sin 0 - gt)iI. (4.24)

The force mg on the projectile has no horizontal com-

= =
I ponent nie, Bodat mii: F. 0 en die :c-komponent van
snelheid dus konstante moet WeeB. Van (4.24) iB dan
ook
ponent so the mii: = F. = 0 and the :c component of
velocity must therefore be a constant. Indeed we have
from (4.24) that

I V. = VD cos 0 (konBtant/constant) . (4.25)

Die horisontale komponent van beweging is dUB die van
I 'n kragvrye deeltjie. Die vertikale komponente van die
beweging word van (4.21) en (4.24) gegee deur
The horizontal component of motion therefore is that of
a force-free particle. From (4.21) and (4.24), the vertical
componentB of the motion are given by

I
I
I
I
o
I Figuur 4.4

I
I 166

I
I
I
. 1 t2
11 = lIotsmu-2u
I ". = iJ = 110 sin 9 - ut,
(4.26)

wat in ooreenstemming is met die resultate (4.11) en
I (4.9) vir die eendimensionele beweging van 'n dee1tjie
onder die invloed van 'n konstante krag.
which corresponds to the results of (4.11) and (4.9) for
the one dimensional motion of a particle under the in-
fluence of a constant force.

I Die integrasie van N2 in vektorvorm lewer in 'n kom-

pakte vorm al die resultate wat verkry sou word deur
die beweging oorspronkUk in komponente te ontbind.
The integration of N2 in vector form produces in com-
pact form all the results which would be obtained by
initially decomposing the motion into components.

I Probleme Problems

I P4.S.1 (a) Die projektiel In die voorafgaande gedeelte

word van 'n hoogte 11 = 0 gevuur en tref uiteindelik
weer die grondvlak 11 = O. Bereken die tydintervalle
P4.S.1 (a) The projectile in the preceding section is
fired from a height of 11 = 0 and eventually strikes
ground level at 11 = O.. Calculate the time intervals

I
waartydens die projektlel opwaarts en afwaarts beweeg
en vergelyk die finale ". met die oorsponklike v•.
(b) Bereken die spoed 11 = ItI as funksie van tyd.
(c) Bepaal die hoek waarteen die projektiel gevuur
during twhich the projectile moves up and down, and
compare the final v. with the initial " •.
(b) Calculate the speed 11 = ItI as a function of time.
(c) Calculate the angle at which the projectile must be

I meet word sodat die uiteindeUke verplasing 'n maksi-

mumwaarde het. Wat is hierdie maksimum-verplasing?
fired so that the ultimate displacement has a maximum
value. What is this maximum displacement?

I P4.3.2 'n Punt beweeg in die xy-vlak onder invloed van

'n konstante krag met F. = 6 N en F. = -5 N. Op 'n
P4.3.2 A point moves in the xy plane under the influ-
ence of a constant force with F. = 6 N and F. = -5 N.
tydstip t = to is die punt by r(O) = 0 en is dit in rus. At a time t = to, the point is at r(O) = 0 and at rest.

I Bereken die sne1heid en posisie op 'n tydstip t = 2to. Calculate the velocity and position at time t = 2to.

4.3.4 Tydafhanklike krag 4.3.4 Time-dependent force

I Indien die krag 'n bekende funksie van tyd t is, ken If the force is a known function of time t, (4.2) can read-
(4.2) geredeUk gerntegreer word om die baanverge1yking ily be integrated to obtain the equation of its path. We

I te verkry. Ons illustreer dit aan die hand van die (ietwat
akademiese) voorbee1d van 'n massa m onderhewig aan
die krag
illustrate this on the basis of the (somewhat academic)
example of a mass m, subject to the force

I waar k 'n konstante is. N2 word dan

F(t) =k(tx + 2t'Ii), (4.27)
where k is a constant. N2 then becomes

I m: =mr = k(tx + 2t"1i).

I Ons ken nou met dt vermenlgvuldig en integreer: We can now multiply by dt and integrate:

I (4.28)

I Omdat ons per aanname 'n traagheidstelsel gebruik, is

x en Ii konstante vektore wat uit die onbepaalde in-
Because we assume the use ·of an inertial system, andx
Ii are constant vectors that can be extracted from the
tegrale geneem ken word: indefinite integral:

I 167

I
I
I
r =Vo + ! [x J t dt + 21/ J
t' dt ]

I (12 2_+ -t23 3-)Y

r. = Vo + -mk -t z (4.29)

I Hier is reO) = Vo as beginvoorwaarde gebruik. Here reO) = Vo was used as the initial condition.

I Ons herhaal die proses hierbo: We repeat the process above:

I
I (4.30)

I 'n Beginverplasing reO) is as integrasiekonstante in-

gevoer.
An initial displacement reO) has been introduced as a
constant of integration.

I Probleme Probleme
P4.3.3 'n Massa m beweeg onder invloed van 'n krag P4.3.3 A mass m moves under the influence of a force
I F = (atx + 2f3t 2 fi). Op 'n tydstip t = 1 is die posisie
r( 1)= ax + f3fi en is die deeltjie in rus. Bereken die
F = (atx + 2f3t2fi). At a time t = 1 the position is
r(l) = ax +f3fi and the particle is in a state ofrest. Cal-
snellieid en posisie as funksie van tyd. Wat is die een- culate the velocity and position as a function of time.

I hede van a en f3? What are the units of a and f3?

4.3.5 Spoedafhanklike krag 4.3.5 Speed-dependent force

I Weerstands- of wrywingskragte is oor die algemeen Resistance or friction forces are generally speed de-
spoedafhanklik. As'n voorbeeld van so 'n geval, pendent. As an example of such a case, we shall con-

I beskou ons die beweging van 'n valskermspringer

(Figuur 4.5). Ons beskou gerieflikheidshalwe net ver-
tikale beweging en meet hierdie beweging vana! die punt
o waar die valskerm oopgaan. Van eksperiment is dit
I bekend dat 'n bewegende voorwerp in die atmosfeer by
relatief loo snelhede 'n weerstandskrag ondervind wat
eweredig is aan sy spoed. Die valskermspringer is dus
sider the motion of a parachutist (Figure 4.5). For the
sake of convenience, we shall consider only the verti-
cal movement and measure the movement from point
0, where the parachute opens up. It is known from
experiment that a moving object in the atmosphere at
relatively low velocities experiences a resistance force
that is proportional to its speed. Therefore, at time

I op tydstip t onderhewig aan twee kragte: sy afwaartse

gewig mg en 'n opwaartse weeutandskrag wat in grootte
gegee word deur kv, waar v sy spoed op tydstip t is en
t, the parachutist is subject to two forces: his downward
weight mg and an upward resistance, the magnitude of
which is given by kv, where v is its speed at time t and k

I k 'n eweredigheidskonstante is wat eksperimenteel vas-

gestel kan word. As ons die x-komponent van N2 in die
vorm (4.2) skryf, sien dit dan $oos volg daar uit:
is a constant of proportionality that can be determined
experimentally. If we write the x component of N2 in
the form of (4.2), we have:

I (4.31)

I
I 168

I
I
I o
'\J-='\fc .- - ----I

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.5

I Ons kan hierdie vergelyking een maal integreer deur We can integrate this equation once by firstly noting
eerstens op te let dat that:

I (4.32)

I Vergelyking (4.31) word dan Equation (4.31) then becomes:

I g-c>v= dt'
dv
(4.33)

I waaz ODS vir gerief die kODstante where we have introduced the following constant for con-
venience:

I 0' =-
k
m
(4.34)

I ingevoer het. Vergelyking (4.33) kan nou d.m.v skei-

ding van veranderlikes opgelos word. Dit is naam-
Equation (4.33) can now be solved by means of the sep-
aration of variables. In other words, it is possible to
lik moontlik om alle terme in t en v respektiewelik aan collect all the terms in t and v respectively on different

I verskillende kante van die vergelyking te versamel: sides of the equation:

I g- c>v

Vervolgens kan ons beide kante van die vergelyking in- Then we can integrate both sides of the equation, of
I tegreer met natuurlik die invoer van 'n integrasiekon-
j

stante A:
course with the introduction of an integration constant
A:

I J dv
9 - c>V
= Jdt+A

I -ilnlg-c>vl = t+A

I 169

I
I
I Voordat ons die integrasiekonstante aansuiwer, maak
onB v die onderwerp van die vergelyking:
9 _ av = e-·(HA) := Be-·'
Before we fix the integration constant, we make v the
subject of the equation:

I (4.35)

I AB die tyd t meet vanaf die oomblik wat die valskerm

by 0 oopgaan, het ons die beginvoorwaarde t = 0; v =
If we measure the time t from the moment that the
parachute opens at 0, we have the initial condition t =

I VD. Gestel in (4.35) lewer dit 0; v = VD. If substituted in (4.35) it yields

I VD = -(g - B); B = 9 - avo,

a

en dus word (4.35) and it follows that (4.35) becomes

I
-dx = V = -1 [
9 -(9 - avo )e- a'] . (4.36)
dt a
I Hierdie vergelyking bevat die belangrikste deel van die This equation contains the most important part of the
oplossing van die probleem (die valskermspringer is im- solution to the problem (the parachutist is more con-
I mera meer begaan oor sy spoed as sy posisie), en verdien
om geinterpreteer word. Eerstens sien ons dat sangesien
e- at :5 1 en 9 - avo < g, ea] v > 0; 'n onverassende re-
cerned about his speed than his position), and deserves
to be interpreted. Firstly, we see that since e-'" ::; 1
and 9 - QVo < g, we have v > OJ an unsurprising re-

I Bultaat (het u al 'n valskerm opwaarts sien beweeg?).

Verder sal e- a ' --+ 0 as t --+ 00, en die valskermspringer
sal dus na 'n lang tyd (wat vir 'n groat valskerm en
sult (have you ever seen a parachute moving upwards?).
Furthermore, e- a ' --+ 0 if t --+ 00, and the parachutist
will therefore, after a long time (which in practice, for
dus groot a in die praktyk 'n paar sekondes is) die a large parachute and hence large a, is a few seconds),
I grensspoed
9 mg
reach the terminal speed:

Vg= - = - (4.37)
I bereik. In die praktyk kan ons natuurlik die eweredig-
a k

In practice we can calculate the constant of proportion-

I heidskonstante k bereken deur die grensspoed te meet.

Voliedigheidshalwe voltooi ons die probleem deur (4.36)

ality k by measuring the terminal speed.

For the sake of completeness we complete the problem

met dt te vermenigvuldig en te integreer [ons vervang by multiplying (4.36) by dt and integrating [we also re-
I ook die konstantes met Vg d.m. v. (4.37)J: place the constants by v,with the use of (4.37)J:

I J Jdx = [v, - (v, - VD) e- a'] dt + C

I x v_
= Vgt + _g _ e- a, + C
-VD

a
(4.38)

=0; x =0 in: =0; '" =0:

I
Ons stel die beginvoorwaarde t We substitute the initial condition t

O=---+
Vg - VD C
; c = _ Vg -a VD
I "

I 170

I
I
I As ons hierdie waarde van C in (4.38) stel, het ons die
springer se posisie as funksie van tyd:
If we substitute this value of C Into (4.38), we have the
position of the parachutist as a function of time:

I Z = lJ,t -
t1 -
I

"
Vo
(1 - e- Q ' ) (4.39)

I Probleme
P4.3.4 Wat is die dimensies (in die SI-stelsel) van die
Problems
P4.3.4 What are the dimensions (In the SI system) of
konstantes le en " in die voorafgaande voorbeeld? the constants k and " in the preceding example?
I P4.3.5 'n Koeill met massa m dring 'n medium teen 'n .
spoed 110 blnne waarin dit 'n weerstandskrag ondervind
P4.3.5 A bullet of mass m penetrates a medium at a
speed of 1J0, where it experiences a resistance that is pro-

I wat eweredig is aan sy spoed met 'n eweredigheidskon-

stante k. In vergelyking met die weerstandskrag is grav-
itasie weglaatbaar. Hoe ver dring die koeel die medium
portional to its speed, with a constant of proportionality
k. In comparison with the resistance, gravition is negli-
gible. How far does the bullet penetrate the medium?
. dlJ dlJ dz (HINT. dlJ = dlJ dz)
I bmne? (WENK: dt = dz dt )

P4.3.6 Beantwoord P4.3.5 vir die geval waar die weer-

dt dzdt
P4.3.6 Answer P4.3.5 for the case in which the resis-

I standskrag eweredig is aan die kwadraat van die koeel

se spoed.
tance is proportional to the square of the bullet's speed.

I 4.3.6 Posisie-afhanklike krag

Aangesien die fundamentele interaksies in die natuur
afhang van deeltjies se posisies t.o. v. mekaar, is
I die mees relevante probleme van posisie-afhanklike
kragte.Ons bespreek hier twee toepaslike gevalle.
4.3.6 Position-dependent force
Since the fundamental interactions in nature depend
on the positions of particles in respect of each other,
the most relevant problem is that of position-dependent
forces. We shall discuss two topical cases in this regard.

I 4.3.6.1 Beweging in 'n Gravitasieveld 4.3.6.1 Motion in a Gravitational Field

Newton se Gravitasiewet Newton's Law of Gravity
I Een van Newton se fundamentele ontdekkings was die One of Newton's fundamental discoveries was the law
wet van universele gravitasie: Enige twee deeltjies of universal gravity: any two particles exert a mu-

I oefen 'n wedersydse aantrekkingskrag opmekaar uit

wat eweredig is aan die produk van hulle massas en
omgekeerd eweredig is aan die kwadraat van die af-
tual force of attraction on each other, which is pro-
portional to the product of their masses. and inverseiy
proportional to the square of the distance between

I stand tussen hulle. Die grootte van hierdie krag word

dus vir twee deeltjies met massas ml en m2 wat op 'n
afstand r van mekaar is, gegee deur
them. The magnitude of this force for two particles
with masses ml and m2, which are at a distance r from
each other, is therefore given by

I F=G mlm2 .
r2 (4.40)

I Die eweredigheidskonstante is 'n universele konstante

wat eksperimenteel verkry kan word en in SI-eenhede
gegee word deur
The constant of proportionality is a universal con-
stant that can be obtained experimentally and is given
in SI units by

I G = 6·6732 X 10- 11
N m 2 kg-2. (4.41)

Deeltjie by aaidoppervlak Particle at the surface of the earth

I Qns weet dat die gravitasiekrag op 'n deeltjie met massa We know that the force of gravitation on a particle with
m by die aardoppervlak gegee word deur mass m at the surface of the earth is given by

I 171

I
I
I Fo = mg, (4.42)

I met 9 se wasrde soos gegee in (4.14). Van (4.40) volg

egter oak dat
with g's value as given in (4.14). However, it also follows
from (4.40) that

I Mm
Fo=G R2 ' (4.43)

I waar M en R respektiewelik die aarde se mass a en straal

is (ons kan aantoon dat die aarde se gravitasieveld die-
selfde is as die van 'n massapunt M wat gesetel is by sy
where M and R are the earth's mass and radius respec-
tively (we can show that the earth's gravitational field is
the same as that of a particle M, situated at its centre).

I middelpunt). Van (4.42) en (4.43) volg dan It follows then from (4.41) and (4.43) that

Mm
= G R2
I mg '

en dus and hence

I GM=gR2 . (4.44)

I Aangesien 9 bekend is en R geredelik uit die asrde se

kromming bepaal kan word as
Since 9 is known and R can readily be calculated from
the earth's curvature as

I R = 6 . 371 X 106 m , (4.45)

I is (4.44) baie nuttig by die ondersoek van bewegende

liggame in die aarde se gravitasieveld.
(4.44) is very useful when investigating moving bodies
in the earth's gravitational field.

Dit is oak interressant om (4.43) te gebruik om vas te It is also interesting to use (4.43) to establish in which
I stel oar watter gebied (4.42) nog 'n goeie benadering
is. Last Fh die gravitasiekrag op hoogte h bokant die
aardoppervlak wees. Van (4.40), (4.42) en (4.44) volg
range (4.42) is still a good approximation. Let Fh be
the force of gravitation at height h above the surface of
the earth. From (4.40), (4.42) and (4.44) it then follows

I dan that

Fo g / GMm • / gR2
I Fh=m (R+h)2=g (R+h)2'

en and hence
I
dUB

I
Vir bv. h = 10 km ('n tipiese hoogte vir 'n passasier- For for instance h = 10 km (a typical height for an

I straler) volg dan airliner), it follows that

Fo
- = 1·003
I Fh '

I 172

I
I
I 'n verBkil van BlegB 0 . 3%. DUB iB (4.42) vir meeBte
toepasBings naby die aardoppervlak 'n uitstekende be-
nadering.
a difference of only 0.3%. Therefore, (4.42) is an ex-
cellent approximation for most applications close to the
surface of the earth. .

I Deeltjie ver van aardoppervlak Particle far from the surface of the earth

I Vir beweging ver van die a.arde Be oppervlak (soos die

van ruimtetuie) moet ons natuurlik die gravitasiewet in
die varm (4.40) gebruik. Die volle analise van die prob-
leem lOB onB vir 'n Iatere geleentheid. Ons beperk onB
I hier tot die eenvoudige (en akademiese) spesiale geval
van 'n deeltjie wat van 'n groot hoogte h uit ruB na die
a.arde ·val (Figuur 4.6). AB gevoIg van die beginvoor-
For motion far from the surface of the earth (as that of
spacecraft), we obviously have to use the law of gravity
in the form (4.40). The full analysis of this problem we
shall leave for a later stage. We shall limit ourselves here
to the simple (and academic) special case of a particle
that falls to the earth from rest at a great height h
(Figure 4.6). Owing to the initial conditions, we have

I wa.ardes het ODS eendimensionele beweging en hoef ons

slegs die r-komponent van N2 neer te Bkryf:
one-dimensional motion and need to write down only
the r component of N2:

I .
mr= - a-Mm
r
2-

I ... ... -:-

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.6

I Ons steI (4.44) in: We substitute (4.44):

.. gR2
I r=---
r2
(4.46)

Omdat die (veranderlike) posisie van die deeltjie aan die Because the (variable) position of the particle occurs on
I regterkant voorkom, kan ons hierdie vergelyking slegs
met behulp van 'n gepaste kunsgreep oplos, en wel deur
the right-hand side, we can solve thiB equation only with
the help of a suitable trick, viz. the chain rule:
van die kettingreel gebruik te maak:

I .. dr df dr . dr
r=-=--=r- (4.47)
dt dr dt dr
I Dan word (4.46) Then (4.46) becomes

I .d"
r-----
dr -
gR2
r2'

I 173

I
I
I 'n vergelyking wat deur skeiding van veranderlikes opge-
108 kao word:
an equation that can be solved through the separation
of variables:

I ! f df = -gR' ! +A

I (4.48)

I Van die beginvoorwaardes volg r

Gestel in (4.48) lewer dit
= R+ h; -r = Vo = O. It follows from the initial conditions that r = R+
h; -r = tlo = O. Substituted In (4.48), it yields

I
I Dus word (4.48) Therefore, (4.48) becomes

I
Die spoed van die deeltjie is dus bekend as 'n funksie The speed of the particle therefore is known as a func-
I van sy posisie: tion of its position:

I v = -r= V (! __R+h
29W 1_)r
(4.49)

I (Die teken word deur ons keuse van verwysingstelsel

bepaal.) Hierdie resultaat kao natuurlik nou gebruik
word om die deeitjie se spoed op 'n gegewe hoogte te
(The sign is determined by our choice of reference sys-
tem.) This result can now be used to calculate the speed
of the particle at a given height. We for instance find
bereken. S6 bv. vind ons dat as 'n deeltjie op 'n hoogte that if a particle begins to fall at height R, it will reach
I R begin vaI, sal dit die aardoppervlak (in die afwe-
sigheid van enige atmosfeer) bereik teen 'n spoed van
the surface of the earth (in the absence of any atmo-
sphere) at a speed of ,;gEl = 2.85 X lOt km h-'.
=
,;gEl 2.85 X 10' km h-'.
I Die volledige oplossing van die probleem behels nou die
Integrasie van (4.49) d.m.v. skeiding van veranderlikes.
The complete solution of the problem now Involves the
integration of (4.49) by ·means ofthe separation of vari-
Hierdie oefening word &an die student oorgelaat. ables. This exercise is left to the student.
I
I 4.3.6.2 Eenvoudige Harmoniese Beweging
(EHB)
4.3.6.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

As 'n spesifieke geval van ERB beskou ons die beweg-
I ing van 'n massa m onder die invloed van 'n veer met
styfheidskonstante k (Figuur 4.7).
As a specific example of a SHM we consider the move-
ment of a mass m under the influence of a spring with
stiffness constant k (Figure 4.7).

I As geen wrywlng teenwoordig is nie, is slegs die horison-

tale beweging van m belangrik. Kies die ewewigsposisie
van m as die oorsprong en la.at x die verlenging van die
H no friction is present only the horizontal movement of
m is important. Choose the origin at the equilibrium
position of m and let x be the extension of the spring at

I veer op tydstip t wees. Dan sal die veer 'n herstelkrog

met grootte kx op m uitoefen, en die x-komponent van
Newton se tweede bewegingswet sien soos voig daaruit:
time t. Then the spring will exert a restitution force of
magnitude kx on m and the x component of Newton's
second law of motion reads as follows:

I 174

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.1

mf= -kx

I DUB Hence

.. k
I x=--x
m
(4.50)

Die koiifBsiiint van x Ban die regterkant van (4.50) is The coefficient of x in the right hand side of (4.50) ob-

I klaarblyklik negatief. Om hierdie feit te beklemtoon,

definieer ons
viously is negative. To emphasize this fact, we define

I W={£. (4.51)

I Vir redeo wat later sal blyk, word na W verwys as die

hoebpoed geassosieerd met die EHB. Vergelyking (4.50)
For reasons whicb wiU be obvious later w is referred to as
the angular velocity associated with the SHM. Equation
(4.50) now becomes
word dus

I (4.52)

I Vergelyking (4.52) Is die bewegingsvergelyking vir 'n

EHB. Dlt Is belangrlk dat die student die vorm van die
vergelyking moet berken: die tweede tydafgeleide van
I 'n veranderlike (toevallig x in hierdie geval) is negatief
eweredig Ban die veranderlike self. Die resultate wat
vervolgens verkry word, kan mutatis mutandis gebrnik
Equation (4.52) is the equation of motion of a SHM. It
is important that the student recognizes the 'orm of this
equation: the second time derivative of a variable (c0-
incidentally x in this case) is negatively proportional to
the variable itself. The subsequent results can be used
mutatis mutandis for any equation of this form.

I word vir enige vergelyklng van hierdie vorm.

Vergelyking (4.52) moet nou tweekeer geintegreer word. Equation (4.52) now must be integrated twice. In order
Ten einde die eerste integrsal te verkry, skryf ons to obtain the first integral, we first write (4.52) in the
I eerstens (4.52) as form

d:i: •
I dt=-wx. (4.53)

'n Tegnieoe probleem blyk dadelik: (4.53) bevat drie ve-
I randerlikes (t, x en x). Soos in §4.3.6.1 mask ons dus
van die kettingreiil gebruik om die linkerkant te skryf as
A technical problem is immediately evident: (4.53) con-
tains three variables (t, x en x). As in §4.3.6.1 we there-
fore utilize the chain rule to write the left hand side of
(4.53) as

I
I 175

I
I
I Vergelyking (4.53) word dus Equation (4.53) now becomes

I
. dX •
"'dx=-w",.

Ona skei vervolgena veranderlikes en Integreer. We separate variables and integrate.

I
! :i:d:i:= -w·! ",dx+A

I en dus and hence

I 1,.
-x-
2
1. ,
= --w
2 '" +A
(4.54)

I Ona aanvaar nou dat die beweging van m begin word

deurdat die veer oor 'n afatand "'0
hil uitgerek word en
We now assume that the motion of m is initiated by
extending the spring through a distance "'0 and then re-
dat m dan uit rus losgeiaat word. Die beginvoorwaarde leasing m from rest. The initial condition then is

I is dan

"'="'0, :i:=0.

I Ona ate! dit in (4.54): We substitute it into (4.54):

1 1 •
0= --w'",'o + A-
I 2 '
A=-w",o
2

Na geringe vereenvoudiging word (4.54) dan After some simplification (4.54) then becomes

I :i:' = _ ",') .

I Die vierkantsworte! van hierdie verge!yldng lewer die "'-

komponent van m se snelheid as 'n funksie van '" (d. w.s.
posisie):
The square root of this equation yields the", component
of m's velocity as a function of", (i.e. position):

I (4.55)

I Die feit dat daar in (4.55) 'n keuse van die teken is,
weerspieel net die fisiese verskynse! dat m se beweging
o•• illerend is. Ons kan ons aandag beperk tot 'n gedeelte
The fact that (4.55) allows a choice of signs simply re-
flects the physical phenomenon that the movement of m
is o.cillatory. We can limit our attention to a part of the

I van sy beweging wat gerig is In die positiewe ",-rigting

en (4.55) word dan
movement which is directed in the positive", direction
and (4.55) then becomes

I dx
dt
= _",' .
I Ona kan vasste! dat die keuse van die negatiewe teken
dieselfde resuitaat sal gee soos
nou veranderlikes skei en integreer:
wat volg. Ona kan
It can be verified that the choice of a negative sign yields
the same result as the one that follows. We can now
separate variables and integrate:

I ",2
=fwdt+a
.
(4.56)

I 176

I
I
I Ten einde die integraal aan die linkerkant te vind, maak
ons gebruik van die substitusie
In order to find the integral on the left hand side, we
make use of the substitution

I Dan volg
z=zoBinB.
It then follows that
(4.57)

d" = cos Qd9; - x 2

= cos 2 8
I
"0

en (4.56) word dus and hence (4.56) becomes

I J "0 cos 9 d9
Zo COB u
n =wt+er.

I Die integraal aan die linkerkant is nou triviaal: The integral on the left hand side now is trivial:

J d9=Q=wt+er. (4.58)
I Natuurlik is 9 net 'n hulpveranderlike. Ons stel dus die Of course 9 only is an auxilliary variable. We therefore

I uitdrukking aan die regterkant van (4.58) in vir 9 in

(4.57):
substitute the expression on the right hand side of (4.58)
for Q in (4.57):

I I" = "0 sin(wt + er) I (4.59)

Vergelyking (4.59) is die oplossing van die EHB- Equation (4.59) is the solution of the SHM equation

I vergelyking (4.52). Ons sien dat dit 'n periodiese oploss-

ing is: van Figuur 4.8 is dit duidelik dat die hele grafiek
van ,,(t) verkry kan word deur een volledige periode van
(4.52). We see that it is a periodic solution: from Fig-
ure 4.8 it is clear that the whole graph of ,,(t) can be
obtained by repeating one complete period of a trigono-

I 'n trigonometriese funksie tn oneindige a.a.ntal kere te

herhaal.
metric function an infinite number of times.

I %
I
I
I
+%

I %0

I °0

. . . . _---=------
I -%

I Figuur 4.8

Van Figuur 4.8 blyk ook dat ,,(t) die projeksie op die ,,- From Figure 4.8 it also is clear that ,,(t) is the projection

I as is van 'n vektor van grootte Xo wat teen 'n konstante

hoekspoed w roteer. Een rotasie van die vektor lewer een
periode van die EHB. Die tydsduur T van die periode
on the "-axis of a vector of magnitude "0 which rotates
at a constant angular velocity w. One rotation of the
vector yields one period of the SHM. The duration T of

I word dus verhy uit die verb and

wT=21T.
the period is therefore found from the relation

I 177

I
I
I Dus volg Hence

I IT = I (4.60)

I Die konstante '" in (4.60) word die fase van die EHB
genoem en word deur beginvoorwaardes bepaal.
The constant", in (4.60) is called the pha.eofthe SHM.
It is fixed by initial conditions.

I Vergelyking (4.60) is 'n algemene resuitaat vir alle EHB.

In die BpeBiale geval (4.51) volg
Equation (4.60) is a general result for all SHM. In the
special case (4.51) we have

I
I Probleme Problems
P4.3.7 Integreer (4.49) en vind dan hoe lank dit 'n P4.3.7 Integrate (4.49) and calculate how long it takes
I deeltjie neem om die aardoppervlak te bereik indien dit
uit rus op hoogte R begin val.
a particle to reach the surface of the earth if it falls from
a state of rest at height R.

I P4.3.8 Twee masSa5 is gekoppel d.m.v. 'n veer

(kragkonstante k) en rus op 'n gladde horisontale vlak
soos getoon in Figuur 4.9. Vind die periode van die
P4.3.8 Two particles are coupled by means of a spring
with a stiffness k and rest on a smooth horisontalsurface
as shown in Figure 4.9. Find the period of the motion
beweging van die twee masSa5 relatief tot mekaar. of the two particles relative to each other.
I
I
I /

Figuur 4.9

I P4.3.9 'n Tonnel word van die aardoppervlak tot by die P4.3.9 A tunnel is drilled from the earth's surface to .
aarde se middelpunt geboor (Figuur 4.10). the centre of the earth (Figure 4.10).
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.10

Ons kan (met 'n bietjie moeite) aantoon dat indien 'n
I deeltjie op afstand r vanaf die aarde se middelpunt is,
ondervind dit van wee sferiese simrnetrie slegs die gravi-
We can (with some trouble) show that a particle at dis-
tance r from the earth's centre experiences - owing to
spherical symmetry - only the gravitational field of that

I 178

I
I
I tasieveld van die gedeelte van die aarde binne die sfeer
met straal r. Bereken die tyd wat dit vir 'n deeltjie neem
om die aarde se middelpunt te bereik indien dit van die
part of the earth within the sphere with radius r. Calcu-
late the time that it takes a particle to reach the centre
of the earth if it falls from the surface of the earth into
aardoppervlak in die tonnel val. (WENK: Die analise the tunnel. (HINT: The analysis of §4.3.6.2 is applica-
I van §4.3.6.2 is hier toepaslik.) ble.)

I 4.4 VERDERE TOEPASSINGS VAN N2 4.4 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF N2

Die interressantheid van baie probleme le nie soseer in
I die integrasie van N2 nie, maar ander aspekte van die
gegewe stelsels. Soms is daar bv. meetkundige komp-
Iikssies of is twee of meer deeltjies aanmekaar gekoppel.
The interest of many problems lie not as much in the
integration of N2, as other aspects of the given sys-
tems. Sometimes for instance, there are geometric com-
plications or two or more particles are coupled. When

I By die analise van sulke probleme moet ons altyd die vol-
gende voor oe hou: N2 geld slegs vir 'n enkele deeltjie
en N3 geld a1tyd by die interaksie tussen deeltjies.
analysing such problems, we must always remember the
following: N2 applies only to a single particle and N3
always applies to the interaction between particles.

I Voorbeelde Examples

I V4.4.1 Ondersoek die beweging van die massas rnl en

rn, (Figuur 4.11) wat met 'n massalose tau verbind is.
Wrywing kan verwaarloos word.
V 4.4.1 Investigate the motion of the masses rnl and rn,
(Figure 4.11) coupled by a massless rope. Friction can
be ignored.

I
I
I
I
Figuur 4.11
I Oplossing; Soortgelyk aan statiese probleme is dit nodig Solution; Similar to statical problems, it is necessary to
dat ons elkeen van die twee deeltjies in die stelsel isoleer isolate each of the two particles in the system and write
I en N2 vir e1keen moet neerskryf. Een aspek van N2
waarop daar reeds baie klem gele is, is die feit dat ons
deurgaans traagheidstelsels vir verwysing moet ge-
down N2 for both. One aspect of N2, which has been
emphasised throughout, is the fact that we must always
use inertial systems for reference. Therefore, we begin

I bruik. Ons begin dUB deur die posisie van die .twee
deeltjies vas te stel deur hul afstand "'1 en "" respek-
tiewelik vanaf die vaste katrol' A te gebruik. Dit im-
by establishing the position of the two particles by using
their distances "1 and "" from the fixed pulley A. This
implies that we also measure their velocities and accel-
pliseer dat ons oak hulle snelhede en versnellings t.o.v.
I A gaan meet en aus oak bv. dat die verplasing "'I en die
versnelling '"1 van ml in dieselfde rigting as positief
erations with respect to A and thus that for instance
the displacement "1 and the acceleration "1 of ml are
measured as positive in the same direction.
gemeet word.

I Ons isoleer eers rn, [Figuur 4.12(a)]. Die kragte wat

daarop inwerk, is sy gewig rn,g en die toukrag T,. N2
First, we isolate rn, [Figure 4.12(a)). The forces exerted
on it are its weight rn,g and the tension in the rope T,.

I lewer dus N2 therefore yields

(a)

I 179

I
I
I Die rigtings van T, en m,g is beide bekend. A.g.v ons
keuse van 'n verwysingstelsel word die posisievektor van
m, gegee deur
The directions of T, and m,g are both known. Because
of our choice of a reference system, the position vector
of rn, is given by:

I
en sy versnelling deur and its acceleration by:

I
. Die ",,-komponent van (a) sien dus soos volg daaruit: Therefore, the "'2 component of (a) is as follows:

I (b)

I
I i',.

I
I
•
x,
9"",3
(a)
10:,

(b)

I Figuur 4.12

I Vervoigens
N2 soos volg:
ons vir mt [Figuur 4.12(b)]. Hier Iyk We now isolate rnt [Figure 4.12(b).] For N2 we here
have:
(c)

I Aangesien mt Se posisievektor t.o.V. A gegee word deur Since the position vector of mt with respect to A is given
by

I is sy versnelling dan its acceleration is

I Die "'t-komponent van (c) lewer dus Hence, the "t component of (c) yields:

I
Vergelykings (b) en (d) is twee vergelykings in die vier Equations (b) and (d) are two equations in the four un-
I onbekendes Tt,T"Xt en X2. Die ontbrekende twee
vergelykings Olb die probleem oplosbaar te maak, word
knowns TII T2 ,:i3 1 and Z2. The two equations necessary
to make the problem solvable are provided by
verskaf deur

I (i) N3: Omdat die massa van die tou ignoreerbaar is, (i) N3: Since the mass of the rope is negligible, the
is die graotte van die toukrag orals langs die tou tension in the rope is the same everywhere, ie.
I dieselfde, d. W.s.

I 180

I
I
I T,=T,:=T. <e)

I (ii) Meetkundige beperkings: Last l die (konstante) (ii) Geometric restrictions: let £ be the (constant)
length of the rope. It then follows that
lengte van die tou wees. Dan volg

I = l,

I en as ons twee keer m.b.t. die tyd differensieer, and if we differentiate it twice with respect to time:

I (f)

Result"at (f) is een w"t ons onmiddellik uit elementere We could have written result (f) immediately from ele-
I insig kon neergeskryf het: Die groottes van die twee
deeltjies versneHings is dieselfde. (Die tekenverskil
weerspieEH maar net ons keuse van verwysingstelsel: As
mentary insight: the magnitudes of the ""celeration of
the two particles are the same. (The difference in sign
reflects only our choice of reference system: if." de-

I "" kleiner word sal "" groter word en andersom.) Ons

los nou vergelykings (b) en (d) tot (f) op deur (d) van
(b) af te trek en dan (e) en (f) in te stel:
creases, Z2 will increase and vice versa.) We now solve
equations (b) and (d) to (f) by subtracting (d) from (b)
and substituting (e) and (f):

I m29 - m19 sin Q' + Tl - T2 = m2:t2 - ml%l

gem, - m, sin a) = m,;;, + m,;;,
I Die volledige oplossing is dan The complete solution then is

I (
m2 - m18ina)
m, +m,
g:= a
(g)

I
Uit (g) ons dat a > 0 vir m, sin a < m,. Solank From (g) we see that a > 0 for m, sin a < m,. If
I sin a <
waarin
rn,
r2
sal m, dus afwaarts beweeg, in die rigting
in die figure gekies is. Vir sin er > rn2; sal
.
in which
m,
sm et < - , m2 Wl'11 move downwar d'
m,
r, was chosen in the
8 m t he d'nectlon
.

For sin Cl' > m,

m, m,
I a > 0 en rn, dus weer opwaarts beweeg. Let ook op d"t
lal < 9 vu, enige keuse van rn, en m,. Die trekkrag T
volg deur (g) in bv. (b) te vervang:
we have a > 0 and rn,. The tension T follows by sub-
stituting (g) in (b), for instance:

I
(h)

I Let in hierdie verband weer op dat vir alle m" en rn,
9 weer geld dat T > 0, sodat die wiskunde die fisiese
I korrekte uitspraak lewer dat die toutjie nooit die massa
kan stoot nie, maar slegs trekkragte kan uitoefen!
Note in this case that for allrn" rn,
and 9, T> 0 applies
again so that the mathematics produces the physically
correct result that the rope can never push the mass,
but can only exert a pull!

I Twee toetse kan uitgevoer word wat dikwels (maar nie

a1tyd nie) moontlike foute kan uitwys. .
Two tests can be performe.d which often (but not al-
ways) can detect possible errors,'

I 181

I
I
I Toets 1: Dimensionele analise: Ons merk op dat die oplos-
sings (g) en (h) onderskeidelik die eenhede (of di-
Test 1: Dimensional analysis: we note that solutions (g)
and (h) contain the units (or dimensions} of accel-
mensies) van versnelling en mass a x versnelling elation and mass x acceleration == force reepee·

I :; krag het, soos dit hoort. U behoort deurgaans

na te gaan of u uitdrukkings die korrekte dimen-
sies het; foute kan dikwels vroegtydig op die wyse
tively as one would expect. One should always
check if one's equations contain the right dimen-
sions; errors can often be discovered early in this

I ontdek word. way.

I Toets 2: Ondersoek oplossings vir spesiale gevalle met be-

kende resultate: Indien m, = m, = m en Q =
90', sodat albei dele van die toutjie vertikaal is,
Test 2: Consider solutions for special cases with known
results: if m, = m, = m and Q =90' so that
both parts of the rope are vertical, the problem
reduseer die probleem tot 'n statika.-probleem met is reduced to a statics problem with a = 0 and
I a = 0 en T = mg. Vervanging van die spesiale
waardes van m" m, en Q in (g) en (h) lewer die
=
T mg. Substitution of special values for m"
and Q in (g) and (h) produce the expected values.
m.
verwagte waardes. Hierdie toets is weereens nie 'n This test does not guarantee correctness, but can

I waarborg van korrektheid nie, maar kan dikwels

tog foute uitwys.
often detect errors.

I V 4.4.2 'n Man met massa m staan op 'n 8kaal in 'n

hysbak wat 'n versnelling a het (Figuur 4.13). Die skaal
V 4.4.2 A man with mass m stands on a scale in an
elevator which has an acceleration a (Figure 4.13). The
scale works with a spring mechanism and is calibrated
werk met 'n veermeganisme en is in Newton gekalibreer.

I Hoe vergelyk die ska.allesing met die man se gewig? in Newtons. How does the reading of the scale compare
with the man's weight?

I
I
I Figuur 4.13

I Oploss;ng: Die skaallesing word bepaal deur die krag

wat die hysbak-passasier daarop uitoefen. Van N3 volg
dat die skaalpan 'n gelyke teenoorgestelde krag op die
I man uitoefen, sodat die probleem nou tot die bepaling
van die kragte op die man ornskryf kan word. Die man
word dus gei'soleer (Figuur 4.14). Twee kragte werk in
S olulion: The reading on the scale is determined by the
force that the elevator passenger exerts on it. It follows
from N3 that the scale exerts an equal and opposite
force on the man so that the problem now can be for-
mulated in terms of the forces on the man. Thus, the
man is isolated (Figure 4.14). Two forces are exerted

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.14

I 182

I
I
I op m, naamlik mg en die reaksiekrag R wat die skaalpan
op m uitoefen. Die versnelling van m is die versnelling
on m, namely mg and the reaction R, which the scale
exerts on m. The acceleration of m is the acceleration
a van die hysbak. N2 lewer dan a of the elevator. N2 then yields

I R+mg=ma. (a)

I Kles by. opwaarts as posltief en neem die vertikale kom-

ponente.
Choose upwards as positive, for instance, and take the
vertical components.
R-mg =ma; R= m(g+a) (b)
I Indien die hysbak in rus is (a = 0), is die gepaardgaande If the elevator is In a state ofrest (a = 0), the accompa-
reaksie W = mg die gewig van die passasier, sodat [uit nying reaction W = mg is the weight of the passenger
I (b») so that [from (b») we have

R=W+ma (c)
I Vir a > 0 (hysbak versnel opwaarts), Is dus R > W For a > 0 (elevator accelerating upwards), R > W so
sodat die man 'n skynbare gewigstoename ondervind. that the man experiences an apparent weight increase.
I Vir a = -g ('n vry vallende hysbak), is For a = -g (a free-falling elevator), we have

R=W-mg=O (d)

I sodat die skynbare gewlg nul is. Vandaar die elfens mis- so that the apparent weight is zero. Thus, the slightly
leidende bewering dat 'n voorwerp in vrye val (a = -g) misleading statement that an object in free fall (a = -g)

I "gewigloos" is, ondanks die feit dat daar nog steeds 'n
gravitasiekrag mg op die voorwerp inwerk.
is "weightless", despite the fact that there is still a grav-
itational force mg on the free-falling object.

I V 4.4.3 'n Silinder met straal r roteer met 'n konstante

hoekspoed 8 om die aan);etoonde vertikale as (Figuur
V 4.4.3 A cylinder with radius r rotates with a constant
angular speed iJ about the indicated vertical axis (Figure
4.15). Hoe groot moet 9 wees sodat die massa m Die 4.15). How large must iJ be so that the mass m does

I afgly Die? Aanvaar dat daar geen gUp in die horisontale

rigting plaasvind Die.
not slide off the wall? Assume that no slip occurs in a
horizontal direction.

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.15

I Oplossing: Isoleer m soos aangetoon in Figuur 4.16. Die

kragte wat op die liggaam inwerk, is sy gewig, 'n op-
Solution: Isolate m as shown in Figure 4.16. The forces
being exerted on the body are its weight, an upward
waartse wrywingskrag r en 'n reaksiekrag R loodreg op
I die siUnder, gerig na die as van die silinder.
friction force f and a reaction force R perpendicular to
the cylinder, directed at the axis of the cylinder.

I 183

I
I
I
I
I
'L A

t
Figuur 4.16
I Nou weet ons uit bloot kinematiese oorwegings dat 'n Now we know from purely kinematical considerations
massa wat in 'n sirkelbaan teen konstante hoekspoed be- that a mass that moves in a circular path at a constant
I weeg, 'n
(3.36) in
versDelling ondergaan, wat van
verwysingstelsel van Figuur (4.16) gegee
angular speed has a centripetal acceleration, which from
(3.36) is given in the reference system of Figure 4.16 by
word deur r8 2 ( -r). N2 sien dus soos volg daaruit: rO'( -r). Thus, N2 is as follows:
I R+mg+ f = -mr0 2 r (a)

I Vir m op die punt om afwaarts te gly, geld f = pR. Die

z-komponent lewer dan
For m about to start sliding downwards,
z component then yields
f = pR. The

pR-mg=O
I en dus and hence
R= mg . (b)

I Die r-komponent lewer

p

The r component yields

I Uit (b) en (c) volg

R= mrO'.
It follows from (b) and (c) that
(c)

I
I en die hoeksnelheid waarby die deeltjie op die punt is
om af te gly,
and the angular velocity at which the particle is about
to slide downwards,

.fY.
I 9=yp;'

I Let op dat 0 onafhanklik is van m, sodat hierdie resul-

taat vir enige massa geld.
Note that 0 is independent of m so that this result ap-
plies to any mass.

I Probleme
'.
Problems
P4.4.1 'n Gewigopteller kan 'n krag M 9 met sy spiere P4.4.1 A weightlifter can exert a force Mg with his

I uitoefen. Wat is die grootste massa wat in 'n versnel-

lende hyser deur die gewigopteller opgelig kan word?
muscles. What is the largest mass that the weightlifter
can lift in an accelerating elevator?

P4.4.2 Bepaal die waardes van waarvoor die balk in
I Figuur 4.17 in ewewig kan wees. Let op dat die balk in
ewewig kan Wees terwyl M versne!!
P4.4.2 Calculate the values of for which the beam in
Figure 4.17 can be in equilibrium. Note that the beam
can be in equilibrium while M accelerates!

I 184

I
I
I
1. •
I
Ji,<

,. ",

I
I
Figuur 4.17
I P4.4.3 Bepaal die versnelling van die massas in Figuur 4.4.3 Calculate the acceleration of the masses in Figure
4.18 indien wrywing en die massas van die katrolle en 4.18 if friction and the masses of the pulleys and rope
I tou buite berekening gelaat word. In alle gevalle is katrol
A se as vas, 80dat A nie lean transleer nie.
can be neglected. In all cases the axis of pulley A is
fixed so that A can not translate.

I
I
I
I (a) (b)

I
I
I
I (c) (d)

I Figuur 4.18

P4.4.4 Herhaal (c) en (d) in Figuur 4.18 indien wrywing P4.4.4 Repeat (c) and (d) in Figure 4.18 iffrietion acts

I tussen m en die hellende vlak optree.

P4.4.S Bereken die hoekspoed iJ van m waarvoor die tou

between m and the inclined plane.

P4.4.5 Calculate the angular speed iJ of m for which

I in Figuur 4.19 'n hoek et met die vertikaal maak. Gee

fisiese redes waarom die tou nie horisontaal kan swaai
nie.
the rope in Figure 4.19 makes an angle et with the ver-
·tieal. Give physical reasons why the rope cannot swing
horizontally.

I 185

I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,,
......... -- ......

I Figuur 4.19

cr. cr.
I P4.4.6 Aanvaar 'n he:fktag loodreg op die vlerke van
'n vliegtuig met lugspoed •. Bereken die hoek waardeur
die loods die vliegtuig Oloet kantel om 'n sirkelvormige
P4.4.6 Assume that there is a lift perpendicular to
the wings of an aircraft with air speed •. Calculate the
angle through which the pilot must roll the aircraft to
draai van straal p in 'n horisontale vlak te maak. make a circular turn of radius p in a horizontal plane.
I P4.4.7 Bereken die hoek waardeur 'n fietsryer sy fiets
moet kantel om 'n sirkelvormige draai te maak. Toets
P4.4.7 Calculate the angle through which a cyclist must
incline his bicycle to make a circular turn. Test your

I u antwoord aan u ervaring met fietse deur verskillende

kombinasies van straal en spoed te beskou.
answer from your experience of bicycles by considering
various combinations of radius and speed.

P4.4.8 'n Satelliet beweeg in 'n sirkelbaan om die aarde P4.4.8 A satellite moves in a circular path round the

I op 'n hoogte van 1 000 km. Wat is sy spoed? earth at a height of 1 000 km. What is its speed?

I 4.5 MOMENTUM 4.5 MOMENTUM

Totdusver is Newton se tweede wet in die vorm So far, we have used Newton's second law in the follow-

I ing form:

I
dv
F=ma=m-
. dt
(4.61)

gebruik. Hierdie uitdrukking kan egter in 'n Oleer ai-

I
However, this equation can be written in a more general
gemene vorm geskryf word indien ons die begrip van 'n form if we introduce the concept of a particle's momen-
deeltjie se momentum invoer. tum.

I Die momentum p van 'n mass a m wat met 'n snelheid

v beweeg, word gedefinieer as
The momentum p of a mass m that moves at a velocity
v is defined as
p=rnv. (4.62)

I Dimensies: Uit definisie volg dat in die SI-stelsel [PJ = Dimensions: It follows from definition that in the SI
kgms- 1 . ' . . =
system [P] kgms-".

I Ons let op dat, vir tydkonstante rn, We note that for rn constant with respect to time, we
have

I 186

I
I
I dp d dv
- = -(mv)=m-

I dt

sodat in hietdie geval uit (4.61) volg dat

dt dt'

so that it follows from (4.61) in this case that

I IF = dt I
dp (4.63)

I Hierdie vergelyking word ook eksperimenteel gel dig This equation is also found experimentally valid for the
bevind vir die algemene beweging van deeltjies, selfs al general movement of particles , even if m is not constant.

I is m nie konstant nie. Inderdaad is (4.63) die vorm

waarin Newton oorspronklik sy tweede bewegingswet
geformuleer het.
In fact (4.63) is the form in which Newton initially for-
mulated his second law of motion.

I 4.5.1 Behoud van Momentum 4.5.1 Conservation of Momentum

I 'n Belangrike behoudswet word verkry uit (4.63) in-

dp
dien die resultante krag F = o. Dan volg at = 0 en
An important conservation law is obtained from
(4.63) if the resultant force F =
o. It follows then
dUB is p 'n konstante vektor. Die momentum van 'n =0, making p a constant vector. Therefore, the

I kragvrye deeltjie bly dus konstant. Hierdie resul-

taat is bekend as die Wet
tum:
Behoud van Momen-
momentum of a force--free particle remains
stant. This result is known as the Law of Conserva-
tion of Momentum
COD-

I IF = 0 :} P = konstant I (4.64)

I 4.6 IMPULS 4.6 IMPULSE

I
I
I
I t.
Figuur 4.20
t,

I Ons beskou 'n liggaam waarop 'n krag

F = F(t)
We consider a body on which a force

(4.65)

I inwerk, soos by. die geval is tyd_ns 'n botsing wat

dour die liggaam ondervind word. In 'n botsing is die
acts, such as the case in which a body experiences a
collision. In a collision, the function (4.65) is often not
funksie (4.65) dikwels nie eksplisiet bekend nie en kan explicitly known and can assume complicated forms, as
I ingewikkelde vorms aanneern, BOOS bv. getoon in Figuur
4.20. Die e:trek van so 'n botsing kan wel bestudeer word
deur (4.63) te omskryf as
shown in Figure 4.20. The effect of such a collision can
be studied by rewriting (4.63) as

I 187

I
I
I dp =F(t)dt
I sodat so that

I t. lP1
I F(t)dt = dp = Pl - Po := Lip . (4.66)
to Po

Die hoeveelheid aan die linkerkant van (4.66) word die The quantity on the left hand side of (4.66) is called the
I impuls I van die krag genoem: impulse I of the force:

I 1"
1:= to F(t)dt (4.67)

Dimensies: Uit deftnisie volg dat in die SI-stelsel [1] = Dimensions: It follows from definition that in the SI
I Ns =!<gms- 1 .

Vergelyking (4.66) bevat 'n nuttige herformulering van

system [1] = Ns = kg ms- 1 •

Equation (4.66) contains a useful reformulation of N2;

I N2; die Beginsel: the Principle of Impulse and Mornentwn:

(4.68)

I Hierdie beginsel kan baie nuttig gebruik word in twee

soorte probleme. Eerstens kan dit gebruik word om
This principle can be very useful in solving two types
of problems. Firstly, It can be used to calculate the ve-
die snelheid van 'n deeltjie onderhewig aan 'n bekende, locity of a particle, subject to a known, time-dependent

I tydafhanklike krag te bereken. Tweedens kan dit ge-

brulk word om groottes van onbekende kragte af te skat.
force. Secondly, it can be used to estimate the magni-
tudes of unknown forces.

I Voorbeelde Examples
V4.6.1 'n Motoris (massam = 80 kg) bots teen 100 km V 4.6.1 A motorist (mass m = 80 kg) collides at 100 km

I h- 1 met 'n soliede muur en kom binne tb = 0.25 s tot

stilstand. Skat die krag op die motoris af.
h- 1 with a solid wall and comes to a standstill within
tb = 0.25 s. Estimate the force exerted on the motorist.

I Oplossing: Solution:

I
I
I o

I Figuur 4.21

I Die momentumverandering in die bewegingsrigting is

I = Lip = 0 - mu = -2 222 kg ms- 1

The change in momentum in the direction of movement
is
.

I 188

I
I
I Hierdie impuls word verskaf deur 'n snel-veranderende
krag F(t). As die gemiddelde waarde daarvan Fg is,
volg uit definisie (sien Figuur 4.21)
This impulse is provided by a fast-varying force F(t).
If the average value thereof is F g , it follows (rom the
definition (see Figure 4.21) that

I Ib

I
1=
lo
Fgdt =Fgtb
.

en dUB a.nd hence

I I
Fg = - = -8.9
tb
X
3
10 N = -11.3 mg ,

I 'n krag van meer as 11 keer die motoris se gewig.

Die situasie is nog erger as onthou word dat IFgl <
a force of more than 11 times that of the motorist's
weight. The situation is even worse if we remember
that IFgl < max IF(tll.
I mw IF(t)l.

V 4.6.2 The booster missile in Figure 4.22 is moving

V 4.6.2 Die aanjaervuurpyl in Figuur 4.22 is besig om

I vertikaal op te styg wanneer dit skielik om 'n horisontale

as begin roteer teen 'n kwartomwenteling per sekond.
Die veiligheidsoffisier in die beheersentrum stel die vuur-
pyl 2 slater skadeloos d.m. v. 'n ontploffing. Die aanjaer
I se maBsa is 90 metrieke ton, die stukrag van By motore is
106 N en dit beweeg teen 36 kmh- 1 wanneer dit begin
roteer. As aerodinamiese kragte verwaarloos kan word,
vertically upwards when it suddenly begins to rotate
about a horizontal axis at a quarter revolution per sec-
ond. The safety officer in the control centre renders the
missile safe through an explosion 2 slater. The mass of
the missile is 90 metric tons, the thrust of its boosters
is 106 N and it moves at 36 kmh- 1 when it begins to
rotate. If the aerodynamic forces are negligible, what is

I wat is die aanjaer se snelheid wanneer dit verwoes word? the speed of the missile when it is destroyed?

I
I
I
I (a) (b)
,

I Figuur 4.22

I Op/ossing: Omdat ons die hoekspoed van die vuurpyl

ken, kan ons in hierdie geval die rigting van die stukrag
as 'n funksie van die tyd bepaal en die impuls eksplisiet
bereken. Die hoekspoed is gegee as rad s-1, en dus
I volg dat dit in tyd t deur 'n hoek roteer. Van Figuu':
4.22(b) volg dan dat die krag op die vuurpyl op tydstip
t gegee word deur
Solution: Because we know the angular speed of the
missile, we can determine the direction of the steering
force as a function of time and calculate the impulse
explicitly. The angular speed is given as rads- 1 , so it
follows that it rotates in time t through an angle It
follows from Figure 4.22(b) that the force on the missile
at time t is given by

I
I 189

I
I
I
I Die impuls op die aanjaer oor die verloop van 28 is dan The impulse on the booster over 2 s then is

I
I
I
= - 4T.
- z - 2mgy• ..
I '/r

Die snelheid van die aanjaer wanneer dit begin roteer is The velocity of the booster when it begins to rotate is

I V, = 3611 km h- 1 = lay m s-1.

The velocity v, of the booster when it is destroyed is

I
Die snelheid V2 van die aanjaer wanneer. dit verwoes
word, word uit die impul... momentum beginsel verkry, obtained from the impulse momentum principle, Le.
d.w.s.

I
waar m die massa van die aanjaer is. DUB volg where m is the mass of the booster. Thus, it follows

I that

I
I = ' -4T.
10 y- 2'
: t : - gy
'/rm

= (-14.15:i:-9·6 211)ms- 1
I Die spoed is dus v,= 17.1 ms- 1 (61·6 kmh- 1), maar Therefore, the speed is v,.=17.1 ms- 1 (61·6 kmh- ),
'

I wat van groter belang is, is dat die y·komponent daar-

van negatief is; die aanjaer was dus besig om te val.
but what is more important is that its y component is
negative; this means the booster was falling.

I Probleme
P4.6.1 Met behulp van 'n hoespoedkamera word 'n
Problems
P4.6.1 With the help of an high speed camera, " golf

I ghb\fbal teen intervalle van 0 . 001 s gefotografeer ty·

dens 'n bofhou. Net nadat die bal die stok verlaat, le
dit 'n afstand van 4·8 cm af tU8Sen twee opeenvolgende
foto's. Die bal, waarvan die massa 46 gm is, is in kontak
I met stok vir 0 . 0006 s. Skat die gemiddelde krag af
wat die stok uitoefen op die bal. Speel die gewig van die
bal 'n beduidende rol tydens die impak?
ball is photographed at intervals of 0 . 001 s during a
tee shot. Just after the ball leaves the club, it covers a
distance of 4·8 cm between two successive photographs.
The ball of mass 46 gm is in contact with the club for
0·0006 s. Estimate the average force that the club exerts
on the ball. Does the weight of the ball play a significant
role during the impact?

I 190

I
I
I P4.6.2 Indien die veiligheidsoffisier in V4.6.2 die aan-
jaer verwoes 1s nadat dit begin roteer, wat is sy snelheid
op die tydstip van die ontploffing?
P4.6.2 If the safety officer in V4.6.2 destroys the missile
1s after it begins to rotate, what is its velocity at the
time of explosion?

I P4.6.3 P4.6.3

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.23

'n Bie>-ingenieur gebruik 'n geinstrumenteerde pop om

I
'n veiligheidsmasker vir 'n yshokkie doelwagter te toets
(Figuur 4.23). 'n Ghoen met massa 170 g word gelanseer
sodat dit die masker horisontaal tref teen 40 ms-'. Fe>-
A bio--engineer uses an instrument dummy to test a
safety mask for an ice hockey goalkeeper (Figure 4.23).
A puck of mass 170 g is launched so that it hits the mask
at 40 ms-'. Photographically, she establishes that the

I tografies stel sy Vas dat die impak met die masker 0·02
s duur en dat die ghoen terugspring teen 5 ms-'.
impact with the mask lasts 0·02 s and the puck rebounds
at 5 ms-'.

I
(a) Wat is die impuls wat deur die ghoen op die maske. (a) What is the impulse that the puck exerts on the
uitgeoefen word? mask?
(b) Wat is die gemiddelde krag wat die ghoen op die (b) What is the average force that the puck exerts on
masker uitoefen'? the mask?
I
4.7 ROTASIEBEWEGING 4.7 ROTATIONAL MOTION
I Newton Be tweede wet is uit (4.63) bekend as From (4.63), we know Newton's second law as

I F -- dp
dt' (4.69)

I Hierdie vorm is egter nie altyd gerieftik om rotasiebeweg-

ing te beskryf nie, aangesien momente eerder as kragte
However, this form is not always cODvenient to describe
rotational motion because moments rather than forces

I hier 'n natuurlike hoeveelheid iB om mee te werk. Die are a natural quantity to work with in this case. The
moment van 'n krag F om oorsprong 0 op 'n deeltjie moment of a force F about origin 0 of a particle with
met posisievektor r t.o.V. 0 is in (2.12) gedefinieer as . position vector r with regard to 0 was defined in (2.12)
as

I Mo =rx F. (4.70)

I Na analogie van (4.70) word die hoekmomentum (of

draaimomentum) Ho om 0 van 'n deeltjie gedefinieer
Analogously to (4.70), the angular momentum Ho of
a particle about 0 is defined as
as .'.-

I (4.71)

I 191

I
I
I Differensiasie van (4.71) m.b.t. tyd t lewer Differentiation of (4.71) with regard to t yields

I dHo.
dt
dp
= rxp+rx Tt

I .
= rxmr+rx'dt,
. dp

I Ons inkorporeer N2 in hierdie vergelyking deur (4.69)

te gebruik om in die tweede term met F te vervang.
We incorporate N2 into this equation by using (4.69)
to substitute F in the second term by d: . The first
Die eerste term is identies nul uit definisie van die vek- term is identically zero from the definition of the vector

I torproduk: product

I dHo
Tt=O+rxF

Indien ons nou die definisie (4.70) aan die regterkant If we now substitute definition (4.70) on the right, we
I instel, volg have

I (4.72)

I
Hierdie is die Iotasie-bewegingsvergelyking van 'n
deeltjie. Dit kan "afgelees" word van die translasie-
bewegingsvergelYking (4.68) deur die oorgang F -
Mo; p .... Ho te maak. Twee aspekte van (4.72) moet
I beklemtoon word: Eerstens is dit net 'n nuttige her-
formulering van N2. Tweedens word H en M t.o.v.
dieselfde punt gemeet. Hierdie punt is in bogenoemde
This is the rotational equation of motion of a partide. It
can be "read or' from the translation movement equa-
tion (4.68) by making the transition F .... Mo; p ....
Ho. Two aspects of 4.72 must be emphasised: firstly, it
is only a useful reformulation of N2; secondly, Hand
M are measured with respect to the same point. In
the above section, this point was chosen as the origin.

I afleiding as die oorsprong gekies. Aangesien 'n verwys-

ingstelsel egter 'n saak van keuse is, is dit duidelik dat
o enige vaste punt kan wees.
However, since a reference system is a matter of choice,
it is evident that 0 can be any fixed point.

I 4.7.1 Die Eenvoudige Slingel' 4.7.1 The Simple Pendulum

I ./

o
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.24

I 192

I
I
I As 'n toepassing van (4.6.1) ontleed ons die beweging
van 'n eenvoudige slinger. Dit bestaan uit 'n deeltjie
wat aan In massalose tOll met lengte t vas is en wat vry
As an application of (4.6.1) we analyse the motion of
a simple pendulum. It consists of a particle that is
tied to a weightless rope of length l and is free to move

I is om in 'n vertikale vlak te beweeg (Figuur 4.24). Ons

kies hierdie vlak as die ",y-vlak en kies die oorsprong by
die (vaste) ophangpunt.
in a vertical plane (Figure 4.24). We choose this plane
as the "'y plane and the origin at the (fixed) suspension
point.

I Daar is twee kragte wat inwerk op die deeltjie; sy gewig

mg en die onbekende en veranderlike toukrag T. Omdat
T egter altyd na 0 gerig is, het dit geen moment om 0
There are two forces being exerted on the particle; its
weight mg and the unknown and variable force in the
rope T. However I because T is always directed at 0 I

I nie en is die formulering (4.72) van N2 hier baie nuttig.

Die tot ale moment op m om 0 is dan uit definisie
it has no moment about 0 and the formulation (4.24)
of N2 becomes very useful. From definition, the total
moment on m about 0 is

I Mo = r X mg = mglsin O( -z). (4.73)

Aangesien die deeltjie in 'n sirkelbaan beweeg, weet ons
I van (3.35) dat sy snelheid.v altyd loodreg op r is en in
grootte gegee word deur lO. Van (4.71) volg dan vir die
deeltjie se hoekmomentum om 0,
Since the particle moves in a circular path, we know
from (3.35) that its velocity v is always perpendicular
to r and its magnitude is given by eo.
It then follows
from (4.71) that the particle's angular moment about 0

I Ho = r X mv = l(mlO)z (4.74)
N2 in die vorm (4.72) lewer dus Therefore, N2 in the form (4.72) yields
I m1 2 ijz = -mglsinOz,
and if we equate the z components:
I
en as ons die z-komponente aan mekaar gelyk stel:
" 9
0= -tsinO (4.75)

I Vergelyking (4.75) i5 'n tweede-orde differensiaalverge-

Iyking wat nie in geslote 'vorm opgelos kan word nie.
Inderdaad· sal u in die TWK2B kursus hierdie vergelyk-
I ing numeries oplos. Daar is egter een spesiale geval
van (4.75) wat wel 'n geslote oplossing het, nl. die geval
waar 0 klein bly gedurende m se beweging. Dan kan
Equation (4.75) is a second-order differential equation
that cannot be solved in closed form. In fact, this equa-
tion will be solved numerically in the TWK2B course.
However, there is one special cse of (4.75) that has a
closed solution, viz. the case where e remains small
during the motion of m. Then we can make the approx-

I ons die benadering sin 0 "" 0 maak en word (4.75)

" 9
imation sin 0 "" 0 and (4.75) becomes

0=--0. (4.76)
e
I Indien ons (4.76) met (4.52) vergelyk, sien ons dat (4.76) If we compare (4.76) to (4.52), we see that (4.76) is a
'n EHB vergelyking is met SHM equation with
I
w=/f. (4.77)

I Die beweging van die slinger is dus periodes en die pe- The motion of the pendulum therefore is periodic and
riode daarvan word gegee deur its period is given by
I
(4.78)

I
I 193

I
 I
I Dit moet beklemtoon word dat (4.72) nie 'n nuwe to-
evoeging tot ons kenois is nie. Inderdaad kon ons
die vorm (4.69) van 1"2 ook gebruik het om die be-
It must be emphasised that (4.72) is not a new addition
to our knowledge. In fact, we could have also used the
form (4.69) of N2 to obtain the equation of movement

I wegingsvergelyking (4.75) te verkry. Die student word

aangemoedig om dit self aan te durf; dit blyk dat (4.72)
inderdaad in hierdie geval geriefliker is.
(4.75). Students are encouraged to do this themselves.
It is obvious that (4.72) is more convenient in this case.

I 4.7.2 Behoud van Hoekmomentum 4.7.2 Conservation of Angular Momen-

tum

I Indien 'n deeltjie so beweeg dat die moment MA van

die resultante krag op die deeltjie om 'n vaste punt A
If a particle moves in such a way that the moment MA
of the resultant force on the particle remains zero about
nul bly, volg van (4.72) dat d:A = 0 en dus is HA A, d:A
= 0 and
I 'n konstante vektor. Hierdie resultaat is bekend as die
Wet van Behoud van Hoekmomentum:
a fixed point it follows from (4.72) that
HA hence is a constant vector. Since result is known as
the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

I IMA = 0 :} HA = konstant I (4.79)

I
I
I
I Figuur 4.25

Die behoud van hoekmomentum speel 'n belangrike rol The conservation of angular moment plays an important

I by talle probleme. Die gravitasiekrag van die son op die

aarde is bv. gerig langs die Iyn tussen die twee liggame,
sodat die gravitasiekrag op die aaxde geen moment t.o.v.
die son het nie (Figuur 4.25). Die hoekmomentum van
I die aaxde om die son, H., bly gevolglik konstant. Uit
die definisie van hoekmomentum is dit duidelik dat H 'n
vektor loodreg op die oombliklike bewegingsvlak van die
paxt in numerous problems. The gravitational force of
the sun on the eaxth for instance, is directed along the
line between the two bodies, so that the gravitational
force on the eaxth has no moment with respect to the
sun (Figure 4.25). Therefore, the angular momentum of
the earth about the sun, H., remains constant. From
the definition of angular momentum, it is evident that

I liggaam is. In die gev"\ van die aarde se beweging om

die son, sal die aaxde se baan dus in 'n vlak le. (Hier is
die relatief klein etrek van die gravitasiekrag van ander
H is a vector that is perpendicular to the body's instan-
taneous plane of movement. In the case of the earth's
movement axound the sun, the earth's path will there-

I hemelliggame buite rekening gelaat; 'n redelike benader-

ing.)
fore remain in a plane. (Here the relatively small effect
of the force of gravitation of the other heavenly bodies
have been omitted from the calculation; a reasonable
approximation. )
I As verdere voorbeeld word die beweging van 'n massa
teen konstante hoekspoed iJ in 'n horisontale sirkel
As a further example, we consider the movement of a
mass at a constant angular speed iJ in a horizontal circle

I beskou (Figuur 4.26). Indien rn met 'n tou van lengte

r in 'n sirkelbaan gehou word, is die trekkrag in die tou
die enigste krag op rn, sodat
(Figure 4.26). If m is kept in a circular path by a rope
of length r , the tension in the rope is the only force on
m so that

I en dUB
Mo =r x T =r x (-Tf) = 0
and hence

I 194

I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.26

I Ho = c (konstant).
Verder is Furthermore, we have
I dr "
Ho = r x mv = r x m dt = r x mr99,
I waar (3.35) in die tweede terrn ingestel is. Dan volg where (3.35) has been substituted into the second terrn.
It follows that
I uZ = CZ.
H o = mr 2 ';··

I Indien die massa na binne getrek word deur die spanning

in die tou te verhoog, moet Ho steeds konstant bly. Die
hoekspoed gehoorsaam dus die verband
If the mass is pulled towards 0 by increasing the tension
in the rope, Ho must remain constant. The angular
speed therefore obeys the relation

I .
9=-
mr2
c

I sodat iJ groter word indien r kleiner gemaak word. so that iJ increases if r is decreased.

Probleme
I P4.7.1 By perigeum (sy nallSte punt aan die aarde)
is 'n satelliet se spoed up= 7000 ms- 1 en is sy sf·
I stand vanaf die aarde rp = 10 000 km (Figuur 4.27).
By apogeum (sy verste punt van die aarde) is hy op sf·
stand r A = 16000 km van die aarde. Wat is sy spoed
Problems
P4.7.1 At perigee (its closest point to the earth), the
=
speed of a satellite is up 7000 m s-l and its distance
form the earth is rp = 10000 km (Figure 4.27). At
apogee (its furthest point from the earth) the satellite
is a distance of r A = 16000 km from the earth. What

I byapogeum? is its speed at apogee?

I
I
I 195

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 4.27

I P4.7.2 'n Satelliet word op 'n afstand ro = 16000 km

van die aarde se middelpunt deur 'n pendeltuig gelanseer
met 'n beginspoed Vo = 7000 ms-I in die getoonde rig-
I ting (Figuur 4.28). Bereken die transversale komponent
van sy snelheid wanneer by 'n afstand r = 32000 km
van die aarde se middelpunt is.
P4.7.2 A satellite is launched by a space shuttle at a
=
distance of fO 16000 km from the earth'. centre with
an initial speed of Vo = 7000 ms-I in the indicated
direction (Figure 4.28). Calculate the transversal com-
ponent of its velocity when it is a distance f = 32000
km from the earth's centre.

I
I
I
I
I
Figuur 4.28

I
4.8 HOEK-IMPULS 4.8 ANGULAR IMPULSE
I Aangesien die bewegingsvergelyking N2 vir 'n deeltjie
dieselfde vorm het of dit i.t.v. lineere momentum (4.63)
Since the equation of movement N2 for a particle has
the same form whether it is written in terms of linear

I of hoekmentum (4.72) geskryf word, volg dat daar vir

rotasiebeweging ook 'n begrip analoog aan die van 'n
impuls moet bestaan. Volledigheidshalwe bespreek ons
dit hier kortliks.
I Die rotasie-bewegingsvergelyking is in (4.72) verkry as
momentum (4.63) or angular momentum (4.72), it fol-
lows that there must also be a concept for rotational
motion analogous to that of an impulse. For the sake of
completeness, we discuss it briefly.
The equation of rotational motion was obtained in (4.72)
as

I Mo=--
dH o
dt

I Integrasie tussen twee spesifieke tydstippe tl en t2 lewer Integration between two specific times tl and t2 yields

I 196

I
I
I
I J" Modt = JdHo
dt
dt
"
'1 '1

I = JdHO
'1
I = Ho(t,) - Ho(td .

I Indien die hoek-impuls gedefinieer word as If the angular impuse is defined by

I J o = ] Mo dt ,
'1
(4.80)

I vind ons 'n vergelyking analoog aan (4.68): we have an equation analogous to (4.68):

Jo = L:.Ho (4.81)

I Probleme Problems

I P4.8.1 'n Krag Fii werk vir 'n tyd T sekondes in op 'n
massa m met beginsnelheid Vo = wat op die :z:y-vlak
P4.8.1 A force Fii is exerted on a mass m for a time T
seconds with an initial velocity Vo =
voi which moves
langs die lyn y = Yo beweeg. Gehruik impuls en hoek- on the xy plane along line y = Yo. U Be the impulse
I irnpuls om die momentum-verandering te bereken. as well as angular impulse to calculate the change in
momentum.

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 197

I
I
I HOOFSTUK 5 CHAPTER 5
I MEERVERANDERLIKE
FUNKSIES
MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS

I 5.1 INLEIDING 5.1 INTRODUCTION

I Hierdie hoofstuk behandel 'n aantal wiskundige be-

grippe wat in die volgende hoofstuk van nut sal wees
This chapter comprises the introduction of various
mathematical concepts that will be useful in the next
vir die bespreking van die dinamika. Net soos die in- chapter for the discussion of dynamics. Just as the in-

I voering van vektore as 'n wiskundige hulpmiddel in die

statika van groot nut was, speel die definisies en tegnieke
wat hier ingevoer sal word, 'n groot rol in die ondersoek
troduction of vectors as a mathematical tool was usefuJ
in statics, the definitions and techniques that will be
introduced here play an important part in the investi-
van die dinamika. gation of dynamics.
I
I 5.2 MEERVERANDERLIKE
FUNKSIES
5.2 MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS

U is reeds goed vertroud met skalaarfunksies van 'n You are already familiar with the scalar functions of a
I enkele veranderlike soos byvoorbeeld single variable, e.g.:

11 =ax' +bx+c.
I Hier bepaal die keuse van die een veranderllke, x, een- Here, the choice of one variable, x, uniquely determines
duidig 'n funksiewaarde II(X) , sodat IIslegs van x afhank- a function value II(X), so that 1/ is dependent only on x.
I Ilk is. Grafies word hierdie funksie voorgestel deur 'n
paraboliese kromme in die xlI-vlak.
This function is represented graphicaliy by a parabolic
curve in the XII plane.

I Omdat die definisiegebied D van die funksie

II=II(X)
Since the domain D of the function

(5.1)

I eendlmensloneel is, sal dit in die algemeen deur 'n

eendlmensionele grafiek voorgestel word, d.w.s. 'n
is one dimensional, it in general will be represented
by a one-dimensional graph, i.e. a curve in the XII
kromme in die XI/-vlak soos in Figuur 5.1. plane, as in Figure 5.1.
I
I
I
I
:x.
I Figuur 5.1

I 198

I
I
I In die geval van baie ander funksies, kan die
funksiewaarde slegs eenduidiglik bepaal word deur
In the case of many other functions, the function value
can only be determined uniquely by assigning. values to
waardes aan 'n aantal veranderlikes toe te ken. As voor- a number of variables. Consider the example of the vol-

I beeld word die volume V van 'n sirkelvormige silinder

met straal a en hoogte h beskou:
ume V of a cylinder with radius a and height h:

I V =1Ta'h

Beide a en h, die twee veranderlikes, moet gespesifiseer Both a and h, the two variables, must be specified to

I
word om 'n waarde vir V te verkry, V is dus 'n skalaar- obtain a value for V. Therefore, V is a scalar function
funksie (aangesien volume 'n skalaar is) van a en h, (because volume is a scalar) of a and h, indicated as
aangedul BB

I V= V(a,h}.

Die algernene vorm van 'n funksie van twee veranderlikes The general form of a function of two variables therefore
I is dus
z=z(""I/} ,
is
(5.2)

I waar die funksiewaarde z weer bepaal word deur 'n spe-

sifieke keuse van die veranderlikes '" en 1/. Omdat die
where the function value z is again determined by a spe-
cific choice of the variables '" and 1/. Because the domain
definisiegebied D van z in hierdie geval tweedimen- D of z is two dimensional in this case, f will be rep-
I sioneel is, sal f grafies deur 'n tweedimensionele
grafiek voorgestel word, d.w.s. 'n vlak in die rulmte
resented graphically by a two-dimensional graph, i.e.
a surface in space, BB in Figure 5.2.
soos in Figuur 5.2.

I
I
I
I ,
1

o 1
,
I
1--1-------1
1

I
x .
I
.Figuur 5.2

I
I
I 199

I
I
I Voorbeeld Example
V5.2.1 Beskou die funksie V5.2.1 Consider the function

I z2 11"
z =z(x, 1/) = 1 - Q' -, IJ2 ' (5.3)

I waar Q en b konstantes Is. Stei dit grafies voor. where Q and b are constants. Represent it graphically.

I Oplo86ing: Ten einde hlerdie funksie grafies voor te stei,

word vir elke punt (x,l/) op die ZI/-viak (die deflnisiege-
bied), 'n ooreenstemmende z-waarde (offunksiewaarde)
Solution: In order to represent this function graphically,
a corresponding" value (or function value) is plotted for
every point (x,l/) on the ZI/ plane (the domain). The

I bo die zy-vlak aangestip. Die versameling punte

(x, 1/, z), met z voigens (5.3) bereken, vorm dan soos
hlerbo gestei 'n oppervlak in die rulmte.
vorm van die oppervlak word maklik verkry deur die
I deursnitte van die vlak z(x,l/) met die verskillende
koordinaatvlakke te beskou:
Die
set of points (x, I/,z) with z calculated according to (5.3)
then forms a surface in space, as stated above. The form
of the plane is O!IBily obtained by considering the inter-
sections of the plane z(x, 1/) with the various coordinate
planes:

Kies x = 0 sodat z = 1 - f'-• - 'n parabool in die Zl/- f'-• -

I vlak.
Kies 1/ = 0 sodat z = 1 -
.
- 'n parabool in die xz-
Choose x = 0 so that z = 1 -
"1/ plane.
Choose 1/ = 0 so that z = 1 - -
•
a parabola ID the

a parabola in the

I vlak.
Kies z = 0 sodat r:.
+ = 1 - 'n ellips in die ZI/-vlak.
xz plane.
Choose z = 0 so that
XI/ plane.
+ r:. = 1 - an ellipse in the

I Deur hierdie krommes in 'n Zl/Z assestelsel in te teken,

word Figuur 5.3 verkry.
By drawing these curves in an Zl/Z set of axes, we obtain
Figure 5.3.

I i!

I 1

I
I
I
I
I Flguur 5.3

I Om die geometrie van so 'n viak as geheel te beskryf, is

dit nodig dat ons die begrip van parametriese krommes
ontwikkel.
To describe the geometry of such a plane in general, it
is necessary for us to develop the notion of parametric
curves.

I 200

I
I
I Probleme Problems
P5.2.1 Stel die volgende funksies grafies voor. P5.2.1 Represents the following functions graphically.

I (a) oz+by+cz+d=O
(b) :r:' + 1/' + z' = 4
(c) z = (J";:e' + 1/'
(a) oz + by + cz + d = 0
(b) :e' + 1/' + z' = 4
(c) z = a";>? + 1/'
(d) z = b(:r:' + 1/') (d) z = b(:r:' + 1/')
I (e) z· =
:e'
-+-
(J' b'
,p (e) z' = -+
:r:'
a'
•
b"

I 5.3 PARAMETRlESE KROMMES 5.3 PARAMETRlC CURVES

I Indien die funksie IT we consider the function

z =z(:e, 1/) , (5.4)

I wat van §5.2 deur 'n vial< in die ruimte voorgestei word,
beskou word saam met 'n beperklng
represented by a surface in space according to §5.2, to-
gether with a restriction

I 1/ =I/(:e) (5.5)

op die :e en 1/ veranderlikes van (5.4), is al die punte (:e,,,)
I op die ZIf-vlal< nie meer besklkbaar vir toekenning van
z-waardes nie (Figuur 5.4), sodat 'n kromme op die vial<
(5.4) uitgesonder word. Ons verwys na krommes wat op
on the :e and 1/ variables in (5.4), all the points (:e,I/) on
the :el/ plane are no longer available for the 8Bsignment
of z values (Figure 5.4) so that a curve on the surface
(5.4) is singled out. We refer to curves obtained in this

I wyse verkry word 8B parametriese krommes. way 8B parametric curves.

I
I ••

I M
,,
1 ' 1

I o I
I
:
I
--1-:
I r
I
r

;
I
'-1-- I

I
1-1-_..,
--iI")
I \.i"
d
I i : I
I 1
1
1
.. )I

I
Figuur 5.4

I Meer formeel kan ons hierdie resultaat 800S volg beskryf: We can describe this result more formally 8B follows: if
Indien ons (5.5) in (5.4) stel, volg we substitute (5.5) into (5.4), it follows that.
I z = z(:e, ,,(:e» = z(:e) , (5.6)

I 201

I
I
I en z is 'n funksie van slegs een veranderlike sodat dit
graties deur 'n kromme voorgestel word.
and z is a function of only one variable so that it is
represented graphically by a curve.

I In die geval wat in (5.6) uitgesonder is, is die Cartesiese

koordinaat:z: gebruik as die enigste onafhanklike veran-
derlike. Daar is egter baie ander maniere om parame-
In the case that was singled out in (5.6), the Cartesian
coordinate :z: was used as the only independent variable.
However, there are many other ways to create paramet-

I
triese krommes te skep, soos blyk uit die volgende voor- ric curves, as we can see from the following example.
beeld.

I Voorbeelde
V5.S.l Ter Illustrasie beskou ons weer die vlak in V4.2.1
Example
V5.S.l As an example, we again consider the plane in
V5.2.1,
I
:z:' 1/'
I z=l- - - b'l'
a:;l
- (5.7)

en vereis verder dat (:Z:,I/) op die reguit Iyn and reqnire that (:Z:,I/) should lie on the straight line

I r = ro + se (5.8)
moet le met with

I ro = :Z:ox + l/oY; e = ix + my, (5.9)

I en waar 8 'n afstand is wat vanaf Q in die rigting

gemeet word [Figuur 5.5(a)].
e and where 8 is a distance measured from Q in the direc-
tion e (Figure 5.5 (a)].

I
I
I
I
I
s
I
(a) (b)

I Figuur 5.5

I Ons let op dat (5.8) meebring dat

1/= (;):z:+ (1/0- m;o) =1/(:Z:)'

We note that (5.8) implies that

I 202

I
I
I Dlt Is egter meer natuurlik om • BB onafhanklike veran-
derlike ult te sonder. Uit (5.8) en (5.9) volg naamlik
dat
However, It Is more natural to single • out BB an Ind...
pendent variable. It follows from (5.8) and (5,9) that

I x = Zo + 81; 1/ = I/o + am , (5.10)

wat In (5.7) vervang kan word om which can be substituted in (5.7) to produce

I Xo2 I/o2) -28 (l-a2+ml/ob'-) -82 (..,-a2+mb'-2)

Xo c-
Z= ( 1 -a 2- -b'
- (5.11)

I te lewer. Hierdle is die vergelyklng van 'n parabool In This Is the equation of a parabola in the ZB plane, BB
die Z8-vlak, 800S getoon in Figuur 5.5(b). shown In Figure 5.5(b).
I Die verband (5.8) [en dus (5.1O)]lewer dus formeel Therefore, the relation (5.8) [and thus (5.10)] yields

I Z = Z(8); 1/ = 1/(8) , (5.12)

sodat 8 optree BB die enigste onafhanklike veranderlike.
I Vervanging van (5.12) in Z = Z(Z, 1/) lewer dus
Z = Z(X(8), 1/(8)) = Z(8) ,
80 that B acts BB the only variable. By substituting
(5.12) in Z = Z(X,II) we therefore have
(5.13)

I waar Z(B) eksplisiet bereken is in (5.11). Ons sien weer

dat die beperldng tot een onafhanklike veranderlike 'n
where Z(8) WBB calculated explicitly in (5.11). We once
more see that the restriction to one independent vari-
kromme in die ruimte lewer. able produces a curve in space.
I Probleme Problems

I P5.S.1 Vind die krommes

(a) Z = Z2 + 1/" met Z en 1/ op die reguit Iyn deur (1,0)
wat 'n hoek et met die Z-BB maak.
I (b) az + btt + cz + d = 0 met x en 1/ op die diagonaai
tussen die positiewe x en I/-BBSe.
P5.S.1 Find the curves
(a) Z = z· +1/" with x and 11 on the straight line through
(I,D), forming an angle et with the x axis.
(b) az + btt + cz + d = 0 with Z and 11 on the diagonal
between the positive Z and 1/ axes.

I 5.4 SKALAAR- EN VEKTORVELDE 5.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS

I In §5.2 is funksles van die algemene vorm z = z(x,l/)

beskou, d.w.s. funksies met skalaarwaardes Z afhanklik
van die koordinate Z en 1/ van punte in die ZIJ-vlak. Aan-
In §5.2 we considered functions of the general from Z
z(x,I/), i.e. functions with scalar values z dependent on
=
the coordinates Z and 1/ of points in the zy plane. Since

I gesien die p08isievektor van sulke punte op die xl/-vlak

gegee word deur
the position vector of such points in the x7/ plane is given
by

=ZX + I/V,
I kan ons dit kortweg skryf BB
r
we can write it briefly BB

I z = Z(Z, 1/) = z(r).

Die definisiegebied van 'n funksie hoef nie net tot die The domain of a function need not be restricted only

I zlI-vlak beperk te word nie. Lugdruk p is byvoorbeeld

'n funksie van posisie op die aardoppervlak en hoogte
bo seespieel, 80dat ten minste moet geld dat
to the ZI/ plane. Atmospheric pressure p is a function
of position on the earth's surface and height above sea
level, so that at the very least we should have that

I 203

I
I
I P=P(:O,II,%}=p(r} ,

I met r = + 110 + d. Lugdruk by 'n punt r sal egter

ook afhang van tyd t, sodat
p= p(r,t}.
I So kom talle meerveranderlike funksies in die weten-
skappe voor. Sodanige funksJes met skalaarwaardes,
I tesame met hul definlsiegeblede, word .kaJaarvelde
genoem. Funksies hoef egter nie noodwendig skaIaar-
waardes te beslt nle. Windsnelheid v, 'n vektorhoeveel-
with r = :of + 110 + d. Atmospheric pressure at point r
will also depend on time t, so that
(5.14)
Thus, numerous multlvariable functions occur in the sci-
ences. Such scalar vsIued functions, together with their
domains, are called scalar flelda. However, functions
need not necessarily have scalar values. As in (5.14),
wind velocity v, a vector quantity, can be written in the

I held, sal net soos (5.14) in 'n vorm following form:

v = v(r,t} (5.15)

I geskryf kan word. v is dus 'n vektorfunksie van die Therefore, v is a vector function of the variables :0,11, z
veranderlikes :0,11, % en t; 'n meerveranderlike vektor- and t; a multivariable vector function. A vector func-

I funksie. 'n Vektorfunksie, tesame met sy definisiegebied,

staan bekend as 'n vektorveld.
tion, together with its domain, is known as a vector
. field.

I 5.5 DIFFERENSIASIE VAN MEER- 5.5 DIFFERENTIATION OF MULTI-

VERANDERLIKE SKALAARVELDE VARIABLE SCALAR FIELDS
I 5.5.1 Rigtingsafgeleide 5.5.1 Directional Derivative
Beskou weer die skalaarfunksie (5.3), naamlik Consider the scalar function (5.3), i.e.
I
.
o. - ".'
:0' 11'

I %= %(:O,II) = 1-

en Ides twee reguit Iyne met rigtings B en p op die 11:1/- and select two straight lines with directions 8 and p on

I vlak (Figuur 5.6). 'n Booglengte 8 word vanaf 'n punt r,

in 'n rigting B gemeet, 80dat die Iyn met hierdie rigting
gegee word deur
the :011 plane (Figure 5.6). Arc length 8 is measured
from point r, in a direction B, so that the line with this
direction is given by

I r =r, + 88.
= :O(8} =:O(8} and 11 =1I(8}
I Vir veranderlikes :0 en 11 op hierdie Iyn is dus
en 11 = 1I(8} 80dat
:0 For variables:o and 11 on this line, :0
so that'
%= %(:O(8) , 11(8» = %(8) .

I Soortgelyk volg vir punte op die Iyn met rigting p deur Similarly, it follows for points on the line with direction
r. dat p through r. that
I r =r. +W,
met p 'n veranderlike booglengte gemeet vanaf r •. Vir with p a variable arc length measured from r.. For:o
I en 11 op hierdie Iyn, geld
:0

% = Z(:o(P},II(P» = z(P} •
and 11 on this line, one has

I 204

I
I
I Die funksies Z(B) en z(P) is in Figuur 5.6 geskets vir die
geval waar B ¥ p, en dit is duidelik dat hierdie krommes
Functions %(B) and %(p) are sketched in Figure 5.6 for
the case where i ¥ P and it is clear that these curves
afhanklik is van die rigtings i en p. are dependent on the directions i and p.

I Laat die waardes van B en p by die snypunt Q van die

twee lyne respektiewelik BD en Po wees. Dan is dit grafies
Let the values of B and p at the point of intersection Q
of the two lines be BD and Po respectively. It is then clear
uit Figuur 5.6 duidelik dat die helling van Z(8) by BD en from Figure 5.6 that the slope of %(B) at BD and that of
I die van z(P) by Po in die algemeen van mekaar verskil,
m.a.w.
%(p) at Po differ from each other in general, i.e.

I <hI
tU '='0
¥ <hI
dp PPo .

I
I
I
I s

I
I Figuur 5.6

Aangesien die hellings afhang van die rigting van die
I lyne waartoe (z, 1/) beperk word, word sulke hellings 00-
derskei van gewone afgeleides deur dit te skryf as
Since the slopes depend on the direction of the lines to
which (z, 1/) is restricted, such slopes are differentiated
from ordinary derivatives by writing them as

I 8%
8B waar/where % = %(B) (5.16)

I 6f or

I 8%
8p waar/where % =%(p) . ·(5.17)

I Sulke afgeleides word rigtingsafgeleides genoem en

met 8-simbole geskryf om Ban te dui dat beperkings van
die vorm Z = Z(B) en 1/ = I/(B) gestel is op die veran-
Such derivatives are called directional derivatives
and written with a 8 symbol to indicate that restric-
tions of the form Z = Z(B) and 1/ = I/(B) were set on the

I derllkes van die meerveranderlike funksle wat gediffer-

ensieer word om sodoende 'n ondubbeisinnige betekenis
Ban die afgeleides te heg.
variables of the multi variable function which is differ-
entiated, 80 as to give the derivatives an unambiguous
significance.

I In die algemeen kan 'n funksie van (bv.) drie verander-

likes
In general, a function of three variables

I 205

I
I
I 1= I(u,v,w) (5.18)

I beskou word saam met beperkings

u = u(s); v =v(s);
can be considered with restrictions

w = w(s) , (5.19)

I sodat I (8) 'n kromme In die ruimte vorm. Die parame-

trlese afgeleide van I m. b. t. 8 word nou gedeflnieer
so that I (8) forms a curve In space. The parametric
derivative of I with respect to 8 is now defined 88
88

I 01 lim 1(. + - I(s) . (5.20)

o. =
I lndien die verbande (5.19) so gekies is dat • 'n If the relations (5.19) are chosen such that 8 is an arc
booglengte iangs die kromme 1(8) is, is (5.20) ook die length along the curve 1(8), (5.20) is also the direc:-
I rlgtlngsafgelelde van I. tional derivative of I.

I Voorbeelde
VS.S.l Ons bereken by P(l, 1) die rigtingsafgeleides van
Examples
VS.S.1 At P(l,l), we calculate the directional deriva-
(5.3) In twee vetskillende rigtlngs 8 en p soos aangetoon tives of (5.3) in two different direction § IUld p, 88 shown
I in Figuur 5.7. in Figure 5.7.

0(0, 0) ,.,-_ _ _ _ _ _-=G_(..:.o:."l":')_-4

I
I
I
I Figuur 5.'7

I (a) Die posisievektore van punte op OP word gegee deur (a) The position vectors of points on OP are given by

I r
+0) ;
=ro + S8. =Z. + y. + • (X.,fi.

I dus volg vir huUe koordinate dat hence it follows for their coordinates that

I Die parametriese kromme wat dus uitgesoek word, volg The parametric curve that is selected thus follows from
uit (5.3): (5.3):

I Z = 1-
1 (
02
.)2 -
1 +.,fi.
1 (
b2 1 +
8)2
.,fi.

I 206

I
I
I Die rlgtingsafgelelde in die B-rlgting Is dan The directional derivative In the B direction then is

I
= 0 at P, and
I Aangesien 8 per keuse VBl1af P gemeet word, geld
by P, en dus
B =0 Since we chose to measure
therefore
B from P, 8

I
I (b) Op PQ geld (b) On PQ we have that

. (-Z+O) ,
I r=ro+pp=z+ji+p,j'i

en dus and therefore

I ,j'i' 1/= 1+ ,j'i'
p

I Dan word (5.3) Then (5.3) becomes

I
I en die rlgtingsafgeleide in die p-rigting Is and the directional derivative in the p direction Is

I
I Aangesien p ook vanaf P gemeet word, geld dan Since p is also measured from P, we then have

I = 8:8p Ip=o = (i2

I 8;:
8p p
,j'i,j'i
- 12'

I Ona sien inderdaad dat We see that indeed

I 8..I
8z =f. 8;:
8P.·
I
I Probleme
PIi.Ii.1 Bereken die rlgtingsafgeleide van z. = ox + by by
Problems
=
PIi.Ii.1 Calculate the directional derivative of z az +

I (1,2) in die rigting van 'rdyn deur die oorsprong en die

punt (1,2).
by at (1,2) in the direction of a line through the origin
and point (1,2).

I 207

I
1
I' P 5.5.2 Bereken die rigtingsafgeleide van z = 1_",2 + b 2
in die rigtings %, fj en %- fj vir lyne op die "'lI-vlak wat
P5.5.2 Calculate the directional derivative of z = 1 -
z" + b" in the directions %, fj and % - fj for the lines
on the "'11 plane which pass through the point ("'0,110).
deur die punt ("'0,110) gaan.

I 5.5.2 ParsiiHe Dlfferensiasie 5.5.2 Partial differentiation

1 Een spesiale geval van rigtingsafgeleides is baie belan-

grik, naamlik die waar die betrokke rigting sasmval met
One special case of directional derivatives is very im-
portant, i.e. where the relevant direction coincides with
een van die Cartesiese koordinaatrlgtlngs. Beskou one of the Cartesian coordinate directions. Con·

1 'n funksle

1= I(z, 11, z)
sider the function

(5.21)

1 sasm met beperklngs

", = "'(B); 11 = II(B); z = z(.) .

together with the restrictions

(5.22)

1
I
I
1
1 Figuur 5.8

1 Die rigtingsafgeleide van llangs 'n lyn ewewydig aan

by 'n punt ro = "'0% + + zof word verkry deur eers
The directional derivative of I along a line parallel to %
at a point ro = + 1/0% + Zo is obtained by writing
(5.22) eksplisiet neer te skryf aan die hand van Figuur down (5.22) on the basis of Figure 5.8:

I 5.8:

(5.23)
"'="'O+B; 11=110; Z=Zo

1 Vergelyldng (5.21) word dan

I(z, 11. z) = I(zo + '.110, Zo).

Equation (5.21) then becomes

1 en van definisie (5.9) volg (B = 80 = 0 by Po) and it follows from definition (5.9) that (B
Po)
= BO = 0 at

I al lirn 1(80 + Ll8) -/(.0) = lim I(zo + Ll8, I/o, Zo) -/(zo, I/o, Zo)
aB = ·A.... O llB A .... O 68

1 Van (5.23) sien ons egter dat Ll. = Ll"" en dus However, from (5.23) we see that 6. = Ll"" and there-
fore
1 81 lim 1("'0 + 6"" !lo, zo) -/("'0, I/O. zo) 81 (5.24)
a. = A ....O 6", := a",
1 208

I
I
I Hierdie besondere rlgtingsafgelelde staan bekend as 1 se This specific directional derivative Is known as the par-
b
tial derivative of with respect to z. The partial
parsiele afgelelde

:!
z. Die parsii!le afgeleides
derivatives and o! are found in analogous ways by

I en word op analo4l wyses gevind deur (onderakeide-

Ilk) 11 of z as die enlgete veranderllke van 1 te beskou.
considering 11 or % (respectively) as the only variable of
I. It is important to interpret the result (5.24): since 11
Dit Is belangrlk om die resultaat (5.24) te interpreteer:
:1
I
and %maintain the same values in the limit process,
Aangesien 11 en z diese\fde waardes ba.ndhaaf in die \iml-
is obtained by differentiating 1 with respect to z whife
etproses, word verkry deur 1 m. b.t. z te differensleer 11 and %are regarded as constants.
terwyl 11 en % as konstantes beskou word.
I Examples
Voorbeelde
I V5.5.2 Ons bereken die parsiele afgeleides van V5.5.2 We calculate the partial derivatives of

I l=az'+bZl/+Cl/% by/at (Zo,1I0,.to).

Vir word 11 en % as konstant beskou: For 11 and %are regarded as constant:

I
I =2az+bl/+O

I
I Soortgelyk by (zo, 11o, %0) Similarly, at (Zo,1I0,.to)

I = bxo + CZo (z en % is konstant gehou/z and 11 kept constant)

I (z en Ills konstant gehou/z and 11 kept constant)

I Hierdie resultaat kart gekontroleer word deur die drie

rlgtingsafgeleldes uit eerate beginsels te bereken.
This result can be verified by calculating the three di-
rectional derivatives from first principles.

I Probleme Problems
Bereken die parsii!le afge\eides van die onderataande Calculate the partial derivatives of the following func-
I funksies by die aangetoonde punte:
P5.5.S '" = z + 11 + % by (1,1,1)
tions at the indicated points:
PS.5.S '" = z + 11 + % at (1,1,1)
P5.5.4 '" = zll + Z% + Z'II' % by (2, -2, -1) P5.5.4 '" = Zl/ + Z% + ""11'%
at (2, -2, -1)

I P5.5.5 '" = cos(ZIl) + %sin(z%) by (Zo,1I0,%o)

P5.5.6 '" = e" by (Zo,lIo)
PS.5.S '" = COS(ZIl) + %sin(z%) at (zo,1I0,.to)
PS.5.6 '" = e"' at (xo,lIo)

I
I 209

I
I
I 5.5.3 Rlgtingsafgeleides en ParsiiHe Dif-
ferensiasie
5.5.3 Directional Derivatives and Partial
Differentiation

I Die berekenlng van rigtingsaf'geieides kan vereenvoudig

word deur van die eiensi<appe van parsiiiie afgeleides ge-
bruik te maak. Laat fl..p die inkrement wees in die enkel-
The calculation of directional derivatives can be simpli-
fied by using the properties of partial derivativs. Let
fl..p be the increment in the the single-valued function
waardige funksie .p teweeggebring deur 'n verplasing tu
I s
in die rigting, d.w.s. fl.r = fl.si. Van (5.20) het ons
dan vir die rigtingsafgeieide
.p caused by a displacement fl.s in the direction S, i.e.
fl.r = fl.si. From (5.20), we have for the directional
derivative that

I (5.25)

I Uit Figuur 5.9 is dit duideilk dat It is clear from Figure 5.9 that

= fl.r = fl.si = fl.s(Ul + my + ni) ,

I fl.x:2 + fl.yy + fl.d (5.26)

I
I
I
I
Figuur 5.9

I met t, m en 0 die rigtingscosinusse van s en fl."" fl.y en
fl.z die Carteslese komponente van fl.r. Nou word fl..p
I volledig bepaal deur .p(r+fl.r)-.p(r) en is dus onafhank-
ilk van die spesifieke wyse waarop die totale verpiasing
fl.r = fl.BS bewerkstelllg is. Ons kan dus fl.r beskou as
where t, m and 0 are the direction cosines of i and
fl."" fl.y and fl.z are the Cartesian components of fl.r.
Now fl..p is determined completely by .p(r + fl.r) - .p(r)
and therefore is independent from the specific way in
which the total displacement fl.r = fl.si is realised. We

I saamgestel uit drie agtereenvoigende verplasings therefore can regard fl.r as composed of three consecu-
tive displacements

I fl.d = ofl. .... (5.27)

Laat fl..p_ nou die inkrement in .p wees weens die ver- Now let fl..p. be the increment in.p that is caused by the

I plasing fl.",!. Dan, omdat y en z konstant biy tydens

die verplaslng, voig uit definlsie (5.24) vir die parsieie
afgeleide dat
displacement fl.",x. Then, because y and z remain con-
stant during the displacement, it follows from definition
(5.24) for the partial derivative that

I
I Ons lean hierdie verband op 'n meer bruikbare manier We can write this relation in a more useful way as
skryf as

I 210

I
I
I
t:.x = 8t/I
t:.t/!. 8x + E. waar/ where -+ 0 as / if t:.x -+ O.
I
E.

Soortgelyke resultate word verkry vir die verplasings Similar results are obtained from the displacements t:."ii

I t:.1JO en t:.Z£, sodat Olll! die volgende het: and t:.Z£, so that we arrive at the foUowing:

t:.t/!. = : t:.x + E. t:.x ; E. -+ 0 as/if !l.:r; -+ 0

I t:.t/!. = t:." + E.t:." ; E. -+ 0 as/if t:." -+ 0 (5.28)

I t:.t/!. = : t:.z + E.t:.Z ; E. -+ 0 as/if t:.z -+ 0

I Deur opte1iing volg vir die totale inkrement in t/!, The total increment in t/! follows through addition:

I t:.t/! = t:.t/!. + t:.t/!. + t:.t/!.

8t/! 8t/! 8t/! (5.29)
= 8x t:.x + 8" t:." + 8z t:.z + (E.t:.X + E.t:." + E.t:.Z) .
I Van (5.27) kan Olll! die substitusies t:.x = U.s, t:." = From (5.27) we can make the substitutiolll! t:.x =
mt:.s, t:.z = nt:.s mw: It:.s, t:.71 = mt:.s, t:.z = nt:.s:
I (5.30)

I Deei deur t:.. en neem die limiet t:.. -+ 0: Divide by t:.s and take the limit tu -+ 0:

I 8t/! . t:.t/!
- = lim -=-t+-m+-n
88 t:..
8t/!
8x
8t/!
ay
8t/!
8z
(5.31)

I Ons kan dus 'n rigtingsafgeleide direk hereken in terme

van parsiele afgeleides en die rigtingskosinusse van die
We therefore can calculate a directional derivative di-
rectly in terms of partial derivatives and the direction

I rigting 8. cosines of the direction 8.

Voorbeelde Examples
I V5.5.S Olll! bereken die rigtingsafgeieide in V5.5.1 deur
(5.31) toe te pas op die funksie
V5.5.3 We calcuiate the directional derivative in V5.5.1
by applying (5.31) to the function

I
I
Vir die gegewe rigting Is 8 = it :n0 en dus t = m = For the given direction, 8 = it and thus l =
I 1
,fl' n = O. Van (5.31) voig dan
1 1
,fl' m = ,fl' n = O. It foUows from (5.31) that

I 211

I
I
I
I 81/1
88
= .2.. 81/1 + .2.. 81/1 + 0
..;2 8x ..;2 8y

I
I
I en by punt P and at point P

I 81/11
88 (1,0)
= -..;2 ( I, +
a b

I Probleme Problems

I
Bereken die rigtingsafge!eide van Calculate the directional derivative of
P5.5.T '" = xyz + y2 z by (-I, I, -1) in 'n rigting P5.5.T 1/1 = XIIZ+II'z at (-1,1,-1) in a direction
x -0 + z. x -0 + z.
% = x' + 11 + ZI/' = x' +11 +ZI/'
3 3
P5.5.S by (2, -I, 1) in 'n rigting PS.S.S Z at (2,-1,1) in a direction

I x + 20.
P5.5.D % = ax' + by + c by (-1,1) langs die kromme
x + 20.
% = ax'
PS.5.D + by + c at (-1,1) along the curve
r=7a ("x - II") · x
r=7a - II") ·
("

I Twee nuttige newerellultate kan uit (5.29) verkry word. Two useful auxiliary results can be obtained from (5.29).
Ona dee! eerstens die vergelyking deur Firstly, we divide the equation by .

I
I
I Indien nou -t 0, sal van (5.28) bv.
E. -t O. Dan volg
!: -t : indien IT -t 0, then from (5.28) e.g. !: -t : if E. -t O.
It then follows that

I dl/l
-
dB
=81/1
- -dz+81/1
8x dB
-- dll 81/1 dz
+--.
811 dB . 8% ds
(5.32)

I Vergelyking (5.32) is die kettingreel vir differen-

siasie van 'n meerveranderlike funksie I/I(x,II, %).
Equation (5.32) is the chain rule for differentia-
tion ofa multivariable function I/I(x,II,%). Equation
Vergelyklng (5.29) kan ook geskryf word as (5.29) can also be written as

I
= + + + E; 0 as/if 0 , (5.33)
I
E -t -t

I 212

I
I
I waar die substitusies .1z = l.1., .111 = m.1., .121 =
n.1s weer gemaak is. Hierdie vergelyklng sal handig te
where the substitutions az =la., all =ma., 6021 =
na. are made again. This equation will come in handy
pas kom wanneer die begrlp van die van 'n when the concept of the gradient of a function is dis-

I funksie iater ter sprake kom. cussed iater.

I 5.6 GRADIENT 5.6 GRADIENT

Die berekening van rigtingsafgeleides kan verder verge- The calculation of directional derivatives can be further

I maklik word deur invoering van die begrip van die

gradient van 'n skalaarfunksie. Dit is nou bekend dat
facilitated by introducing the concept of the gradient
of a scalar function. We know now that the directional
derivative of a salar function .p in a direction 8 = U +
die rigtingsafgeleide van 'n skalaarfunksie .p in 'n rigting
my + nz can be written as
I • = U + my + nz geskryf kan word as

8tP 8tP 8tP 8tP

I -=-t+-m+-n.
8. 8z 811 821
(5.34)

Indien 'n vektor V.p (of ook geskryf grad .p), genoem IT a vector V.p '(or also written as grad .p), called the
I die gradient van .p, ingevoer word as gradient of.p, is introduced as

M.I. .8.p z.8tP

v,,="'-+II-+ -821 , (5.35)
I 8z By

volg nou uit (5.34) dat it now follows from (5.34) that

I . (5.36)

I Hierdie verband lewer nou 'n vinnige metode om rig- This relation produces a quick method of calculating di·
tingafgeleides te bereken, aangesien V.p eers bepaai rectional derivatives because V.p is first determined and

I word en in enige rigting • direkvolg deur bepaling

van die skalaarproduk.
in any direction • follows directly by determining
the scalar product.

I Let op dat die simbool V (of grad) Note that the symbol V (or grad)

8 .8 .8
I
M ..
gr ad := v :="'-+11-+21- (5.37)
8z By 821

slegs formeel in die bostaande vorm geskryf kan word; can be written oniy formally in the above form; V is
I V kry eers betekenis indien die differensiaaioperator op
'n skalaarfunksle Inwerk om V.p te vorm. V word ook
soms die "del" - of "nabia"-operator genoem.
given significance only if the differential operator is ap-
plied to a scalar function to form V.p. V is sometimes
also called the "del" or "nabla" operator.

I Voorbeelde Examples

I VS.6.l Bereken die rigtingsafgeleide van VS.6.1 Calculate the directional derivative of

.p = ZI/ + 1121 + zz
I by P(l,l,l} in die rigting van 'n Iyn wat P en at P(l,l,l} In the direction of a line that joins P and
Q(2, -1,3} verbind. Q(2, -I,3}.

I 213

I
I
I
I
I
Figuur 5.10
I Oplouing: Ons bereken eerstellB t/J se gradient: Solution: We first calculate the gradient oft/J:

I '=
,8t/J + 11-
x-
8x
,8tjJ + z
8y
,81/1
-
8z

I '= (11 + z)x + (x + z)y + (11 + x)i

OllB konatrueer vervolgens vir. (sien Figuur 5.10): Then we COllBtruct § (see Figure 5.10):

I , J5Q x-20+2£ =-x-

8=--= 1(, 2'y+ 2')
z
1J5Q1 ",1+ 4+ 4 3
I Van (5.36) het ons dan From (5.36) we then have

I -8t/J ,I
& = vt/J· 8 = -3 [(V + z) - 2(x + z)+ 2(V + x)]
1
= -(3V-
3
z)

I en dus and thus

I
I Probleme Problems

I Herhaal die probleme P5.5.T tot P5.5.Y deur gebruik Repeat problems PS.5. T to P5.5.9 by using the gradi,
te maak van die gradient. ent.

I Die vektor V.p het ook ander interessante en nut-

tige eiellBkappe wat in die volgende afdelings ondersoek
word.
The vector V.p has Qther interesting and useful proper,
ties, which will be investigated in the following sectiollB.

I 5.6.1 '\11/1. dr 5.6.1 '\1'I/! • dr

I Indien in verge1yking (5.33) aanvaar word dat die limiet

!:oB -. 0 uiteindelik geneem sal word, kan formeel geskryf
word
If we assume in equation (5.33) that the limit !:oB -+0
will eventually be taken, we can formally write that

I (5.38)

I 214

I
I
I waar dl/l, dx, dll en rk infinltesimale k1ein getalletjies is
wat as differensiale bekend staan. Let op dat die inkre-
where dl/l, dx, d" and dz are infinitesimally small num-
bers, known as differentiate. Note that the .increment
ment dl/l nog steeds afhanklik is van die verhoudings dI/J is still dependent on the relations between the mag-
I tussen die groottes van die infinitesimale inkremente
dB, dll en rk, m.a.w. van die rigting § van
n1tudes of the infinitesimal increments dB, dll and rk,
i.e. of the direction Bof

I Uit die definlsie van VI/I en (5.39) volg direk It follows directly from the definition of VI/I and (5.39)

I that

I
I
en van (5.38) volg dan and then from (5.38)
I VI/I· dr = dl/l . (5.40)

I Hierdie resultaat aa1later dikwels gebruik word en spee!

'n belangrike rol in die studie van potensiele energie.
This result will later be used often, and plays and im-
portant part in the study of potential energy.

I 5.6.2 Meetkundige betekenis van gradient 5.6.2 Geometric meaning of gradient

Ons het in §5.2 geslen dat 'n funksie van die vorm We saw in §5.2 that a function of the form
I z = Z(Z,II)

I grafies voorgestel word deur 'n vlak in die driedimen-

sionele ruimte. In beginsel kan ons, deur a1ie terme in
z, 11 en z aan die linkerkant en konstante terme aan die
I regterkant van die vergelyking te versameI, dit oorskryf
in die vorm
is represented graphically by a surface in three-
dimensional space. In principle, we can rewrite this in
the following form by collecting all the terms in z, 11 and
z on the left of the equation and the constant terms on
the right of the equation:

I I/I(X,II,Z) = c, (5.41)

waar c 'n konstante is. 'n Spesiale gevaJ is die verge- where c is a constant. A special case is equation (5.3);
I Iyking (5.3); dit kan naamlik herrangskik word in die
vorm
i.e. it can be rearranged in the form

I
I Grafies word die vergelyklng (5.41) dan voorgestel deur
'n vlak s008ln Figuur 5.11.
Graphically, equation (5.41) is then represented by a
surface, as in Figure 5.11.

I
I 215

I
I
I
I l

I
I
I
I
I x
Figuur 5.11

I Ons het reeds in (5.40) gesien dat dt/l = Vt/l·dr met natu-
urlik dt/l = t/I(r + dr) - t/I(r). Kies nou soos in Figuur
5.11 dr s6 dat r en r + dr posisievektore van punte op
We saw in (5.40) that dt/l = Vt/I· dr with dt/l = t/I(r +
dr) - t/I(r). As in Figure 5.11, we now choose dr so that
r and r + dr are position vectors of points on the plane

I die vlak t/I = c Is. Weens hierdie keuse van punte le dr

= =
in die vlak t/I c. Verder is dt/l 0 aangesien t/I 'n kon-
stante waarde c het vir alIe punte op die vlak. Vir 'n dr
op die vlak, is dus Vt/I· dr = dt/l = 0 sodat 6£ Vt/I = 0;
I 6f dr = 0 of Vt/lJ.dr. t/I en dr Is egter wUlekeurig, sodat
Vt/lloodreg op die vlak t/I = c moet wees. 'n Normale
eenheidsvektor op die vlak t/I = c word dus verkry deur
t/I = c. Owing to this choice of points, dr lies in the
surface t/I = c. FUrthermore, dt/l = 0 because' t/I has a
constant value c for all the points on the plane. For a dr
on the plane, Vt/I· dr = dt/l = 0 so that either Vt/I = 0,
dr = 0 or Vt/lJ.dr. However, t/I and dr are arbitrary
=
so that Vt/I must be perpendicular to the plane t/I c.
A normal unit vector on the surface t/I = c, is thus

I obtained by calculating

I (5.42)

I
te bereken.

Beskou nou 'n willekeurige rigting 8. Van (5.36) het Now consider an arbitrary direction 8. From (5.36) we
ons dan dat have

I = Vt/I· § = IVt/l1 cos 9 , (5.43)

I met 9 die hoek tussen die normaalll en • (Figuur 5.12). where 9 is the angle between the normal 11 and • (Fig-
Dit is duidelik dat : in (5.43) sy maksimumwaarde ure 5.12). It Is clear that : in (5.43) will achieve Its

I sal bereik as cos9 = 1 en dus 9 = 0, d.w.s. as 11 en

• saamval. Die maksimale rigtingsafgeieide, geskryf as
maximal value if cos 9 = 1 and thus 9 = 0, i.e. if 11 and
• coincide. The maximal directional derivative, written
: ' word dus verkry in 'n rigting normaal op die, vlak: as is therefore obtained in a normal direction to the
I surface: .

I 216

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 5.12

I (5.44)

I 5.6.3 Grootte en Rigting van V'I/J 5.6.3 Magnitude and Direction of V'I/J

I Die gradient V.p soos gedefinieer in (5.35) is k1aarblyklik

'n vektor, en 800S enige ander vektor moet dit beide 'n
The gradient V!/J, as defined in (5.35), obviously is a vec-
tor, and like any other vector it must have both mag-
grootte en 'n rigting besit. Uit §5.6.2 is dit nou dnide- nitude and direction. From §5.6.2 it is now clear that

I terwyl die grootte van V.p gelyk is &an die maksimale

rigtingsafgeleide van .p.
=
lik dat die rigting van V.p loodreg op die vlak !/J c is the direction of V!/J is perpendicular to the surface
!/J = c while the magnitude of V!/J is equal to the max-
Imal directional derivative of!/J.

I 5.6.4 Opsomming van eienskappe van V'I/J 5.6.4 Summary of Properties of V'I/J

I 1. V!/J is 'n vektorfunksie van posisie, bereken uit 'n

skalaarfunksie !/J (x, y, z) as
1. V.p is a vector function of position, calculated
from a scalar function .p(x,y,z) as

I .I. {)!/J • {)!/J • {}!/J •

V ",=-x+-y+-z.
{)x {)y ()z

I 2. Die normaal op 'n vlak .p(r) = c word gegee deur 2. The normal on a surface !/J(r) = c, is given by
I
I
I 3. Die maksimale rigtingsafgeleide van !/J word verkry
in 'n rigting n normaal op .p = c en word gegee
deur
3. The maximal directional derivative of !/J is ob-
tained in a direction n, normal to !/J = c, and
given by

I 217

I
I
I
I
I 4. Die rigtingsafgelelde in 'n rigting 8 is 4. The directional derivative in a direction 8 is

I
I 5. V.p· dr = d.p

Probleme
I PS.6.1 Rereken V.p, die maksimale rigtingsafgeleide en
Problems
PS.6.1 Calculate V.p, the maximal directional deriva-
=
die norm ale eenheidsvektor op die vlakke .p c vir tive and the normal unit vector on the planes .p == e for
I (a) .p = :r;'I/' + :r;z'
(b) .p = r + 1/' + z'. Toon aan dat i' = vir hierdie
(a) .p = rl/' + XZ·
(b) .p = x' + 1/' + Z2. Show that f = In this case.
geval. (c) .p = ax + bl/ + cz. Give a geometric reason for the

I (c) .p = nx + by + cz. Verstrek 'n meetkundige rede vir

die feit dat V.p hier onafhanklik i8 van posisie.
fact that V.p is independent of position here.

81P 8.p
I PS.6.2 l3ereken 88
(a) in die rigting 5: + fj by (1,1,1) vir .p = xl/z + c.
(b) in die rigtlng 25:+0-z by (2,-'1,1) vir.p = X2(I/+Z).
PS.6.2 Calculate os
(a) in the direction 5: + fj at (1,1,1) for .p == Xl/z + c.
=
(b) in the direction 25:+f)-z at (2,-1,1) for.p r(l/+z).
=
I (c) in die rigting 35: + 4fj by (0,1,2) vir .p
sin ""I/Z.
conx + (c) in the direction 35: + 40 at (0,1,2) for .p = COS 1<X +
sin ""I/Z.

PS.6.3l3ereken die hoek tussen die vlekke x+l/+z = c, PS.6.3 Calculate the angle between the planes x + 1/ +
I en - 21/ + Z = co. Z = Cl and - 21/ + Z = c•.

I 5.7INTEGRASIE 5.7 INTEGRATION

5.7.1 Integraal van Skalaarfunksie 5.7.1 Integral of Scalar Function
I Dit word aanvaar dat u reeds uit Wiskunde-kursuBBe It is assumed that you are familiar with the integration
bekend is met die integrasie van enkelveranderlike reele of real Single-variable scalar functions from mathematics

I sk&laarfunksies. Ter wille van voliedigheid, word hier

slegs 'n beknopte uiteensetting van die definisie van 'n
integraal getoon om latere veralgemenings te vergemek-
courses. For completeneBB' sake we shall give a concise
definition of an integral in order to facilitate generalisa-
tions later.
Ilk.
I Die bepaalde integraal van 'n skalaarfunksie /(x) word
verkry deur die gebied tussen die integrasiegrense a
The definite integral of a scalar function I(x) is obtained
by dividing the area between the limits of Integration a
= =
I en b op te deel in N intervalle met lengtes LI.';'n(n
1,2, ... , N) waar elke Ll.xn -t 0 as n -t 00 (sien Figuur
5.13). In elke interval word verder 'n punt Xn gekies
and b into N intervals with lengths Ll.xn(n 1, 2 ... ,N)
where each Ll.x n -t 0 if n -t 00 (see Figure 5.13). In
each interval, we choose a point Xn so that the area ofthe
sodat die area van die byna-reghoek met Ll.xn as ba- near-rectangle with ilx n as basis is given approximately
I sis benaderd gegee word deur I(xn)ilxn. Die bepaalde
integraaJ tussen a en b is dan
by I(xn)ilxn. The definite integral between a and b
then is given by

I 218

I
I
I
I
I ) •- - - - -

I
I Flguur 5.13

I I.
Cl
b
I(x) dx:= Hm
N
L: l(x n ).6.xn ,
N .... CCI n=l
(5.45)

I en gee die oppervlakte begrens deur x = a; x = b; 11 = and is equa.! to the area of the surface bounded by x =
o en11 = I(x). Indien !F(x) = I(x), volg van
d
a; x = b; 11 = 0 and " = I(x). If dx F(x) = I(x), it
I Fundamentele Ste1ling van die Analise foliows from the Fundamenta.! Theorem of Anaiysis that

I [ I(x) dx = F(b) - F(a) . (5.46)

I Verdere detail van integrasietegnieke word as bekend

aanvaar.
It is 88Bumed that you know the basic integration tech·
niques.

I 5.7.2 Lynintegrale van Vektorfunksies 5.7.2 Line Integral of Vector Functions

'n Vektorfunksie a van posisie r A vector function a of position r

I a=a(r) =a(x,II,z) (5.47)

I ken aan tilke punt r in die ruimte 'n vektorwaarde toe.

(Hier word aanvaar dat die funksie a "goed gedefinieer
en kontinu" is vir alie punte onder beskouing; 'n redelike
assigns a vector value to every point r in space. (Here we
assume that the function a is "weli defined and continu·
ous" for a.!i the points under consideration; a reasonable

I aanname vir funksies wat fisiese hoeveelhede voorstel.)

Ons beskou nou in die besonder die waardes a(r) vir
punte
assumption for functions that repr!lSent physica.l quan·
tities.) In particular we now consider the values a(r) for
points

I r = xX + IIY +xZ (5.48)

op 'n kromme r tUBBen twee punte ro en r, (Figuur on a curve r between two points ro and r, (Figure 5.14),
I 5.14), waar r beskryf word deur 'n funksie
r = r(s) = x(s)x + ,,(s)y + z(s)z .
where r is described by a function
(5.49)

I (Ons eis nie hier dat s noodwendig 'n booglengte hoef

te wees nie.)
(We do not necessarily demand that
length here.)
8 should be an arc

I 219

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 5.14

Die kromme r word nou bena.der deur N verplasings The curve r Is now approximated by N dlsplacements

I .6.rn , waar elke l.6.rNI -t 0 as N -t 00. WiUekeurige

punte r n word vervolgens gekies op die segmente van
r wat deur .6.rn benader word. Die lynintegraal van a
.6.rn , where each l.6.rNI -t 0 If N -t 00. Arbitrary
points r n are next chosen on the segments of r that ae
approximated by .6.rn. The line Integral of a along the
l8l1gs die kromme r word dan gedefinieer as die skalaar curve r is then defined as the scalar
I
N

I !r
a· dr:= lim
N-+oo
n=l
a(rn) . .6.rn , (5.50)

I waar die regterkant klaarblyklik van die vorm (5.45)

is. Die berekening van spesifieke lynintegrale word dus
deurgevoer deur hulle tot skaiaarintegrale van die vorm
where the right hand side obviously is of the form (5.45).
The calculation of specific line integrals is thus per-
formed by writing them as scalar integrals of the form

I (5.45) te omskryf, BOOS in die voorbeeld geillustreer

word.
(5.45), as illustrated in the example.

Opmerking: 'n Lynintegraal is in die algemeen Remark: A line integral is path dependent in general.

I padathllDklik.

Voorbeelde Examples
I V5.T.t Bereken die lynintegraal van p = "'X +1/2 0 langs VG.T.1 Calculate the line integral of p = ",x+I/'y along
'n kromme 1/ = ",. op die tussen die punte (1,1) a curve 1/ = ",' on the "'11 plane between points (1,1) and

I en (2,4). (2,4).

Oplouing: Eerstens word die vergelyking van die Solution: Firstly we need the equation of the curve in
I kromme benodlg in die vorm r = r(.). Ons weet

r = """ + I/Y
the form r = r(.). We know that
(a)

I en die kromme word bepaal deur 'n verband 1/ = i'

tussen '" en 1/. Stel 4us (bv.)
and the curve is determined by a relation 1/ = ",. be-
tween '" and 1/. Therefore, we (for example) put

I '" = .; 1/ = ",' = .'; r = .X + .'y . (b)

I 220

I
I
I Die punte ro en r I stem tespektiewelik ooreen met s 1
en s = 2. Aangesien s nou vir r bepaal, word die funksie
= Points ro and r I correspond to s = 1 and s = 2 re-
spectively. Since s now determines r, the function p is
p vir punte op r bepaal deur vervanging van (b) in p: determined for points on r by substituting (b) in p:

I (c)
Verder volg uit (b) It follows from (b) that
I dr • 2"
ds = Z+ SN,

I sodat die differensiaal dt gegee word deur so that the differential dr is given by

I dr = + 2sj)ds . (d)

Die Iynintegraal word nou [met vervanging van (c) en The line integral now becomes [with the substitution of
I (d») (c) and (d»):

I I p·dr =
.=2
I + 0'0) . + 2sjj)ds
r .=1
I •
= I(s + 20")d.
I 1

(-s'
1 + _S6)
1 I'
I
=
2 3 1

= 22.5

I U sal opmerk dat die stryd half gewonne is op die sta-

dium waarop daarin geslaag is om die vektorvergelyking
You will notice that the struggle Is half won when one
succeeds in writing down the vector equation for the

I
vir die kromme neer te skryf. curve.

Probleme Problems
I P5.7.1 Bereken fra.dr met a =
rwat
vir die baan P 5.7.1 Calculate fr a . dr with a = z· + cyj} for the
path r, which is

I (a) 'n reguit Iyn van (2,1) na (3,3) is.

(b) 'n reguit Iyn van (2,1) na (3,1) gevolg deur 'n reguit
Iyn van (3,1) na (3,3) is.
Wat merk u op?
I P5.7.2 Toon aan dat die Iynintegraal van enige kon-
stante vektor langs enille kromme slegs afhang van die
(a) a straight line from (2,1) to (3,3).
(b) a straight line from (2,1) to (3,1), followed by a
straight line from (3,1) to (3,3).
What do you observe?
P5.7.2 Show that the line integral of any constant vec-
tor along any curve depends only on the initial and end

I begin- en eindpunte van die baan.

P5.7.3 Bereken fr F· dr met F = zO) waar r 'n

points of the path.

P5.7.3 Calculate fr F· dr with F = + zj}) where

kwartsirkel van straal r is van die positiewe Z-aB na die r is a quarter of a circle of radius r from the positive z
I positiewe lI-aB. to the positive 11 axis.

I 221

I
I
I 5.7.3 Die integraal fr vt/l· dr 5.7.3 The integral fr Vt/l· dr
Beskou die IntegraaJ Consider the integral

I
(5.51)
I langs 'n krOlnme r t\l8sen twee punte r A en rB. Met along a curve r between two points r A and r B. With
= the help of result (5.40), i.e. Vt/J· dr = dt/J, It follows
I
behulp van die resultaat (5.40», nI. Vt/J· dr dt/J, volg
that

I l Vt/J· dr =
'A
J'.dt/J = t/J(rB) - t/J(rA) , (5.52)

I 'n resultaat wat volledig bepaaJ word deur die

koordlnate VIUl A en B en geensins van die vorm van
a result that is completely determined by the coordi-
nates of A and B, and not at all dependent on path rl
die baan r afhank11k is niel 'n Lynlntegraal (5.51) is
I d\l8 onafhanklik van die integrasiepad vir enige vektor
q wat van die vorm q = V t/J is.
A line integral (5.51) is thus independent of the integra-
tion path for any vector q of the form q = Vt/J.

I
I r

I
I
I
x
I
Flguur 5.15
I Vervolgens word (5.51) beskou langs enige geslote baan We now consider (5.51) along any closed path r (Figure
r
I (Figuur 5.15) en soos volg bereken: 5.15) and calculate It as follows:

i Vt/J· dr = f dt/J = t/J(rp) - t/J(rp) = 0 (5.53)

I Die kringetjie op die integraalteken dui integrasie iangs
'n geslote kromme san, en die Integrasieproses begin en
I eindlg by dieselfde punt P. Die resultaat (5.53) hang
k\aarblyklik nie van die vorm van r af nie, sodat sonder
dubbelsinnlgheid geatel kan word dat
I 222
The circle on the integral symbol Indicates integration
along a closed orbit, and the integration process begins
and ends at the same point P. Result (5.53) obviously
does not depend on the form of r so that we can state
unambiguO\l8ly that

I
I
I
f Vt/l· dr = 0 , (5.54)
I r.
aangesien hlerdie resultaat vir alle geslote krommes r since this result applies to all closed curves

I geld.

Indien 'n vektorveld a bestaan 80dat

.

If a vector field a exists such that

I ta.dr=O vr (5.55)

I word gesl! dat die slrkulasle van a nulla. Ult die vooraf- we 88y that the circulation of a Is zero. Therefore, It
gaande bespreking volg dus dat Vt/lse sirkuJasle nulla. follows from the above discussion that the circulation of

I Die teengestelde bewerlng ksn ook bewys word, naamlik:

Indiell die sirkulasie van 'n vektorveld a nulla, bestaan
daar 'n skalaarfunksle t/I 80dat a = Vt/J. Hlerdie resul-
tate sal o.a. toegepas word by die studle van potensii!1e
I energ!e en konserwatiewe kragvelde.
Vt/l1a zero. We can also prove the opposite, I.e.: if the
circulation of a vector field a is zero, a scalar function
t/I exists such that a = Vt/J. This result will be applied
In the study of potential energy and conservative force
fields.

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 223

I
I
I HOOFSTUK 6 CHAPTER 6
I ARBEID EN ENERGIE WORK AND ENERGY

I 6.1 INLEIDING 6.1 INTRODUCTION

In hierdie hoofstuk word op formele wyse 'n algemene In this chapter we obtain a general first integral for N2

I eerste integraal van N2 verkry. Twee begrippe wat

van fundamentele beJang in die dinamika is, nl. arbeid
en energie, word op die wyse verkry. Ons sal sien dat
in a formal way. Two concepts of fundamental impor-
tance in dynamics, i.e. work and energy, are obtained
in this way. We shall see that the reformulation,oJ N2

I
die herformulering van N2 wat verkry word ons in st ....t obtained in this way will enable us to solve a number of
stel om 'n groot aantal probleme op 'n eenvoudige wyse problems simply.
op te los.

I 6.2 ARBElD 6.2 WORK

I
I
I
I o
I Figuur 6.1

I Beskou 'n mas.apunt wat 'n klein verplasing Llr, on-

dergaan onder die invloed van 'n krag F (Figuur 6.1).
Dan word die arbeid deur F verrig tydens die verpl....
I sing Llr, gedefillieer as die produk van F se komponent
in die bewegingsrigting met die grootte van die deeltjie
se verplasing, d.w.s.
Consider a particle that undergoes a small displacement
Llr, under the influence of a force F (Figure 6.1). Then
the work done by F during the displacement Llr, is de-
fined as the product of F's component in the direction
of motion with the magnitude of the particle's displace-
ment, i.e.

I LlW =(F cos O)ILlrd = F· Llr, . (6.1)

I Aangesien beide F en cos 9 in die a!gemeen kan verander

oor 'n eindige sfstand, het definisie (6.1) net sin in die
limiet Llr, -> O. As ons 'n deeltjie beskou wat soos in
Figuur .6.1 langs die b ....n r van A no. B onder F se
I invloed beweeg, sal die som
Since both F and cos 9 can vary in general over a finite
distance, definition (6.1) makes sense only in the limit
ar, -> o. If we consider a particle that moves, as in
Figure 6.1, along the path r from A to B under the
influence of F, the sum

I N
L F(r,) . ar,
i=l

I 224

I
I
I dus 'n benadering wees van die arbeid wat langs r
verrig word. Hierdie benadering kan nou eksak gemaak
word deur N --.. 00 op s6 'n wyse dat elke .6.ri - 0,
will therefore be an approximation of the work done
along r. This approximation can now be made exact by
letting N --> 00 in such a way that each ...:. 0, i.e.
d.w.s.
I N

I W = n_oo£...J
Jim '\"' F(r,) .
i=l

I Hierdie is egter net die definisie van 'n lynintegraal

[sien (5.50)]. d.w.s.
However, this is only the definition of a line integral
[see (5.50)]. i.e.
(6.2)

I Dimensies: Indien F in Newton en afstande in me- Dimensions: If F is measured in Newton and distance

I ter gemeet word, is die eenhede van W vanuit definisie

N m, wat Joule, afgekort as J, genoem word.
in metres, the unit of W which from definition is N m,
is called the Joule, abbreviated as J.

I Voorbeelde
V6.2.1 Beroken die arbeid wat verrig word deur 'n kon-
Examples

V6.2.1 Calculate the work done by a constant force F

stante krag F wat 'n deeltjie deur 'n afstand • langs die
I
that displaces a particle over a distance • along the x
x-as verplaas. axis.
Oplossing: Solution:

I
I
I
0
I I
"x,
Lr cl./'·
Figuur 6.2
"Xo'" S
,
Jt

I Vir punte op die x-as geld r

(Figuur 6.2). Dan volg
= xi: en dus dr = zdx For points on the x axis, r = xi and dr = id. (Figure
6.2). It then follows that

I (6.3)

met F. die konstante x-komponent van F. Die arbeid
I verrig volg deur (6.3) in die definisie (6.2) te vervang en
te integreer:
where F. is the constant x component of F. The work
done follows by substituting (6.3) in definition (6.2) and
integrating it:

I W = J F . dr =
£'0+'
J F. dx = F.

I r "

Dus volg Therefore, it follows that

I W= F.s. (6.4)

I 225

I
I
I Die arbeid verrig deur 'n konstante krag word dus gegee
deur die komponent van die krag in die verplasingsrig-
ting vcrmenigvuldig met die totale verplasing, mits die
The ·work done by a constant force is therefore given
by the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement, multiplied by the total displacement, pre>-

I verplasing langs 'n reguit Iyn gemaak is. Let op dat 'n
krag wat loodreg op die baan is (sodat F . dr = 0) dus
geen arbeid verrig nie.
vided that the displacement occurs along a straight line.
Note that a force that is perpendicular to the path (so
that F . dr = 0) does not do any work.

I V6.2.2 Bereken die arbeid wat deur 'n konstante krag

F verrig word tUBsen twee punte met posisievektore ro
V6.2.2 Calculate the work done by a constant force F
between two points with position vectors ro and rI'

I en rJ.

Oplossing: Solution:

I r

I
I
I Van definisie (6.2) volg
Figuur 6.3
It follows from definition (6.2) that

I (F konstant/ constant) .

I Dus (Figuur 6.3) Hence (Figure 6.3)

w= F·llr, (6.5)
I waar llr = r, - ro onatbanklik van f is. where llr =r, =ro is independent of f.
I V6.2.3 'n Krag F = az,o + bzyfj (a en b konstant) ver-
plaas 'n deeltjie langs 'n reguit lyn van die oorsprong
V6.2.3 A force F = az,o + b"yfj (a and b constant) dis-
places a particle along a straight line from the origin to
tot by 'n punt r, =
2,0 + fj. Bereken die arbeid verrig a point r,= 2,0 + fj. Calculate the work done by F.
I deur F.
Oplossing: In hierdie geval is F klaarblyklik posisie- Solution: In this case, F obviously i. position-dependent

I afhanklik, en ons moet die lynintegraal and we must calculate the line integral

(a)
I eksplisiet bereken. explicitly.

I Van Figuur 6.4 is die baan van die deeltjie 'n reguit lyn
gegee deur
From Figure 6.4, the path of the particle is a straight
line given by

I 1
y= -z.
2
(b)

I 226

I
I
I
I
I
o
I x.
Figuur 6.4

I
Die posisievektor van 'n punt op die lyn word dus gegee The position vector of a point on the line is thus given

I deur

1
by

r = ,,,. + yy = "., + -"fi = re,,) .

I Die differensiaal van r is dan
2

Hence, the differential of r is

I dr = ;: d" = (., + d" . (c)

I Die krag F word natuurlik in (a) slegs by punte op r In (a), force F is obviously calculated only for points on
bereken, d.w.s. waar die verband (b) geld. Ons kan dus r, i.e. where the relation (b) holds. Therefore, on r we

I op r die verband (b) in die uitdrukking vir F stel en

verkry dan
can substitute the relation (b) in the equation for F and
obtain

I (d)

I As ons (c) en (d) in (a) stel, het ons dan If we substitute (c) and (d) in (a), we then have

I w = 1r (a"H . (x+ d"

I = 10' (a" + ) d"

I
[
= 2a" + 12 b"
1 , I 8
]I'
0

I 2
= 2a + 3b.

I
I 227

I
I
I Probleme Problems
P6.2.1 Bereken die arbeid verrig deur gravitasie en die P6.2.1 Calculate the work done by gravitation and the

I wrywingskrag indien 'n blok van massa m (Figuur 6.5)

(a) van A na B en
(b) van B na A beweeg.
frictional force if a block of mass m (Figure 6.5) moves
(a) from A to B, and
(b) from B to A.

I A
I
I
I Figuur 6.5

I P6.2.2 'n Krag F = V:i:+ 5y werk in op 'n liggaam.

Bereken die arbeid verrig in 'n verplasing van (-5,0)
tot (5,0) langs die volgende twee bane:
I (a) 'n Reguit lyn tussen die punte.
(b) 'n Reguit Iyn van (-5,0) tot (0,5) gevolg deur 'n
reguit Iyn tot (5,0).
I P6.2.3'n Krag Q = c(Vi:-3",y) (c konstant)2werk 2in op
'n deeltjie wat langs 'n boog van die ellips :' + =1
I beweeg vanaf(a,O) tot (0, b). Bereken die arbeid verrig
in hierdie verplasing.
=
P6.2.2 A force F yi + 5y is exerted on a body. Cal-
culate the work done in a displacement from (-5,0) to
(5,0) along the following two paths:
(a) A straight line between the points.
(b) A straight line from (-5,0) to (0,5), followed by a
straight line to (5,0).
P6.2.3 A force Q = c(yi: - 3",V) (c constant) is ex-
erted on a particle that moves along an arc of the ellipse
.,' y"
a' + b2 = I from (a,O) to (0, b). Calculate the work
done in this displacement.

I P6.2.4 Bereken die arbeid verrig deur F

.,2 y'iJ) =
(or konstant) langs 'n baan y m",2
die punte (1,2) en (2,5).
= "("'Vi +
+ e tuasen (Oi constant) along a path y
(1,2) and (2,5).
=
P6.2.4 Calculate the work done by F or(.,yi+.,'y'V)
= m.,'
+ c between points

I
6.3 KINETIESE ENERGIE EN 6.3 KINETIC ENERGY AND
I DIE ARBEIDS-ENERGIE BE- THE PRINCIPLE OF WORK
GINS EL AND ENERGY
I
Beskou N2 in die vorm Consider N2 in the form

I dv
F=m- (6.6)
dt
I en bereken die arbeid verrig deur F, die resultante krag and calculate the work done by F, the resultant force
op rn, in 'n verplasing van ro na r J langs die baan r: on rn, in a displacement from ro to rJ along the path r:
I
I 228

I
I
I In die algemeen geld dat r = r(t), sodat dr =
Dus volg
dt. In general,
that
r= r(t) so that dr = : dt. It then follows

I
W = (F.drdt
Jr
I dt

I
=
1 r
dv
m-·vdt
dt

Nou weet ons van die differensiasiereel (3.15) dat Now, we know from the differentiation rule (3.15) that

I d dv dv dv
-(v.v) = -·v+v· - = 2 v · -
dt dt dt dt'
I en dUB and hence

I W = '12 m J{d
r
1 {
dt (v. v) dt = '2 m J d(1I2) .
r

I Aangesien hierdie integraal nie meer inligting bevat oor

die spesifieke pad tussen ro en r, nie, kan ons die inte-
Since this integral does not contain any information
about the specific path between ro and r" we can cal-
graal direk bereken: culate the integral directly:
I
1 2 IV/
I W= _mv
2 v,
J

waar Vo en v, respektiewelik die snelhede by ro en r, where Vo and v, are the velocities at ro and r, respec-
I is. Dus volg tively. Thus, it follows that

I (6.7)

Die hoeveelheid !m1l'speel 'n belangrike rol in die The quantity !m1l 2 plays an important role in mechan-

I meganika en word die kinetiese energie, T, genoem: ics and is referred to as the kinetic energy, T:

IT = i mv2 = !mv .v I
I (6.8)

Dimensies: T het die eenhede van arbeid uit (6.7) Dimensions: T has the units of work from (6.7), i.e.

I naam1ik Joule, soos ook gekontroleer kan word deur

(massa) x (snelheid)2 se eenhede uit te skryf.
Joules, as can be verified by writing out the units of
(mass) x (velocity)2.

I
Vergelyking (6.7) 'is 'n baie belangrike herfomulering van
N2, nl. die Arbeids-energie beginsel, wat soos volg
lui: Die arbeid verrig deur die krag op 'n deeltjie
is gelyk aan die verandering in sy kinetiese en-
I ergie. Dus
Equation (6.7) is a very important reformulation of N2,
i.e. the Principle of Work and Energy, which reads
as follows: the work done by a force on a particle
is equal to the change in its kinetic energy. Thus

I 229

I
I
I (6.9)

I Dit moet beklemtoon word dat (6.9) die resultaat is van

die eerste integrasie van N2, en dat hierdie resultaat
We must emphasise that (6.9) is the result of the first
integration of N2 and that this result is true for all
wa8l'is vir alle kragte. Natuurlik moet vir 'n spesifieke forces. Obviously, we must calculate the line integral

I krag F die Iynintegraal (6.2) bereken word. Daar is egter

'n verskeidenheid van kragvelde waarvoor ons vir enige
gegewe baan die integraal kan bereken in 'n vorm wat
(6.2) for a specific force F. However, there is a large
number of force fields for which we can calculate the
integral for any given path in a form that is generally
daarna algemene toepassing het. applicable thereafter.
I
Voorbeelde Examples
I V6.3.1 Bereken die spoed v van 'n projektiel as funksie
van sy hoogte indien die beginspoed Vo is. (Lugweer-
V6.3.1 Calculate the speed v of a projectile as a func-
tion of its height if the initial speed is Vo. (Air resistance
stand word verwaarloos.) can be ignored.)
I Oplossing: Solution:

I
I
I o
I Van (6.9) het ons
Figuur 6.6

From (6.9), we have

I W
1 2
= -mv -
1 2
-mvo
2 2

I en dUB and thus

I 2
m
(6.10)

I waar W die arbeid verrig is deur die krag mg op m vanaf

lansering totdat die hoogte h en spoed v bereik is. Die
arbeid verrig deur gravitasie is (Figuur 6.6)
where W is the work done by the force mg on m from
the launch until height h and speed v are attained. The
work done by gravity is (Figure 6.6)

I W = Ir( -mgy) . dr

I = (-mgy). Irdr
= -mgy·r,
I en dus and hence

I 230

I
I
I Vervanging van (6.11) in (6.10) lewer
W=-mgh. (6.11)
Substitution of (6.11) in (6.10) yields

I v= - 2gh . (6.12)

I U kan hierdie resultaat kontroleer uit die vorige resul-

tate vir projektielbeweging sonder lugweerstand en so-
You can verify this result from previous results for pro-
jectile movement without air resistance; it is obvious

I doende sien hoeveel vinniger die arbeids-energiebeginsel

tot (6.12) lei.
that the Principle of Work and energy yields (6.12) much
faster.

I Probleme
P6.3.1 Toon aan dat (6.10) vir 'n konstante krag en
Problems
P6.3.1 Show that (6.10) for a constant force and move-

I beweging in een dimensie reduseer tot die kinematiese

verb and .v' = + 2as.
ment in one dimension reduces to the kinematic relation
v2 = + 2as.
P6.3.2 Die wrywingskoeffisient tussen die bande van 'n 6.3.2 The coefficient of friction between the tyres of

I remmende motor en die pad is 1'. Bereken in watter

afstand die motor vanaf 'n spoed VD tot rus sal kom op
(a) 'n gelyk pad en (b) teen 'n helling van O. .
a braking car and the road is 1'. Calculate in what
distance the car will stop from a speed of
level road, and (b) on a an incline of O.
VD on (a) a

I P6.3.3 'n Kraal gly lang. 'n gladde ring vanaf A na B

(Figuur 6.7). Bereken die spoed by B indien die begin-
6.3.3 A bead slides along a smooth ring from A to B
(Figure 6.7). Calculate the speed at B if the initial speed
spoed VD was. was vo.

I
A
I
I
I Figuur 6.7

I P6.3.4 Die krag uitgeoefen deur die veer op m is kx, 6.3.4 The force exerted on m by the spring is kx, where
waar x die verlenging vanaf die vrye lengte van die veer x is the extension from the natural length of the spring

I is (Figuur 6.8). Bereken die spoed van m indien dit uit

=
rus begin beweeg vanaf x XI tot", o. =
(Figure 6.8). Calculate the speed of m if it begins to
move from a state of rest at x= 2:1 to :t = O.

I
I
"'11"" ;';1"'"

I Figuur 6.8

I 231

I
I
I P6.3.S 'n Massa m gly 'n a£Stand • teen die hellende
vlak (wrywingskoeffisient J.I) waarna dit deur die veer
vertraag word (Figuur 6.9).
(a) Bepaal die maksimum-samedrukking van die veer.
6.3.5 A mass m slides a distance. along the inclined
plane (friction coefficient J.I) after which it is retarded
by the spring (Figure 6.9)
(a) Calculate the maximum compression of the spring.

I (b) Sal m weer opwaarts beweeg? (b) Will m move upwards again?

I r

I
I
I Figuur 6.9

I 6.3.6 'n Seuntjie (massa m) gly sander wrywing langs

'n hernisferiese stuk ys af (Figuur 6.10). Bepaal die punt
6.3.6 A boy (mass m) slides without friction on a hemi-
spherical piece of ice (Figure 6.10). Find the point where

I
waar hy nie meer kontak met die ye sal behou nie indien he will no longer maintain contact with the ice if he be-
hy op 'n maksimum hoogte R (gelykstaande aan die gins to move at a maximum height R (equal to the radius
str",,1 van die hemisfeer) begin beweeg. of the hernisphere).

I
I
I
I Figuur 6.10

I ..
6.4 POTENSIELE ENERGIE 6.4 POTENTIAL ENERGY
I Die arbeid deur 'n krag verrig is in §6.3 gedefinieer as
'n lynintegraal. Nou weet ons reeds uit hoofstuk 4 dat
The work done by a force was defined in §6.3 as a line
integral. Now know from Chapter 4 that line integrals
Iynintegrale in die algemeen baanafhanklik is, en moet are path-dependent in general, so in calculating work
I ons inderdaad by die berekening van arbeid in die alge-
meen baie spesifiek wees oar die baan waarlangs
in general, we must be very specific about the path
along which we integrate. However, we saw in §5.7.3
qns integreer. Ons het egter in §5.7.3 gesien dat daar that there is a set of vector functions for which the line

I 'n versameling van vektorfunksies is waarvan die Iynin-

tegraal tussen twee punte wel padonafhanklik is, en wel
funksies q wat kan word in die vorm
integral between two points is path-independent, namely
functions q which can be written in the form

I q = 'V1j!.

I 232

I
I
I 6.4.1 Konserwatiewe Kragte
'n Kragveld F(r) word konserwatief genoem indien
6.4.1 Conservative Forces
A force field F(r) is called conservative if there is a
daar 'n skalaarfunksie .p(r) bestaan Bodat scalar function .p(r) such that
I F = V.p. (6.13)

I Die arbeid wat langB baan r tUBBen punte PI en P2 verrig

word deur F word dan gegee deur
The work done by F along path
and P2 is then given by
r between points PI

I W=[v.p.dr.

I Van (5.40) kan onB dit omskryf as From (5.40), we can rewrite it as

I
I 'n skalaarintegraal wat nou nie rneer padathanklik is nie,
en dUB
a Bcalar integral that iB no longer path-dependent, and
therefore

I (6.14)

I 'n Ander manier om (6.13) te stel, is om die lyntegraal

langs 'n geBlote kromme te bereken:
Another way of stating (6.13) iB to calculate the line
integral along a cloBed curve:

I (6.15)

I OnB kan aantoon dat (6.13) tot (6.15) ekwivalent aan

memr (enige een van die drie impliseer m.a.w. die
ander twee).
We can show that (6.13) to (6.15) are equivalent (in
other words, anyone of the three implies the other two).

I Konserwatiewe kragte is dUB padonafhanklik (6.14) en

ook sirkulasieloos (6.15). Indien onB 'n gegewe kragveld
vir konserwatisme wil ondersoek, is (6.13) die maklikste
Conservative forces therefore are path-independent
(6.14) and have no circulation (6.15). If we want to
investigate a given force field for conservatism, (6.13) is

I vereiste om voor te toets. [As ons bv. (6.15) wil toets,

moet ons dit vir alle geslote bane doen.)
the easiest requirement to verify. [If we want to verify
(6.15), for instance, we must do it for all closed paths.]

I Voorbeelde

V6.4.1 Bepaal watter van die volgende kragvelde kon-

Examples

V6A.l Determine which of the following force fields are

I serwatief is:
(a) F = yi + (:>: + z)y + yi
(b) F = yzi + :>:zif + yi
conservative:
(a) F = y:i:+(:>:+z)y+yz
=
(b) F yzi + :>:zif+ yi

I Oplossing: (a) Indien F konserwatief is, moet.p bestaan

. sodat .
Solution: (a) If F is conservative, ,p must exist such that

V.p = F
I 6f or

I 233

I
I
I
I Ons moet dus 1/J kan vind sodat We must, therefore, be able to find 1/J such that

I a1/J
ax =v;
a1/J
ay = x + z;
a1/J
az = v· (i)

I Ons integreer die eerste vergelyking in (i) m.b.t. x; om-

dat daar 'n pars;;ile afgeleide in voorkom moet ons in
We integrate the first equation in (i) with respect to x;
because there is a partial derivative, we must keep yand

I die proses vir V en z konstant hou:

1/J = Vx + h(v,z)
z constant in the process:

(ii)

I Omdat ane terme in y en z weg differensieer as ons

Because all terms in V and z are differentiated away if

bereken, kan ons soos in (ii) altyd enige funksie in y en we calculate we can - as in (ii) - always add any

I z by 1/J voeg. Ons integreer die ander twee vergelykings

in (i) op _oortgelyke wyse:
function in y and z to 1/J. We integrate the other two
equations in (i) in a similar way:

I 1/J = (x + z)y + h(x, z)

1/J = yz + 13(x, y)
(iii)
(iv)

I Vergelykings (ii) - (iv) bevat nou drie uitdrukkings vir

dieselfde funk_ie; ons moet du_ h, h en Is s6 kan kies
dat 1/J eenduidig bepaal is. Deur inspeksie sien ons dat
I die volgende keuse moontlik is:
Equations (ii) to (iv) now contain three equations for
the same function; we must therefore be able to choose
h,/" and I. so that 1/J is determined uniquely. From
inspection we see that the following choice is possible:

h(v,z) =VZ; I,(x,z) =0; Is(x,y) =xv.

I Dan volg It follows that

1/J=xy+yz,
I en F is konserwatief. and F is conservative.

I (b) Indien F konserwatief is, moet 1/J bestaan sodat (b) If F is conservative, ,p must exist such that

I a,p. a,p.
ax x + ay y + 7h z
iN .
= yz-x• ••
+ xzy + yz

I en dus and thus

a,p a,p 8,p

I ax = yZ; -8y =. z;z·, -=y
8z
(v)

I Ons integreer (v) op dieselfde wyse as (i): We integrate (v) in the same way as (i):

(vi)

I 234

I
I
I ,p = rtVZ + g2(rt, Z)
,p =VZ + 93(rt, v)
(vii)
(viii)

I Ons sien onmiddellik in dat daar geen keuse van 9" g2

en g3 bestaan om ,p eenduidig te definieer nie, en F is
nie konserwatief nie.
We see immediately that there is no choice of 9" g2 and
,p uniquely, and F is not conservative.
93 to define

I Probleme Problems

I P6.4.1 Stel vas watter van die volgende kragvelde kon-

serwatief is:
P6.4.1 Establish which of the following force fields are
conservative:

I (a)
(b)
F = (V' - 2rtyz8)i + (a + 2xv - rt 2Z8)y + (6z 3 - art'yz')z
=
F (rt 2y _ z8)i + (artyz + u 2)y + (2rt 2yz + VZ4)£
= (art 2 + 2y + 4);' + (2rt - 3y2 - 2y)y
I
(c) F
(d) =
F 2rty2z i + 2rt 2yzy+ ,,2y2£

I P6.4.2 Vind die waardes van die konstantes a, b en c

waarvoor
P6.4.2 Calculate the values of the constants a, band c
for which the following force field is conservative:
F = (" + 2y + az)i + (bx - aV - z)1i + (4" + cy + 2z)£
I konserwatief is.

6.4.2 PotensiiHe Energie 6.4.2 Potential Energy

I
I p

F
I
I
I o
Figuur 6.11

I Beskou In deeltjie onderhewig aan 'n konserwatiewe Consider a particle, subject to a conservative force F,

I krag F wat verplaas word vanaf 'n vaste verwys ..

ingspunt Po tot by die punt P (Figuur 6.11). Aan-
gesien F konserwatief is, sal die arbeicl wat clit verrig,
which is displaced from a fixed reference point Po to
P (Figure 6.11). Since F is conservative, the work that
it does will be independent of the path that is followed
ona.fhanklik wees van die pad wat gevolg word tussen Po between Po and P, and the function
I en P, en is die funksie

I VCr) := _ {r F. dr
Jr.
(6.16)

I 235

I
I
I dus enkelwaardig. Hierdie funksie het klaarblyklik
dieselfde dimensies as arbeid of energie en word die
potensiele energie van die deeltjie t.o.v. die verwys-
ingspunt Po genoem.
I Omdat F konserwatiefis, kan ons verder (6.13) in (6.16)
ste!:
will be single valued. This function obviously has the
same dimensions as work or energy and is called the
potential energy of the particle with respect to the
reference point Po.
Because F is conservative, we can substitute (6.13) in
(6.16):

I
V(r) = _ [r Vt/! . dr
Jro
I
= _ fr dt/!
I =
Jr ,
t/!(ro) - t/!(r).

I Dan volg It follows that

VV=-Vt/!

I en (6.13) kan oorgeskryf word as and (6.13) can be rewritten as

(6.17)

I Vergelyking (6.16) en (6.17) is klaarblyklik mekaar se Equation (6.16) and (6.17) obviously are the inverse of
inverses. each other.
I Voorbeelde Examples

I V6.4.2 Bereken die potensiele energie van 'n deeltjie

naby die aardoppervlak a.g.v. die aarde se gravi-
tasieveld.
I Oplo.sing: Ons weet reeds van V6.3.1 dat aangesien
ons die aarde se gravitasieveld naby die aardoppervlak
as konstant kan beskou, is die arbeid daardeur verrig
I padonafuanklik en is die gravitasieveld dus konserwatief.
Dan volg uit Figuur 6.12 vir die potensiele energie by P
V6.4.2 Calculate the potential energy of a particle close
to the surface of the earth due to the earth's gravity
field.
Solution: We know from V6.3.1 that since we can re-
gard the earth's gravity field close to the surface of
the earth as constant, the work done by it is path-
independent and the gravity field thus is conservative.
It follows from Figure 6.12 for the potential energy at
P that

I
I v = - J,P mg( -li) . dr
Po

I = mg J,P dy
Po
=
I en dus
mg(y - Yo)

and thus

I V= mgh, (6.18)

I 236

I
I
I
I ----r--- ------ p

h
I --_J_- po
I o
I Figuur 6.12

I waar h die hoogte van P bokant die verwysingspunt Po

is.
where h is the height of P above the reference point Po.

I 6F OR

I Ons kan ook vir F

sodanig dat
= -mgy aanvaar dat V bestaan We can also assume that for F
that
= -mgy, V exists such
F = -V'V.
I Dan Then

I iiV
a:<
=0; V= My, z)

I iiV
- ay = -mg; V= mgy+h(:<,z)

I av
-rh =0; V = h(:<, y)

I Hierdie uitdrukkings vir V is identies as ons die keuse These expressions for V are identical for the choice

h =0; It =f. = mgy

I mw. Dan volg We then have

V = mgy+c.
I V6.4.3 Bereken die potensHae energie van 'n veer met V6.4.3 Calculate the potential energy of a spring with

I veerkonstante k.
Oplossing: Ons aanvaar voorlopig dat die veerkrag kon-
serwatief is en dat ons dUB 'n potensiele energie V kan
stiffness k.
Solution: We assume provisionaily that the spring force
is conservative and that we can thus calculate a poten-

I bereken. Ons kan daarna vasstel of V inderdaad (6.17)

bevredig. .
tial energy V. We can then.later establish whether V·
satisfies (6.17).

I 237

I
I
I
I
I
Figuur 6.13

I Omdat die krag in die veer altyd gerig is langs die veer
se lengte (Figuur 6.13), sal in enige beweging loodreg
I op die veer geen arbeid verrig word nie (F J. dr). Ons
hoef dus slegs 'n reglynige baan, se in die ",.rigting, te
beakou. As ons die natuurlike lengte van die veer as
Because the force in the spring is always directed along
the length of the spring (Figure 6.13), no work will be
done in any movement perpendicular to the spring (F J.
dr). Therefore, we only need to consider a straight path,
i.e. in the '" direction. If we use the natural length of

I verwysingspunt gebruik, het ons dan the spring a reference point, we have

I v = - [p F· dr
Jp,

I = - 1." kr(-:i:)· :i:dr

I = k 1" rdr

I en dUB and thus

I (6.19)

I waar '" die deformasie van die veer uit sy natuurlike

lengte is. Ons stel vas of F konserwatief is:
where", is the deformation of the spring from its natural
length. We establish whether F is conservative:

I -V'V = -:i!. (!b 2 )

8", 2
= kz(-:i) = F

I F en V bevredig dus (6.17) en F is inderdaad konser·

watief.
F and V satisfy (6.17) so that F indeed is conservative.

I Probleme
P6.4.3 Vind die potensiele energie van 'n deeltjie wat
I in die aarde se gravitasieveld beweeg tot op hoogtes wat
in dieselfde orde is as die van die aarde se straal.
Problems
P6.4.3 Calculate the potential energy of a particle that
moves in the earth's gravitational field up to heights in
the order of that of the earth's radius. .

I
I 238

I
I
I 6.5 BEHOUD
NIESE ENERGIE
VAN MEGA- 6.5 CONSERVATION OF ME-
CHANICAL ENERGY
I Beskou 'n deeltjie wat Van Pl na P2 beweeg onder die Consider a particle that moves from P, to p. under
invloed van die konserwatiewe krag F (Figuur 6.14). the influence of the conservative force F (Figure 6.14).

I Laat Po die verwysingspunt wees ten opsigte waarvan

die potensiiHe energie gemeet word.
Let Po be the reference point with respect to which the
potential energy is measured.

I
I
I
I Figuur 6.14

I Van die arbeids-energie beginsel (6.9) geld 'nou dat From the Principle of Work and Energy (6.9), it follows
that

I waar W12 die arbeid is wat verrig word vanaf r, tot r2.
Van (6.2) volg dan .
where W12 is the work done from r, to r2. From (6.2)
we then' have

I
I
= 1 r
1 , F . dr +
r
, F . dr
I rl ro

r
= - 1, + 1r,
I ro
F . dr
ro
F . dr,

I waar ons in die tweede stap gebruik gemaak het van feit
dat F konserwatief is. Van definisie (6.16) volg dan
where we use - in the second step - the fact the F is
conservative. It follows then from definition (6.16) that
T(r.) - T(r,) = VCr,) - V(r.),

I en dus and therefore

(6.20)

I Aangesien ons r, en r. willekeurig kan kies, impliseer Since we can choose r, and r. arbitrarily, (6.20) im-
(6.20) dat die som van die deeltjie se kinetiese en plies that the sum of the particle's kinetic and potential

I potensi;;le energie by alle punte dieselfde is. Ons

verkry dus 'n behoudswet wat ook baie nuttig is, nl.
die wet van behoud van meganiese energie:
energy is the same at all points. Thus we obtain a
conservation law that is also very useful. i.e. the
law of conservation of mechanical energy:

I 239

I
I
I AB 'n deeltjie onderhewig is aan 'n konserwatiewe krag
is sy meganiese energie t gedefinieer as
If a particle is subject to a conservative force, its
mechanical energy, defined as
(6.21)

I 'n konstante van beweging, d.w.s. is a constant of movement, i.e.

IE = konstantf constant I (6.22)

I
Voorbeelde Examples
I V6.5.1 Bereken net soos in V6.3.1 die spoed v van 'n
projektiel op hoogte h as sy beginspoed op nulhoogte Vo
V6.5.1 As in V6.3.1, calculate the speed v of a projec-
tile at height h if its initial speed at zero height is Vo.

I is.

I
I
I
I Figuur 6.15

Oplo•• ing: Die enigste krag wat op die deeltjie inwerk
I is sy gewig en ons weet reeds dit is konserwatief. Van
(6.20) volg dan
Solution: The only force being exerted on the particle is
its weight and we know that it is conservative. It follows
from (6.20) that

I
en Van (6.18) (ons gebruik 0 in Figuur 6.15 as verwys- and from (6.18) (we use 0 in Figure 6.15 as a reference

I ingspunt) point) it follows that

1 2 1 2
:imvo + 0 = :imv + mgh.
I Ons verkry dieselfde resultaat soos in V6.3.1: We obtain the same result as in V6.3.1:

I
I
V6.5.2 'n Massa m gly van rus by A langs die wry- V6.5.2 A mass m slides from rest at A along a friction-

I winglose sirkelvormige baan (Figuur 6.16). Waar sal m

die baan verlaat?
I..s circular path (Figure 6.16). Where will m leave the
path?

Oplo•• ing: Van N2: Solution: From N2, we have

I R+mg = ma
I 240

I
I
I
I A

I
I
Gt
I
""5
o
I
1"
I Figuur 6.16

I Ons neem komponente ;n d;e rigtmg van R: We take components ;n the direction of R:

I R- mg cos 9 = -m- v'

r
(i)

I Die meganiese energie van m moet behoue bly aangesien

slegs mg, 'n konserwatiewe krag, arbeid verrig. Kies
Vo = O. Dan volg van (6.21)
The mechanical energy of m must be conserved because
only mg, a conservative force, does work. Choose Vo =
O. It then follows from (6.21) that

I E = Tp + Vp = TA + VA ,
en dus 'and hence

I 1
2mv' + mgrcos8 = 0 + mgr,

I waar 8 die hoekverplasing by P t.o. v. A is en v die where 9 is the angular displacement at P with respect
spoed by P i8. Ons maak mv' die onderwerp van die to A and v is the speed at P. We make mv 2 the subject

I vergelyking of the equation

mv' = 2mgr(1 - cos 9) , (ii)

I en ste! dan (ii) in (i): and then substitute (ii) in (i):

R = mg cos 9 - 2mg(1 - cos 9) = mg(3 cos 9 - 2) .

I Die massa m sa! op die baan bly solank R > 0 en dus The mass m will remain on the path as long as R > 0
and hence

I 3C089-2>0; c089 >3.

2

I m sal dus die baan verlaat by die punt waar Therefore, m will leave the path at the point where

I cos9=3;
2

I
I 241

I
I
I Probleme
P6.5.l Een punt van 'n tou van lengte l is vas en aan die
Problems
P6.S.l One end of a string of length l is fixed and a
ander punt van die tou is 'n massa m vasgemaak (Figuur mass m is fixed to the other end (Figure 6.17). What
I 6.17). Wat moet die maksimumspoed van m wees sodat
dit net in vertikale sirkels kan swam? Bereken ook die
should the maximum speed of m be so that it will just
complete circles? Also calculate the tensile force in the
trekkrag in die tou en m se spoed as funksie van posisie. string and the speed of m as a function of position.
I
I
I
I Figuur 6.17

P6.5.2 'n Massa m gly wrywingsloos langs die baan P6.5.2 A mass m slides without friction along the path

I getoon in Figuur 6.18. Wat is die miminum-hoogte

h waarby m moet begin beweeg om die sirkel te kan
voltooi?
shown in Figure 6.18. What is the minimum height h
at which m must start its motion in order to be able to
complete the circle?

I
I
I
I Figuur 6.18

I P6.5.3 'n Massa m rus in 'n bakkie aan die punt van 'n
staaf wat glad in 'n vertikale vlak. roteer om A (Figuur
PS.6.3 A mass m rests in a bowl on the end of a rod
that rotates smoothly without friction about A in a ver-
6.19). Bereken die hoekspoed 8 waarvoor m in die plane (Figure 6.19). Calculate the angular speed
I bakkie sal bly as die staaf die vertikale posisie bereik
indien 90 die hoekspoed in die horisontale posisie is.
8 at which m will remain in the bowl when the rod at-
tains a vertical position if 90 is the angular speed in the
horizontal position.

I
I
I
Ai
I Figuur 6.19

I 242

I
I
P6.5.4 In P6.5.2 word 'n kart stukkie uit die Ius gesny P6.5.4 In P6.5.2, a short piece is cut out of the track ·at
I by A. Die massa m begin langs die baan beweeg by 'n
hoogte H > h. Hoe hoog sal m bo A uitspring?
A. The mass m begins to move along the path at height
H > h. How high will m jump out at A?

I P6.5.5 Skryf die totale meganiese energie neer vir 'n

massa m wat op 'n glad de horisontale vlak &an 'n ha-
risontale veer (veerkon.tante k) vibreer. Differensieer
hierdie uitdrukking om weer die bewegingsvergelyking
I vir m te herwin. (Sodoende bevestig u dat die arbeids-
beginsel 'n integraal van N2 is.)
P6.5.5 Write the total mechanical energy for a mass m
that vibrates on a smooth horizontal plane on a hori-
zontal spring (stiffness k). Differentiate this equation
to regain the equation of motion for m. (In this way,
you verify that the principle of work and energy is an
integral of N2).

I 6.6. ARBEIDSTEMPO 6.6 POWER

I Die begrip "Arbeid verrig deur 'n krag" lewer nie in
alle opsigte 'n bevredigende beskrywing van die vermoe
van masjinerie nie. Motor-entoesiaste stel bv. 'n premie
The notion "work done by a force" does not always pra-
duce a satisfactory description of the capabilities of ma-
chinery. Car enthusiasts for instance, place a premium

I daarop dat hul motors se masjiene groat kragte moet

kan uitoefen om hul motors in so 'n kort tyd as moont-
lik oar 'n gegewe afstand te kan verplaas. Die arbeid-
on the fact that the engines in their cars are able to ex-
ert large forces so as to displace their cars over a given
distance in the shortest possible time. The power P is

I stempo P word gedefinieer deur defined by

= dW
I P
eIt'
(6.23)

Dimensies: Van (6.23) het A die eenhede J s-l, Watt Dimensions: From (6.23), A has the unit J s-l, called

I (W) genoem in die SI-stelsel, sodat 1 Watt = 1 J S-I.

Van die definisie (6.2) van arbeid volg dat 'n hoeveelheid
Watt (W) in the SI system, so that 1 Watt = 1 J s-l.

It follows from definition (6.2) of work that an amount

I arbeid
aW=F·ar
verrig word denr 'n krag F oor 'n klein verplasing .6.r.
of work

is done by a force F in a small displacement ar. There-

I Dus is fore

dW
I P =
Tt

aw
I = lirn
dr_O at

I = lirn
dr_O
F·ar
at

I = F. dr
eIt

I 6f or

P=F·v. (6.24)

I
I 243

I
I
Andersom, indien die arbeidstempo bekend is as 'n On the other hand, if the power is known as a function
I funksie van tyd, kan die arbeid verrig uit (6.23) bereken
word deur integrasie:
of time, the work done can be calculated from (6.23)
through integration:

I (6.25)

I So bv. word die vermo. van 'n kragstasie in kW (kilo-
watt) verskaf as aanduiding van die tempo waarteen
I elektriese arbeid verrig kan word. Die verbruiker daar-
enteen, betaal vir die totale arbeid verrig, nl. die aantal
kWh (kilowatt-uur) verbruik. Laasgenoemde het die di-
So for instance, the capacity of a power station is pro-
vided in kW (kilowatt) as an indication of the rate at
which electrical work can be done. The consumer how-
ever, pays for the total work done, i.e. the number of
kW h (killowatt-hourB) used, The latter has the dimen-

I mensies van P x t, dUB arbeid. sions ofAx t, hence work.

Probleme Problems
I P6,6,l 'n Motor van massa 1000 kg ry teen 'n konstante P6,6,l A car of masS 1 000 kg goes at a constant speed
spoed van 50 km h - I teen 'n helling van 5' uit. Bereken of 50 kmh- I up an incline of 5'. Calculate the power

I die arbeidstempo en die arbeid verrig in 10 sekonde•.

P6,6,2 'n Massa m beweeg lang. 'n baan r '" tx - ct 2 y

and the work done in 10 seconds.

P6,6,2 A mass m moves along a path r '" tx '" ct 2 y

en 'n krag F =a(yx + xii) werk in op m, Bereken die
I arbeidstempo op twee wyses. Bepaal die arbeid verrig
deur F tydens die interval 1 t 3 sekondes.
and a force F '" a(yx + xii) is exerted on m. Calculate
the power in two ways. Calculate the work done by F
during the interval 1 t 3 seconds.

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 244

I
I
I HOOFSTUK 7 CHAPTER 7
I DINAMIKA VAN 'n STELSEL
DEELTJIES
DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES

I 1.1 INLEIDING 1.1 INTRODUCTION

I Die grondbeginsels in die dinamika is N2 en N3 en ons

stel hulle weereens:
The fundamental principies in dynamics are N2 and N3
and we state them once again:
N2 Indien 'n rl!8u1tante krag F inwerk op 'n punt- N2 If a resultant force F is exerted on a particle
I deeltjie met massa rn, sal dit 'n versnelling a
ondervind, gemeet in 'n traagheldstelsel, wat so-
with mass rn, it will experience an acceleration
a, measured in an inertial system which is such
danig Is dat that:

I F=rna. (7.1)

I N3 Twee liggwne oefen wedersyde kragte op mekaar N3 Two bodies exercise mutual forces on each other,
uit wat ewe groot is maar teengesteld in rlgting is. equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

I Hierdie twee wette beskryf klaarblyklik die beweging
van pare van puntdeeltjies. Indien ODS dus die be-
I weging van 'n stelsel van dee!tjies wil beskryf, moet ons
noukeurig (7.1) vir elke deeltjie in die stelse! neerskryf
met inagneming van N3 en die geometriese beperk-
These two laws obviously describe the movement of
pairs of particles. Therefore, if we want to describe
the movement of a system of particles, we must set up
(7.1) carefully for each particle in the system taking
N3 and the geometric restrictions to which the sys-

I ings waaraan die stelsel onderhewig is. Ons sal sien dat
ons langs die weg kragtige veralgemenings van die resul-
tate in hoofstukke 4 en 6 kan verkry.
tem is subject into account. We shall see that in this
way we shall be able to derive powerful generalizations
of the results in chapters 4 and 6.

I
1.2 NOTASIE 1.2 NOTATION
I Die beskrywing van die dinamika van 'n stelsel van
deeltjies word vergemaklik deur die invoer van 'n goeie
The description of the dynamics of a system of particles
is simplified by introducing a good notation convention.
notasiekonvensie. Hierdie notasie word geskep sodat ons This notation is introduced in such a way that we can de-
I op 'n natuurlike wyse die poslsie van eike deeltjie kan
beskryf en die bagte op elkeen kan etiketteer.
scribe the position of each particle and label the forces
being exerted on each particle in a natural way.

I 1.2.1 Posisie 1.2.1 Position

'n Stelsel bestaande uit N deeltjies word beskou en die
I afsonderlike deeltjies word genommer vanaf 1 tot N. Die
i-te dee!tjie se Illassa word dan aangedui deur rn; en
sy posisievektor t.o.v. 'n vaste verwysingstelseJ deur r,
We consider a system consisting of N particles and num-
ber the different particles from 1 to N. We then indicate
the mass of the ith particle by rn" and its position vec-
tor with regard to a fixed reference system by r, (Figure

I (Figuur 7.1). Die posisie van rn; ten opsigte van rni
word aangedui Il8
7.1). The position of rn; with respect to rni is indicated
as

I (7.2)

I 245

I
I
I .,.,.,.,
I f.·l.J = r. or·
"J
F,

I '"J.

I
I Figuur 7.1

Dan volg dadelik dat It follows immediately that

I (7.3)

I waar rj' die posisie van rnj ten opsigte van rn, is. Die
afstand tussen rn, en rnj is
where rj' is the position of rnj with respect to rn,. The
distance between rn,and rnj is
(7.4)
I Verder word 'n eenheidsvektor langs rn, en rnj se Furthermore, the unit vector along the line connecting
verbindingslyn gegee deur rn,and rnj is given by
I (7.5)

I Uit (7.3) volg dan Thus, it follows from (7.3) that

(7.6)

I
7.2.2 Kragte 7.2.2 Forces
I Ons vind dit gerieflik om by 'n stelsel van deeltjies 'n
onderskeid te tref tussen twee soorte kragte. Eerstens
We find it convenient to differentiate between two types
of force in a system of particles. Firstly, particles can

I
kan deeltjies kragte ondervind wat hul oorsprong buite
die stelael het. (86 by. sal twee deeltjies naby die
aardoppervlak beide die invloed ervaar van die aarde
se gravitasieveld.) Ons verwys na sulke kragte as ek-
I sterne kragte en dui die result ante eksterne krag op
die i-te deeltjie aan deur f, (Figuur 7.2). Tweedens kan
a1le deeltjies in die stelaels kragte uitoefen op elkeen van
experience forces that have their origin outside the sys-
tem. (Two particles close to the surface of the earth wUl
for instance both experience the influence ofthe earth's
gravitational field.) We refer to such forces as external
forces and denote the resultant external force on the
i th particle by ti (Figure 7.2). Secondly, all the particles
in the systems exert forces on each of the other parti-

I die ander deeltjies in die stelsel; hierna verwys ons as in-

terne kragte. Ons dui die krag wat rnj op rn, uitoefen,
aan deur fij (Figuur 7.2). NS bepaal dat
cles in the system - referred to as internal forces. We
indicate the force that rnj exerts on
7.2). N3 determines that
rn,
by f'j (Figure

I fU = -fj' . (7.7)

I Verder word die deeltjies as puntmassas beskou, sodat

(7.7) slegs kan geld indien f'j en fj' gerig is langs die
verbindingslyn tussen m, en mj, d. w.S.
Furthermore, the particles are regarded as point masses
so that (7.7) applies only if f'j and fj' are directed along
the line connecting rn, and mj, Le.

I 246

I
I
I
I f·,

I
I ..
Jt
I o
I Figuur 7.2

I Voorbeelde van sulke interne kragte is wedersydse grav-

(7.8)

Examples of such internal forces are the mutual gravity

I itasiekrag tussen massas of die reaksiekragte wat optree

tydens 'n botsing tussen twee deeltjies.
between masses or the reaction forces that occur during
a collision between two particles.

Van (7.7) volg dat It follows from (7.7) that

I (7.9)

I ,n Deeltjie oefen dus rue 'n krag op homself uit rue. Therefore, a particle does not exert a force on itself.

I 7.2.3 Sommasie oor Deeltjies

Ons sal dit hierna nodig vind om verskeie kere alge-
7.2.3 Summation over particles
We shall often find it necessary to sum algebraic equa-

I bra;ese uitdrukkings te sommeer oar al N deeltjies in

die stelsel. Ter wille van ekonomie sal ons die volgende
verkorte notasie deurgaans gebruik:
tions over the N particles in the system. We shall use
the following abbreviated notation throughout:

I N
(7.10)

I i=l

I 7.3 MASSAMIDDELPUNT
7.3.1 Definisie
7.3 CENTRE OF MASS
7.3.1 Definition

I Die beakrywing van die dinamika van N deeltjies word

aansienlik vereenvoudig deur 'n punt G, genoem die
The description of the dynamics of N particles is sim-
plified considerably by introducing a point G, called the
massaIlliddelpunt, in te voer met 'n posisievektor R centre of mass, with a position vector R ·defined by

I gedefinieer deur

I 247

I
I
I
I (7.11)

I M in (7.11) is die totale massa van die stelse! deeltjies. M in (7.11) is the total mass of the system of particles.

7.3.2 Eienskappe van Massamiddelpunt

I Vir enige stelse! dee!tjles ka.n die posislevektor R van die
7.3.2 Properties of Centre of Mass
For any system of particles, the position vector R of the
massamiddelpunt G volgens (7.11) bereken word. Die centre of mass G can be calculated according to (7.11).
I posislevektor van m, ten opsigte van die G word dan
aangedui deur p, (Figuur 7.3).
The position vector of m,
denoted by p, (Figure 7.3).
with respect to G then is

I
I G

I o

I Figuur 7.3

Uit Figuur 7.3 volg It follows from Figure 7.3 that

I f; = p; +R. (7.12)

I Indien (7.12) in die definisie (7.11) vervang word, vind

ons
If (7.12) is SUbstituted in the definition (7.11), we find
that

I MR = Lm;(p, +R)

I
I = Lm,p;+RLm;

I = Lm/Pi+ MR .

I Ons verkry dus 'n resultaat wat nie verrassend is nie, nl.
dat G se posisievektor t.o.v. homself die nulvektor is:
Therefore, we obtain a result that is not surprising, i.e.
that G'. position vector with respect to itself is the null
vector:
I LmiPi = 0
,
I 248

I
I
I Deur differensiasie volg dan It follows through differentiation that

Lffi/P/ = 0; Lffii/i/ = 0; (7.13)

I /

Die eienskappe (7.13) sal later van groot nut wees. The properties in (7.13) will be very useful later.

I 7.3.3 Momentum en Massamiddelpunt 7.3.3 Momentum and Centre of Mass

I Indien die definisie (7.11) m.b.t. die tyd gedifferensieer

word, volg
IT definition (7.11) is differentiated with respect to time
it follows that

I (7.14)

I Let op dat die vektor R in die algemeen met tyd sal

verander indien die r/ verander. In (7.14) word die mo-
mentum van die i-te deeltjie gegee deur
Note that vector R In general will vary with time as the
r/ varies. In (7.14), the momentum of the ith particle
is given by

I (7.15)

I sodat die totale momentum p van die stelael gedefinieer

word as
so that the total momentum p of the system is defined
as
(7.16)

I Van (7.14) en (7.16) volg nou It now follows from (7.14) and (7.16) that

I p=Mit. (7.17)

I Vir die doeleindes van momentumberekening, tree die For the purposes of the calculation of momentum, the
stelael dus op as 'n enkele massa M met snelheid it. Die systems acts as a single mass M, with velocity it. The
momentum van ffi/ ten opsigte van die massamiddelpunt momentum of ffi/ p with respect to the centre of mass
is ffiil"h sodat die totale momentum ten opsigte van G is ffi/ so that the total momentum with respect to G is

I uit (7.13) altyd nul is: always zero from (7.13):

(7.18)

I
Let ook op dat verdere differensiasie van (7.14) lewer Note that further differentiation of (7.14) yields

I (7.19)

I Omdat Since

I dp d" .
/
"
/
..
dt = dt L... ffi/r/ = L... ffi/r/ ,

I kan ons (7.19) ook skryf as we can also write (7.19) as

I 249

I
I
I .. dp
MR=-, (7.20)

I
dt

waar p die totale momentum van die stelsel is. where p is the total momentum of the system.

I Probleme Problems

I P7.3.l Toon san dat die massamiddelpunt van 'n stelael

bestaande uit twee deeltjies op hul verbindlngslyn val.
P7.3.1 Show that the centre of mass of a system con-
sisting of two particles lies on the line which connects
them.

I P7.3.2 N identiese massas is langs 'n reguit iyn

gerangskik op so 'n wyse dat die afstande tussen elke
opeenvolgende paar deeltjies gehalveer word (Figuur
7.3.2 N Identical masses are arranged along a straight
line in such a way that the distance between each suo-
cessive pair of particles is halved (Figure 7.4)
7.4).
I (a) Vind die massamiddelpunt G van die stelae!.
(b) Waar is G in die limiet N -t 001
(a) Find the centre of mass G of the system.
(b) Where is G in the limit N -t 001

I
I
I Figuur 7.4

I P7.3.3 N Identiese massaa is Jangs 'n sirkel gerangskik

op 86 'n wyse dat die afstande tussen alle naaste bure
P7.3.3 N identical maases are arranged along a circle in
such a way that the distances between all closest neigh-
dleselfde is (Figuur 7.5). Vind die maasamiddeipunt G bours are the same (Figure 7.5). Find the centre of mass

I van die stelael vir ewe N. G of the system for even N.

I
I --t-;;-I--;;-+->
l/.

I
I Figuur 7.5

I
I
I 250

I
I
I 7.4 TRANSLASIE VAN MASSAMID-
DELPUNT
7.4 TRANSLATION OF CENTRE OF
MASS
In N2 800S In (7.1) gestel, is F die resultante krag op In N2, as stated In (7.1), F is the resultant force on a
I 'n deeltjie. As ons die resultante krag op die '-te deeltjie
bepaai, dan is dit die som van die eksterne krag daarop
particle. If we determine the resultant force on the • th
particle, it will comprise the sum of the external forces
sowel as die Interne kragte wat deur al die ander exerted On It as well as the Internal forces exerted
I N -1 deeltjies daarop uitgeoefen word. Van Figuur
7.2 sal die resultante krag op die .-te deeltjie dan gegee
word deur
on It by all the other N - 1 particles. From Figure
7.2, the resultant force on the ith particle Is then given
by

I Fj:= f, + EflJ .
J
(7.21)

I Ons kan nou die resultante krag op e!keen van die N

deeltjies in die stelsel bereken en dan (7.1) vir elke
deeltjie afuonderllk neerskryf:
I FI=f,+EfIJ=m,r,; .=1,2, ... ,N
J
We can now calculate the resultant force on each of the
N particles in the system and then write (7.1) separately
for each particle:
(7.22)

I Met (7.11) in gedagte, sommeer ons nou al N hierdie

vergelykings:
With (7.11) in mind, we now sum these N equstlons:

I EFl = Ef, + EEf,j = Em,r,

j
(7.23)

I Die term The term

(7.24)

I is k1aarblykllk die totale eketerne krag op die stelael, obviously is the total external force on the system

I
en wsel van geval tot geval. Die dubbelsom in (7.23) and varies from case to case. The double sum over the
oar die interne kragte kan egter bereken word vir alle internal forces in (7.23) can, however, be calculated for
stelsels: all systems:

I
I
I Aangesien • en j sommasie- of "fop"- indekse is wat
belde oar dieselfde waardes wissel, kan ons nou bv. in die
I tweede dubbelsom vir. herbenoem na j en andersom:
Since. and j are summation of" dummy" indices, both
. varying over the same values, we can now rename. as j
and mce versa in the second double sum:

I tint = Efii+ EfJj

i<J i>i

I
I 251

I
I
I Van N3, d.w.s. (7.1), volg dan dat elkeen van die terme
fli + fil identles nul is, en dUB dat
It follows from N3, i.e. (7.7), that each of the terms
fii + fil is Identically equal to zero and therefore that
Iin.=O. (7.25)

I Vergelyking (7.23) vereenvoudig dan tot Equation (7.23) is then simplified to

f= 2:mifi. (7.26)

I I

Die translasie van die stelsel as gehee! hang dUB slegs af Therefore, the translation of the system as a whole d.,.

I van die eksterne krag op die ste!sel. Ons kan verder

(7.19) en (7.20) inste! in die regterkant van (7.26):
pends only on the external force on the system. We
can then substitute (7.19) and (7.20) in the right hand
side of (7.26):

I (7.27)

I Die massamidde!punt van 'n stelse! beweeg dUB 'n Therefore, the centre of mass of a system moves like a
deeltjie waarvan die massa is van die hele stelsel en particle, the mass of which is that of the entire system
I wat onderhewig is san die resultante eksterne krag op
die stelse!.
and which is subject to the resultant external force on
the system.

I 7.5 BEWEGING VAN STELSEL AS 7.5 MOTION OF SYSTEM AS A

GEHEEL WHOLE
I Omdat die bewegingsvergelyking (7.27) vir die mas- Since the equation of motion (7.27) of the centre of mass
samlddelpunt van 'n stelsel dieselfde vorm het soos of a system has the same form as that of a single par-

I vir 'n enke!e deeltjle, kM ons die analise van die beweg-
ing van 'n enke!e deeltjie veralgemeen om die beweging
van 'n stelsel te beskryf. Ons le klem op drie aspekte.
ticle, we can now generalize the analysis of the motion
of a single particle in order to describe the motion of a
system. We emphasize three aspects.

I 7.5.1 Beweging van Massamiddelpunt 7.5.1 Motion of Centre of Mass

I Vergelyking (7.27) kM, soortgelyk san N2 vir 'n

deeltjle, vir 'n gegewe totaai ekaterne krag f twee keer
geintegreer word om R( t) te vind.
Similar to N2 for a particle, (7.27) can be integrated
twice for a given external force f In order to find R(t).

I 7.5.2 Behoud van Momentum 7.5.2 Conservation of Momentum

I Soos in die geval van 'n enkele deeltjie volg uit (7.27): As in the case of a single particle it follows from (7.27)
that

If = 0 => p = konstant/constant I
I (7.28)

Hierdie resultaat is die behoud van totale momen- This result is the conservation of total momentum:

I tum: Indien die totale eksterne krag op 'n stelsel

nul is, is die totale momentum van die stelsel 'n kon-
stante van beweging.
if the total external force is zero, the total momen-
tum of the system is a constant of motion.

I
I 252

I
I
I 7.5.3 Impuls-Momentum Beginsel 7.5.3 Principle of Impulse and Momen-
tum

I Indien (7.27) m.b.t. t oor 'n gegewe tydsinterval ge-

integreer word, kry ons soortgelyk aan die geval van 'n
enkele deeltjie:
If (7.27) is integrated with respect to t over a given time
interval, we obtain a result similar to that for a single
particle:

I
(7.29)

I Hierdie resultaat is die impuls-momentum beginsel This result is the principle of impulse and momen-

I vir 'n ste1sel: Die verandering in die totale momentum

van die stelsel is gelyk aan die impuls van die totale ek-
sterne krag op die stelse!.
tum for a system: The change in total momentum of
a system is equal to the impulse of the total external
force on the system.

I 7.5.4 Toepassings 7.5.4 Applications

Vergelyklngs (7.27) tot (7.29) verteenwoordig kragtige
I
resultate wat toepasbaar is by 'n groot aantal probleme,
waarvan ons enkele belangrike gevalle volledig bespreek.
Equations (7.27) to (7.29) represent strong results which
are applicable in a iarge number of problems. We dis-
cuss some important cases.

I 7.5.4.1 Vuurpyle 7.5.4.1 Rockets

I
Beskou 'n vuurpyl met massa m(t) en snelheid (gemeet
t.o.v. 'n traagheidstelsel) v(t) (Figuur 7.6). Die
vuurpyl werp in 'n tyd Ilt 'n massa -Ilm (> 0) uit met
snelheid v, m.h.t. die vuurpyI. Aanvaar v, is kon-
I stant. Die absolute snelheid van die uitlaatgas (d.w.s.
die snelheid gemeet t.o.v. die traagheidstelsel wat as
verwysingstelsel gebruik word) is dus v + v,. Die wed-
Consider a rocket with mass m(t) and velocity (mea-
sured with respect to an inertial system) v(t) (Fig-
ure 7.6). In a time Ilt, the rocket discards a mass of
-Ilm (> 0) with a velocity v, with respect to the
rocket. Assume that v, is constant. The absolute ve-
locity of the exhaust gas (i.e. the velocity measured with
respect to the inertial system that is used as the refer-

I ersydse kragte tussen die vuurpyl en die uitlaatgasse is

interne kragte en affekteer nie die beweging van die mas-
samiddelpunt van die stelsel nie.
ence system) therefore is v + v,. The mutual forces be-
tween the rocket and the exhaust gas are internal forces
and do not affect the movement of the system's centre
of mass.
I
I - ---..>
::ie
Uj,---
•

I o 1-1

Figuur 7.6

I Ona beskou 'n vuurpyl wat in veldvrye ruimte beweeg. We consider a rocket that moves in force-free space. At
Op 'n tydstip t het die vuurpyl 'n momentum . a time t, the rocket has a momentum

I p=mv.

I
I 253

I
I
I Op 'n tydstip t+At het die vuurpyl verander na 'n stelsel
bestaande uit 'n "nuwe" vuurpyl met massa m + Am en
snelheid v+ Av tesame met uitlaatgas van massa -Am
At a time t + At, the rocket has changed into a system
consisting of a "new" rocket with mass m + Am and
velocity v + Av together with the escape gas or
mass

I en snelheid v + v,. aeen ekateme kragte tree op nie, -Am and velocity v + v,. No external forces are being
sodat momentumbehoud (7.28) moet geld: exerted, so that conservation of momentum (7.28) must
apply:

I en dus
pet) =pet + At)
and therefore

I mv = (m + Am)(v + Av) + (-Am)(v + v,)

I = mv + mAy + Amv + AmAv - Amv - Amv,

sodat so that

I
I Ons deel deur Am en neem die limiet as Am --I 0
[onthou dat m = met)]:
We divide by Am and take the limit as Am -+ 0 [re-
member that m = met)]:

I dv
m-+
dm
l'hm Am)-dmdv= v ,
m-t-O

Ons verkry dan die differensiaaivergelyking We then obtain the differential equation
I dv
m =ve1 (7.30)
I wat ons kan oplos deur skeiding van veranderlikes:
dm

which we can solve by separation of variables:

I fdv=v,fd;:+A
I en dus and therefore

I v=v,lnm+A

Laat Vo die snelheid van die vuurpyl wees wanneer 8y

(7.31)

Let Vo be the velocity of the rocket when its mass is mo

I massa mo is (se op die oomblik van ontbranding); dan

volg in (7.31)
(say at the moment of ignition); it then follows in (7.31)
that

I en (7.31) word
vo=ve1nmo+Aj A=vo-ve 1nm o1
and (7.31) becomes

I
Ons neem die komponente in die bewegingsrigting ii: We take the components in the direction of motion v:
I v= Vo -
m
v,ln-
mo
(7.32)

I 254

I
I
I Normaalweg ontbrand die brandstof van 'h vuurpyl teen
'n konstante tempo. Dan volg
The fuel of a rocket normally burns away at a constant
rate. It then follows that

I dm
Tt = -a; m = mo - at (7.33)

I en (7.32) word

tI = tlo
mo
+ tI, In --=....,.
and (7.32) becomes

(7.34)
mo - at

I Volledigheidshalwe bereken ona ook die afstand x deur . For completeness' sake we also calculate the distance 0:
die vuurpyl afgele. Van (7.32) volg covered by the rocket lis a function of t. It follows from

I (7.32) that

dx m
I dt = tlo - tI, In mo .

Skei veranderlikes en integreer: Separate variables and integrate:

I
! do:=tlo ! dt-v,!ln: dt+B. (7.35)
I Ons voer die hulpveranderlike We introduce the auxiliary variable

I m
1'=-
mo
(7.36)

I in. Dan volg van (7.33) dat It then follows from (7.33) that

dp, 1 dm a mo
I dt = ffl;;Tt = - mo; dt = -adp, ,

en (7.35) word and (7.35) becomes

I
I
I = mov,
vot + - - --In I' - -
a
(mmo m) + B ,
mo

I en dus and hence

I x = vot + : ' (In: - 1) +B . (7.37)

I Ons gebruik die beginvoorwaatde We use the initial condition

t = 0i x = 2:0 i m = mo .
I 255

I
I
I Dan volg nit (7.37) It then follows from (7.37) that

"'0 = -er-
motl, ( )
0 -1 + B ;
B
= "'0 + -er-
motl,
'
I en (7.37) word and (7.37) becomes

I '" =
motl,
"'0 + - - + tlot + -mtl,
Q "Q
(I n-
m
mo
)
- 1 , (7.38)

I met m gegee deur (7.33). with m given by (7.33).

I 1.5.4.2 Botsings 7.5.4.2 Impacts

A. Reglynige Botsings
I Ons beskou twee sferiese voorwerpe waarvan die Iyn wat"
hul middelpunte verbind by botsing, die botsingslyn
A Central Impacts
We consider two spherical objects. The line that joins
their centres upon impact is called the line of Impact,

I genoem, saamval met altwee se bewegingrigting net voor

die botsing (Figuur 7.7). Aangesien die botsing oor 'n
bale klein tydsverloop plaasvind en die interne kragte
wat dan optree baie groot is, kan eksterne kragte op die
I stelsel verwaarloos word en sal die behoud van momen-
tum (7.28) vir die stelsel geld. Vir begin- en eindsne1-
hede soos getoon in Figuur 7.7 geld dan
and coincides with the direction of the motion of both
objects just before the collision (Figure 7.7). Since the
impact takes place over a very small period of time and
the internal forces that are exerted are very large, the
external forces on the system can be ignored, and the
conservation of momentum (7.28) applies to the system.
For the initial and final velocities, as shown in Figure

I 7.7, the following will then apply:

(7.39)

I Klaarblyklik bevat (7.39) nie genoeg inligting vir die

oplos van die probleem nie: Selfs in die eendimensionele
Obviously, (7.39) does not contain enough Informa-
tion for the problem to be solved: even in the one-
I geval in FIguur 7.7 is daar vir bekende u, en u. twee on-
bekende snelheidskomponente na die botsing. Ons moet
dus die interne kragte, d.w.s. die wedersydse kragte wat
dimensional case in Figure 7.7, there are two unknown
components of velocity after the collision for known u,
and u,. Therefore we must also take into account the
m, en m, op mekaar nitoefen tydens die botsing, ook in
I berekening bring. Aangesien hoespoedfotografie beves-
tig dat daar in die algemeen vervorming van massas in
internal forces, i.e. the reciprocal forces that m, and m,
exert on each other during the impact. Since highspeed
photography shows that there in general occurs a de-
'n botsing plaasvind wat weer herstel, kan ons die bots- formation of the masses in an impact which is restored
I ing soos valg analiseer:
after the impact, we can analyse the impact as follows:

I
I
1/ V,
-
--'8---8- --
"\J1-

"'" I ... 10

I (a) Voor botsing (b) Maksimumvervorming (c) Na botsing

Figuur 7.7
I
I 256

I
I
I (a) Vervormingsfase: Van eerste kontak tussen die sfere
(se by tt) tot by maksimumvervorming (se by t.) sal
'n vervormingskrag P(t)/i op m. uitoefen; van N3 oefen
m,
(a) Deformation phase: From tbe first contact bstween
the spheres (say at t,) up to the maximum deformation
(say at t.), m, will exert a deformation force P(t)/i on
m. in diese1fde tydsverloop die krag -P(t)/i op m, uit. m.; from N3, m. exerts a foroe -P(t)/i on m, during
I Van die impuis-moment beginsei se n-komponent geld
dan virm,
the same period. From the n component of the principle
of momentum and impulse, we then have for m, that

I -Iv := lt. (-P)dt = m, (v. /i) - m, (u, . /i) , (7.40)

h

I en vir m2

I Iv =
1"" Pdt = m.(v. /i) - m.(u•. ii) , (7.41)

I waar v die gesamentlike snelheid van m, en m. is by

maksimum-deformasie.
where v is the common velocity of m, and m. at maxi-
mum deformation.

I (b) Herstelfase: Net soos in (a) volg vir die tydsver-

loop vanaf maksimum-deformasie tot die oomblik wan-
(b) Restitution phase: As in (a), it follows from the
principle of momentum and impulse for the period from
neer kontak verbreek word (se by t3) uit die impuls- maximum deformation up to the moment at which con-

I momentum beginsel tact is broken (say at t3) that

I -IH :=
1"
t,
(-P)dt = rn, (v, . ii) - rn, (v. /i) (7.42)

I en and

I IH =
1"" Pdt = m.(v•. ii) - m.(v . /i) . (7.43)

I Ons deel (7.42) deur (7.40) en (7.43) deur (7.41): We divide (7.42) by (7.40), and (7.43) by

IH VI' n - v on

I Iv = v . ii - u, • ii
(7.44)

I IH v •. ii - v . ii
Iv = v·/i-u.·ii
(7.45)

I Die verhouding The ratio

IH
I e=-
Iv
(7.46)

I
I 257

I
I
I wat die herstelkoiifllsliint of restituslekoiifllsiiint ge-
noem word, is uiters materiaalafhanklik en kan slegs
eksperlmenteel vasgestel word. 'n Botsing word
which is called the restitution coefficient is extremely
material-dependent and can be determined only expe....
imentally. A collision is called completely "elastic for
volkome elasties genoem vir e = 1 (suike botsings
I
e = 1 (such collisions occur only on atomic scale) and
kom net voor op atoomskaal) en onelasties vir e = O. inelastic for e = O. In general, the following applies to
Vir materiale geld in die algemeen materials:

I . O$e<l. (7.46)

Uiterate waardes is e ::! 0 . 9 vir staai op staai en e ::! 0 Extreme values are e ::! 0·9 for steel on steel, and e::! 0
I vir stopverf op enigiets andera. " for putty on anything else.

Ons stel nou (7.46) in (7.44) en (7.45) en kruisver- We now substitute (7.46) in (7.44) and (7.45) and crosll-

I menigvuldig belde vergelykings om die volgende te

verkry:
multiply both equations to obtain the following:

I e(v . n - u, . n)
e(v . n - u •. n)
=
=
v,· n - v· n
v.· n - V· n

I Ons elimineer v deur die vergelykings van mekaar af te

trek:
We eliminate v by subtracting the equations from each
other:

I (v, - v,). n = -etu, - U2) • n (7.47)

Op die botsingslyn sal die relatiewe snelheid van die On the line of impact, the relative velocity of the two

I twee deeltjies dus omkeer en in grootte met 'n faktor e

vermlnder.
particles will therefore be reversed and reduced in
magnitude by a factor e.

I B. Skuins Botsings B. Oblique Impacts

Indien die bewegingsrigtings van die twee sfere nie saam- If the direction of movement of two spheres does not

I val met die botsingslyn nie (Figuur 7.8) sal daar klaar-
blyklik geen wedersydse impuIs in die f-rigting loodreg
n
op wees nie en die relatiewe snelheid in die rigting sal
coincide with the line of impact (Figure 7.8), there ob-
viously will be no mutual impulse in the f direction
perpendicular to n, and the components of velocity in

I onveranderd gelaat word:

Ul . T= Vl . T j U2' f =
this direction will remain unchanged:

V2 . f (7.48)

I "'-v,. -
I "" ,
'.
• _ _ _ '. -
1:
'" .
,
.- "-.----'0
/ '\)'}.

I U,
m,'

'

I Figuur 7.8

Vergelykings (7.39), (7.47) en (7.48) verskaf die al· Equations (7.39), (7.47) and (7.48) provide the general
I gemene oplossing vir die botsingsprobleem. solution to the impact problem.

I 258

I
I
I Voorbeelde Examples
V7.5.1 In Figuur 7.9 word 'n reglynige botsing getoon V7.5.1 Figure 7.9 shows a straight-line impact, in which

I van 'n sfeer wat met spoed u, 'n stilstaande sfeer tref.
Vind beide massas se snelheid net nil. die botsing.
a sphere travelling at a speed of u, collides with a sta-
tionary sphere. Calculate the velocity of both' masses
just after the impact.

I
I
I
Voor botsing
G Na botsing
I Figuur 7.9

I Oplo8.ing: Die n-komponent van momentumbehoud

(7.39) sien soos volg daaruit:
Solution: The n component of the conservation of mo-
mentum (7.39) is as follows:

I Die botsingswet (7.47) lewer

m,ul + 0 = mllll + m.lI. .
The impact law (7.47) yields
(a)

= -e(ul - = -eu, .
I 11, -.,.

Ons elimineer .,. deur dit eers die onderwerp van boge-
u.)

We eliminate.,. by, firstly, making it the subject of the

I noemde vergelyking te maak above equation

(b)
en dan in (a) te stel: and then substituting it in (a):
I
6f or
I III (m, + m.) =u, (ml - emo)

Dan volg It then follows that

I
V1 = ml Ul (c)
I
I
m,+m.

en as ons dit in (b) stel: and if we substitute it in (b):

I 11. = III + eUI

I = (ml - + em, e) u,
ml+m.
I
I 259

I
I
I
I Twee spesiale gevalle verdien vermelding: Two special cases deserve mention:

I (i) e =0 :

I Hier het ons 'n volkome nie-elastiese botsing(soos by.

vir twee sfere gemaak van stopverf): Die twee massas
beweeg na die botsing as 'n eenheid.
Here we have a completely non-elastic collision (as for
instance for two putty spheres): the two masses move
as a unit after the impact.

I Hier het ons 'n volkome elastiese botsing (soos amper Here we have a completely elastic impact (as nearly real-

I gerealiseer word In die geval van staal op staal): Mo-

mentum word volledig uitgerull tussen die twee massas.
ized in the case of steel on steel): the masses interchange
their momenta in the impact.

I Probleme
PT.&.l NASA se bemande ruimtetuie na die maan is
Problems
T. 5.1 NASA's manned spacecrafts to the moon were

I van die aardoppervlak gelanseer deur 'n Saturn V vuur-

py!. Die totale massa van die hele tuig by lansering was
2730 metrieke ton. Tydens die ontbranding van die SC-
lC (die eerste stadium) is 2000 metrieke ton brandstof In
I 2! minute verbruik. Die ontsnapsnelheid van die vuur-
pyimotore se u1tlaatgasse was 2300 m s-'. Gebrulk die
impuis-momentum beginsel (7.29) om te bereken wat die
launched from the surface of the earth by a Saturn V
rocket. The total mass of the whole spacecraft when It
was launched was 2 730 metric tons. During the burn
of the SC-IC (the first stage), 2000 metric tons of the
fuel was consumed in 2!minutes. The escape velocity
of the exhaust gasses of the rocket motors was 2 300
m s-'. Use the principle of impulse and momentum

I hoogte en spoed van die ruimtetuig was na ontbranding

van die eerste stadium. U ken aanvaar dat die gravi-
tasieveld konstant was gedurende die beweging van die
(7.29) to calculate what the height and speed of the
spacecraft was after the bum of the first stage. You may
assume that the gravitational field was constant during
the movement of the spacecraft and that air resistance
I
tuig en dat lugweerstand ignoreerbaar was.
was negligible.

PT.&.2 Toon vir V7.S.1 aan dat e = 1 energiebehoud PT.&.2 Show for V7.5.1 that e = 1 results in conser-

I =
lewer terwyl e 0 die grootste moontlike energieverlies
lewer.
vation of energy whereas e = 0 results in the greatest
possible loss of energy.

PT.&.S Bespreek die botsing van 'n sfeer met die aarde PT.5.S Discuss the impact of a sphere with the earth
I deur m. -+ 00 te neem in V7.5.1. by letting m, -+ 00 in V7.S.1.

PT.&.4 Calculate the total distance covered by the

PT.&.4 Bereken die totale afstand afgele deur die sfeer

I in P7.9.3 indien die herstelkoiifisient e is.

PT.5.& Twee identiese sfere bots met botsingshoek 45°.

sphere in. P7.9.3 if the restitution coefficient is e.

PT.&.& Two identical spheres collide at an impact angle

Bereken die finale snelhede indien een' sfeer oorsponklik of 45°. Calculate the final velocities if one sphere was
I in rus was.

PT .5.6 Op tydstip t = 0 is drie deeltjies by die posisies

originally stationary.

PT.5.6 At a time t = 0, three particles are at the posi-

= = =
I aangedui op Figuur 7.10 met v, tIo(x+O), v, ,; -voO
en Vs = -2110x. Kragte werk tussen die deeltjies sodanig
dat m. se snelheid op 'n tydstip t, weer v. is terwyl ms
tions Indicated in Figure 7.10 with v, IIO(X+1i), v,
-1100 and Vs = -2vo%. Forces are exerted between the
particJessuch that the velOcity of m. at a time t, again
in rus verkeer. Wat sal die snelheid van m, wees indien is v. while ms is stationary. What will the velocity of
I m, =m. = ms? m, be if m, = m, =ms?

I 260

I
I
I
I • 11, I)
....,

I "'"0
•
x

"'L
I Flguur T.IO

I PT.S.T In Figuur 7.11 is ml '" 2m2 en " = 2/, h = T.5.T In Figure 7.11, ml = 2mo and " = 2/, h =
31 (f konstant). 'n Massalose staaf koppel rnl en m •. 31 (I constant). A massless rod connects ml and moo

I Berelren die posisie van ml en m. se massamiddelpunt

asook die totale momentum as 'n funksie van tyd.
Calculate the position of the centre of mass of ml and
rn. as well as the total momentum as a function of time.

I
I
I "
o
I Figuur T.11

I PT.5.S 'n Kanonkoeel word met 'n hoek van 60' met die
horisontaal en beginspoed "0 afgevuur. Op die hoog-
ste punt van die koeiH se baan ontplof dit om twee
PT.S.S A canon shell is fired at an angle of 60' with the
horizontal at an initial speed of "0. The shell explodes
at the highest point of its path to produce two fragments

I
brokstukke van gelyke massa te lewer. Een van die
brokstukke is deur die ontploffing momentaan in rus ge-
bring. Waar tref die ander brokstuk die (horisontale)
grondvlak? Bereken die totale energie wat deur die ont-
I ploffing vrygestel is.
of the same mass. One of the fragments is momentarily
brought to a standetill by the explosion. Where does the
other fragment hit the (horizontal) ground level? Cal-
culate the total energy released by the explosion.

PT.S.D 'n Koeel, massa m en spoed ", tref 'n blok van
masS8 M (Figuur 7.12). Bereken hoe hoog die blok sal
I
opswaai indien die koeel in die blok vassit na die bots-
ing. (Hierdie apparaat kan gebruik word om die snelheid .
van koei!ls te bepaal en staan as 'n ballistiese pendulum
I bekend.)
PT.5.D A bullet with mass m and speed" hits a block
of mass M (Figure 7.12). Calculate how high the block
will swing up if the bullet gets stuck in the block after
the collision. (This apparatus can be used to determine
the velocity of bullets and is known as a ballistic pendU-

PT.S.IO Indien die koei!l in die vorige probleem met 'n

lum.)

PT.S.IO IT the bullet in the previous problem leaves M

I horisontale snelheid "I = "''' uit M uitkom, berelren wat

" moet wees sodat M net vertikale sirkels kan voltooi.
at a horizontal speed" I = "''' calculate what" must be
so that M can just complete vertical circles.

I
I 261

I
I
I
I
I
I Figuur 7.12

I 7.6 ROTASIE VAN MASSAMIDDEL-

PUNT
7.6 ROTATION OF CENTRE OF MASS

I Ona het in §4.7 gesien dat dit BOmB gerieflik is om die

beweging van 'n deeltjie te beskryf i.t.v. sy hoekmcr
We saw in §4.7 that it sometimes is convenient to d...
scribe the movement of a particle in termB of its angular
mentum. Vir die i-te deeltjie word sy hoekmomentum, momentum. The angular momentum of the i th parti-

I gemeet t.o.v. 'n vaste punt 0, van (4.71) gegee deur cle, measured with respect to a fixed point 0, is given
from (4.71) by

I waar r j dieselfde betekenis het BOOS in Figuur 7.1. Die where r j has the same significance as in Figure 7.1. The

I totale hoekmomentum van die stelsei om 0 is dan

Ho = L rj x rnr•.
j
total angular momentum of the system about 0 then is
(7.49)

I Soortgelyk aan §4.7 differensieer ons (7.49) m.b.t. t: Similar to §4.7, we differentiate (7.49) with respect to t:

I dHo
(it =

I = Eri x mri + Eri X mr;

I
j j

Die eerste term aan die regterkant is identies nul uit die The first term on the right is Identically equal to zero

I definisie van die vektorproduk, terwyl ons die linkerkant

van (7.22) vir eikeen van die deeltjies in die tweede term
kan instei:
from the definition of the vector product, and we can
substitute the left hand side of (7.22) for each of the
particles in the second term:

I
I Dus volg We therefore have

I dHo
(it=Mo, (7.50)

I 262

I
I
I waar where

I (7.51)

I die totale moment op die ste1sel om 0 is. Die regterkant

kan geskryf word as die som van twee terme, nl.
is the total moment on the system about O. The right
hand side can be written as the sum of two terms, I.e.
mo = Lrl x fl (7.52)
I I

oftewe1 die totale moment van die eksterne kragte om or the total moment of the external forces about 0 and
I Oen
mint = LLr. x fiJI (7.53)
i 1

I d.w.s. die totale moment van die interne kragte om O. i.e. the total moment of the internal forces about O.
mo sal ulteraard afhang van die presiese aard van die Of course mo will depend on the exact nature of the

I eksterne kragte. Met 'n argument soortgelyk aan die

wat (7.25) voorafgaan, kan ons egter ook vir min. vir
alle stelse1s bereken:
external forces. With an argument similar to the one
that precedes (7.25), we can also calculate mint for all
systeDlB:

I mint = Lr. X fii + :Er. xf'j

'<i l>i
I
= Lrl x fli + Lri x f;.

I .<1 !>i

= Lri x f.! + Lr! x (-fi;)

I i<i i<J

waar N3 in die vorm (7.7) in die tweede term ingestel

I is. Van (7.2),(7.5) en (7.8) volg dan verder
where N3 in the form (7.7) was substituted in the second
term. It further follows from (7.2), (7.5) and (7.8) that

I mint = L(r. - r!) x fl!

1<1

I = Lri! x fl;
i<1

I = L rijTi} X lii"i;,
i<;

I en van die definisie van die vektorproduk is elke term in and from the definition of the vector product, each term

I die som identies nul:

min. = O.
in the sum is identically equal to zero:
(7.54)

I 263

I
I
I In (7.51) het ons dUB dat Therefore, in (7.51) we have that

(7.55)

I en weereens word die etelael se beweging slegs deur die
I
eksterne kragte daarop bepaal. Van (7.55) en (7.50)
volg nou die rotasie-ekwivalent van (7.27):
and the motion of the system Is again only determined
by .the external forced being exerted on it. The rota-
tional equivalent of (7.27) now follows from (7.55) and
(7.50):

I (7.56)

I Vergelykings (7.27) en (7.56) is twee verskillende Equations (7.27) and (7.56) are two different ways of de-
maniere om die beweging van die massamiddelpunt scribing the movement of the system's centre of mass.
I van die etelael te beskryf.

Probleme Problems
I P7.6.1 Toon aan dat die hoekmomentum van die aarde P7.6.1 Show that the angular momentum of the earth
en maan om die 80n konstant Is. and moon round the sun Is constant.

I
7.7 BEWEGING TEN OPSIGTE VAN 7.7 MOTION WITH RESPECT TO
I DIE MASSAMIDDELPUNT CENTRE OF MASS
In §7.4.1 het ons gesien dat die translasie van 'n etelael In §7.4.1 we saw that the translation of a system Is as-
I slegs geassosleerd i8 met sy massamiddelpunt G; van
(7.18) volg immers dat die totale momentum van die
stelael t.o.v. G nul Is:
sociated only with its centre of mass G, since it follows
from (7.18) that the total momentum of the system with
respect to G is zero:

I (7.57)

I Enige beweging vac die stelsel t.o.v. G moet dUB ge-

assosieerd wees met rotasie-beweging. Ons bereken dUB
Any motion of the system with regard to G must there-
fore be associated with rotational movement. There-
die resultante moment t.o.v. G (wat kan versnell): fore, we calculate the resuitant moment with regard to
I G (which may acceleratel):

Mc = LP' x F, = LP'
, x m,r, (7.58)
I
Omdat dit uit Figuur 7.13 duidelik is dat p, - Pi = r'i' Because it is evident from Figure 7.13 that p, - Pi = r'i'
I volg nou net soos in (7.54) dat die interne kragte geen
bydrae lewer tot Mc nie, sodat
it now follows - as in (7.54) - that the internal forces
make no contribution to Mc, and therefore

I Mc = LP'
, x f,:= me . (7.59)

I
I 264

I
I
I
I
I
I
o
I Figuur 7.13

I Uit (7.58), (7.59) en Figuur 7.3 volg nou It now follows from (7.58), (7.59) and Figure 7.3 that

I
= LPi xm.r.
I
2>' x ml (R.+ Pi)
I =
I

I = I:, PI x m,R.+ I:I PI x mlP'

I = -R. x I: m,p, + I: p, x mlP, ,

,
I en dus and therefore

me =E
, Pi x m.Pi1 (7.60)

I
aangesien I: m,PI = 0 van (7.13). 'n Massa ml met since I: m,PI = 0 from (7.13). The angular momentum
I I .
momentum PI = m,rl se hoekmomentum t.o.v. G is
p, x mlr" sodat die totale hoekmomentum t.o.v. G
I
with regard to G of a mass rn, with momentum PI =
mlr, is p, x m,r" so that the total angular momentum
gegee word deur with respect to G is given by
I
I
I
I 265

I
I
LPI xm.Il.+ LPI x md'l
I =
I I

I = -it x LmlPi + LPI x miPI

I I
,

I en dus and therefore

(7.61)

I Fonoeel tref hlerdie uitdrukking dus nie onderskeld This equation does not formally differentiate between

I tussen die absolute moml!Otum mlrl en .die momen-

tum mlPI t.o.v. G nie, mits hierdie hoeveelhede in die
berekeoing van He gebruik word.
the absolute momentum mlrl and momentum mlPI with
respect to G, provided that these quantities are used In
the calculation of He.

I Yerder volg nou It now follows that

I dHc
dt =
d"
dt L." Pi x miPi
i
.

I = L Pi x mlPi + L PI x miPi
I

I en dus and therefore

I dHc" _
= L." PI x miPI .
-d-
t I
(7.62)

I Yergelyking met (7.60) toem dat Comparison with (7.60) yields

I mc=dHc.
dt
(7.63)

I Die bewegingsvergelyklng vir draaibeweging t.o.v. G

(7.63) stem dus fonoeel ooreen met die rotasie-
bewegingsvergelyklng (7.56) vir G, aI is G nie 'n vaste
The equation of motion for rotational motion with re-
spect to G (7.63) corresponds formally to the equation
ofrotational motion (7.56) for G, even though G Is not
punt niel a fixed pointl
I
I 7.8 ALGEMENE
STELSEL
BEWEGING VAN 7.8 GENERAL MOTION OF SYSTEM

Die resultate van §7.4 en §7.7 bied saam 'n volledige
I beskrywing van die beweging van 'n stelsel van deeltjies.
Ona sien naamlik dat dit bestaan u1t twee onderskeibare
aspekte. Eerstens word die beweging van die massamid-
The results of §7.4 and §7.7 together afford a complete
description of the motion oh system of particles. We see
that it consists of two distinguishabie aspects. Firstly,
the motion of the centre of mass is described by the

I delpunt beskryf deur die "ergelyklng equation

I 266

I
I
I
(7.64)

I Tweedens word die rotasie van die stelsel t.o. v. G Secondly, the rotation of the system with respect to G

I
beskryf deur die vergelyking is described by the equation

(7.65)
I Die translasie- en rotasiebeweging kan dus onafhanklik Therefore, the translation and rotational motion can be

I vir mekaar beskou word - 'n belangrike resultaat wat

veral in die spesiale geval van starre liggaam beweging
van groat belang is.
considered independently of each other - a result which
is especially importent for the special case of rigid body
motion.

I Ons veralgemeen nog 'n paar meganiese begrippe vir

stelsels van deeltjies.
We generalize some other mechanical notions for a sys-
tem of particles.

I 7.9 ROTASIE-BEWEGING 7.9 ROTATIONAL MOTION

I Die vergelykings vir draaibeweging kan op D.uttige wyse

omskryf word deur (7.12) te vervang in sommige verge-
The equations of rotational motion can be rewritten in
a useful way by substituting (7.12) in some equations in
lykings in §7.7 en §7.8. §7.7 and §7.8.

I 7.9.1 Momente 7.9.1 Moments

I Vervanging van ri = Pi + It in die uitdrukking mo =

Ei r, x fl vir die moment van al die (eksterne) kragte
om die oorsprong lewer
Substitution of rl = PI + R in the expression mo =
E, rl x fl for the moment of all the (external) forces
about the origin yields

I mo = Z)Pi + R) x f,
I
I Ons kan dit omskryf as We can write this as

I mo=mc+ Rxf , (7.66)

met me die resultante moment t.O.V. G, soos verkry in with me being the resultant moment with respect to G,
I (7.59), en met
mo :=Rx f
as obtained in (7.59), and with
(7.67)

I die moment van die resultante (eksterne) krag f om die

oorsprong, waar f nou optree asof dit op die massamid-
delpunt inwerk. Dus
I mo=mo+me·
being the moment of the resultant (external) force r
about the origin, where r now acts as if it is being ex-
erted on the centre of mass. Therefore
(7.68)

I 267

I
I
I 7.9.2 Hoekmomentum
Die hoekmomentum H word op BOortgelyke wyse soos
7.9.2 Angular Momentum
The angular momentum H is rewritten in a way similar
In §7.9.1 omskryf: to §7.9.1:
I
I
= L(PI+R)xm,(p,+it.)
I I

I = LP' x mlPI +R x Lm,P' + (Lm,P,)

I I I
x R+ LR x m/R
I

I = L PI Xm/p + 0 + 0 + R x MR.
I

I Ona het dus We therefore have

I met
Ho=Hc+Ha·
with
(7.69)

I Ha=RxMR

die hoekmomentum van G om die oorsprong en He die

(7.70)

being the angular momentum of G about the origin, and

moment t.o.v. G, BOOS tevore verkry in (7.61).
I
He the moment with respect to G, as the obtained be-
fore in (7.61).

I 7.9.3 Rotasie-Bewegingsvergelykings
Differensiasie van He en Ha lewer
7.9.3 Equations of Motion for Rotation
Differentiation of He and Ha yields

I (7.71)

I soos verkry in (7.63) en as obtained in (7.63) and

I dHa
= ! (RX MR)
dt

I = RxMR.+RxMR

I Ons het dus

= O+RxMR.
We therefore have

I dHa
--=mo,
dt
(7.72)

I 268

I
I
I waar (7.27) en (7.67) in die laaste stap ingestel is. Aan-
gesien nou
where (7.27) and (7.67) were substituted in the last step.
Since now

dHc
I
dHo
mo=me+mo= lit + lit'

!tan die draaibeweging beakeu word as die rotasie-
I beweging van G om die oorsprong tesame met 'n rotasie-
beweging ten opsigte van die massamiddelpunt.
we can now consider the rotational motion as the rota-
tional motion of G about the origin together with rota-
tional motion with respect to the centre of mass.

I Probleme
PT.D.I In Tabel 7.1 word die massas van 'n stelsel van
I drle deeltjies gegee BOWel as die kenstante kragte op el-
keen en elkeen se posisie en snelheid by t O.=
Problems
PT.D.I In Table 7.1, the masses of a Bystem of three
particles are given as well as the constant forces being
exerted on each and each particle's position and velocity
at t = O.

I i rn; r;\O) Ci r;(O)

1 1 x fox 0

I 2 1 ii fo(x + 0) 0

2x + ii
I 3 2 -foZ 0

Tabel T.1
I Bereken Calculate
r,
I (a) r, as funksies van tyd.
..
(b) R = R(t). Toets off = MR = L.J
; t
-i .
(a)
(b) R
as functions of time.
- .
= R(t). Verify that f = MR = L.J di' .
,
dHo
I (c) Ho en moo Toets of mo = lit .

(d) me en He· Teets of me = lit .

dHe
(c) Ho and moo Verify that mo =

(d) me and He. Verify that me = .

.

I Toets of mo = mo + mo, Ho = He + Ho,

mO=T'
dHo
Verify that mo = mo + me, Ho = de + Ho,
mO=Tt·
dH o

I 1.10 ARBEID EN ENERGIE 1.10 WORK AND ENERGY

I 1.10.1 Kinetiese Energie 1.10.1 Kinetic Energy

Die totale kinetiese energie van 'n stelsel deeltjies is The total kinetic energy of a system of particles is

I
(7.73)

I Soos tevore, word· relatiewe koordinate weer ingevoer As before, relative coordinates are again introduced
r,
I d.m.v. die substitusie = R+p, om sodoende te verkry
dat
through the substitution r; = R + Pi SO as to ob-
tain

I 269

I
I
I
I
= 1" '2
+". 1" 2

I j i j

I
1 .2
+ '21 "
I
.2
= '2MR ,
I

I waar weereens gebruik gemaak is van (7.13). Indien die

kinetiese energie t.o. v. die massamiddelpunt,
where (7.13) was again used. IT the kinetic energy with
respect to the centre of mass,

I ToC = 1"
'2
I
·2
, (7.74)

I en die kinetiese energie van die massamiddelpunt, and the kinetic energy of the centre of mass,

1 '2

I Ta= '2MR , (7.75)

ingeveer word, ske! die totale kinetiese energie ook weer are introduced, the total kinetic energy is seen to consist

I in bydraes van G en ten opsigte van G:

T=Ta+Tc
of the contributions of G and with respect to G:
(7.76)

I 7.10.2 Arbeid 7.10.2 Work

I 1:

I
I
I o
I Figuur '7.14

I Ten einde die arbeid verrig op 'n stelsel deeltjies te

bereken, .word die i-te deeltjie (i = 1,2, ... , N) beskou
In order to calculate the work done on a system of par-
ticles, we consider the ith particle (i = 1,2, ... , N) in

I 270

I
I
I in 'n bewesing langs 'n baan rl van 'n punt Pu na P21
(Flguur 7.14). Die arbeid verrig deur die resultante krag
op ml Is dus
motion along a path r l from a point Pu to 1'01 (Fig-
ure 7.14). The work done by the resultant force on ml
therefore is

I
(7.77)

I
Die totale &tbeld verrig op die stelsel is dan The total work done on the system then is

I
I
I
I waar ons N2, d.w.s. (7.22) vir FI gesubstitueer het. where we substituted N2, Le. (7.22), for F/. It now
Van (7.12) "olg nou dat dr; = dR + dp;, en ons het follows from (7.12) that dr/ = dR + dp/, and we have
I
I Laat nou r die baan wees waarlangs G verplaas Now let r be the path along which G is displaced during

I gedurende <lie beweging; die baan wat deur PI beskryf

word is natuurlik dieselfde as
word. Dan volg
wat deur rl beskryf
the movement; the path that is described by PI obviously
is the same as that described by rl. It then follows that

I
I
Indien definisie (7.11) in die eerste term gesubstitueer If definition (7.11) is substituted in the first term, it
I word, volg follows that

(7.78)
I
Van die transiasiebewegingsvergelyking (7.27) kan ons From the equation of motion for translation (7.27), we
I dan die eerste term skryf as can write the first term as

I Wa= hf.dR. (7.79)

Wa is klaatblyklik die arbeid verrig op G deur die resul- Wa obviously is the work done on G by the resultant
I tante eksterne krag. Die tweede term is dan die arbeid
verrig met betrekking tot G, en m.b.v. (7.22) kon
ons dit soos volg omskryf:
external force. The second term then is the work done
with respect to G, and with the help of (7.22) we can
rewrite it as follows:

I 271

I
I
I
I
I
I
I Laat r iJ die bMn is wat deur PiJ = Pi - PJ beskryf word.
Dan volg
Let riJ be the path that is described by PiJ = Pi - PJ'
Then we have

I (7.80)

I Vergelyking (,r.78) word dus Therefore, (7.78) becomes

W=Wo+Wc, (7.81)

I waar Wo en Wc deur (7.79) en (7.80) gegee word. Al where Wo and Wc are given by (7.79) and (7.80). The
only contribution by the internal forces is the second
bydrae deur die interne kragte is die tweede term in

I (7.80). Hoewcl hierdie term in die algemeen nie-nul kan

. wees (dink by. aan'n rubberstrook), is dit goed om
nou reeds op een geval te wys waar hierdie kragte nie
term in (7.80). Although this term can in general be
non-zero (think about a rubber band, for instance), we
must point out one case in which these forces' do not
make a contribution to W: if the distance lp, - Pi! be-
I 'n bydrae tot W lewer nie: Indien die afstand !Pi - Pi!
tussen alle pare deeltJies konstant bly, volg noodwendig
fiJ .L d(Pi - Pi) en dus is die tweede term in (7.80)
tween all the pairs of particles remains constant, it fol-
lows that f'J .L d(p, - Pi), 80 that the second term in
identies nul. (7.80) is identically equal to zero.

I Vergelyking (7.81) kan ook op 'n ander manier omskryI

word wat baie nuttig is: Aangesien
Equation (7.81) can also be rewritten in a way that is
very useful: Since

I WE=Wo+ L Jr,r f,·dp,

i
(7.82)

I die arbeid is wat verrig word deur ekateme kragte en is the work done by external forces and

I (7.83)

I die arbeid is wat deur eksteme kragte verrig word, kan

ons ook skryI dat
is the work done by external forces, we can also write:

(7.84)
I W=WE+W!,

7.10.3 Arbeids-Energie Beginsel 7.10.3 Principle of Work and Energy

I Aangesien die arbeids-energie beginsel vir elke deeitjie
geldig is, sal ook vir die sisteem geld dat
Since the principle of work and energy applies to each
particle, the following will also apply to the system

I 272

I
I
I W =T, - To = AT , (7.85)

I waar W die arbeid verrig deur alle kragte is. where W is the work done by all the forces.

Probleme
I PT.lO.l Twee blokke van massas m en M is op 'n gladde
hori80ntale vlak aan mekaar gekoppe! met 'n veer, kon-
I stante k en natuurlike lengte t. Die blokke word uit rus
losgelaat op 'n afstand 2t van mekaar. Bereken die sne!-
hede van m en M op die tydstip waarop die veerlengte
Problems
PT.lO.l Two blocks of masses m and M are linked to-
gether by a spring, constant k and natural length t, on
a smooth horizonal plane. The blocks are released from
a state of rest at a distance of 2t from each other. Cal-
culate the velocities of m and M at the time at which

I t is. the length of the spring is t.

7.10.4 PotensiiHe Energie 7.10.4 Potential Energy

I Indien ·al die kragte wat op 'n stelse! deeltjies arbeid
verrlg konserwatief is, kan 'n Potensiiile Energie vir die
If all the forces that act on a system of particles are
conservative, a Potential Energy for the system can be

I stelsel gedefinleet word.

Laat die gekose verwysingskonfigurasie van die stelse!

defined.

Let the chosen reference configuration of the system be

een wees waar die i-te deeltjie se posisievektor gegee one where the position vector of the i th particle is given
I word deur q;; i = 1,2, ... , N (Figuur 7.15). As die
krag F; wat inwerk op m; konserwatiefis, sal die arbeid
wat daarop verrig word wanneer dit verplaas word van
by q;; i = 1,2, ... , N (Figure 7.15). If the force F; act-
ing on mj is conservative, the work being done on it
when it is displaced from qj na r; will be independent
q; na r; onafhanklik wees van die baan r j wat gevolg
I word.
of the path r j being followed.

I
I
I
,
['.

I
I
I Figuur 7.15

I Soos in (6.16) kan ons dan die potensiiHe energie vir die
i-te dee!tjie definieer as die enkelwaardige funksie
As in (6.16), we can then define the potential energy for
the i th particle as the single-valued function

I V,{r;) = -
1" F; . dr; . (7.86)
ql

I 273

I
I
I Die totale potensiille energie van die stelsel, gemeet t.o.v.
die verwysingskonfigurasie, is dan
The total potential energy of the system, calculated with
respect to the reference configuration, then is

I (7.87)

I Die berekening van die regtetkant van (7.87) kan verrig

word deur die resultate van 67.10.2 te gebruik.
The calculation of the right hand side of (7.87) can be
done by using the results of §7.10.2.

I 7.10.5 Energiebehoud 7.10.5 Conservation of Energy

Indlen die kragte op 'n atelsel van deeltjies konserwatief 1£ the forces on a system of particles are conservative, the

I is, kan die behoud van meganiese energie (6.22) vir elke
deeltjie neergeskryf word:
conservation of mechanical energy (6.22) can be written
for each particle:

E. = 7'. + V. = konstant/constant; i = 1,2, ... , N .

I Sommasie oor al die deeltjies lewer dan Thus, summation over all the particles yields

I E = 7' + V = konstant/constant, (7.88)

waar die totale meganiese energie van die atelsel gagee where the total mechanical energy of the system is given

I word deur
E= LE.= LT.+ LV;'
by
(7.89)
•
I en waar die totale kinetiese en potensieie energie van
die atelsel respektiewelik in §7.1O.1 en §7.1O.4 bespreek
and where the total kinetic and potential energy of the
system are discussed in §7.1O.1 and §7.10.4 respectively.

I word.

I 7.11 OPSOMMING 7.11 SUMMARY

The internal forces make no contribution to the resul-
Die interne kragte lewer geen bydrae tot die resuitante

I krag op die atelsel nie, sodat tant force on the system, so that

= f
I
F
Mo = mo
Mo = mo
I Die massamiddelpunt het bewegingsvergelykings The centre of mass has the equations of motion

I
I mG
dHG
= Tt,

I asof die resultante krag by R inwerk.

bewegingsvergelykings is
Die rotasie- as if the resultant force is exerted at R. The equations
for rotational motion are

I 274

I
I
I dHe
= Tt
I rno = mo+ma,

I sodat die beweging beskryf word deur die massamid-

de!punt as 'n enke1e punt te beskou, tesame met rotasie
so that the motion is described by considering the centre
of mass to be a single point, together with rotation about

I
om die massamiddelpunt. Die arbeid verrig deur a1le the centre of mass. The work done by all the forces on
kragte op die stelsel, is the system is

W=Wa+We,
I waar Wa verrig word deur die resultante eksterne krag where Wa is done by the resultant external force on
op G, soos die geval is vir 'n enkele deeltjie. Die addi- G, as is the case for a single particle. The additional
I sione!e bydrae van die stelae! is contribution of the system is

I
I Die laaste term verdwyn indien die afstand tussen
deeltjies konstant bly. Die arbeids-energie beginse! en
The last term disappears if the distances between par-
ticles remain constant. The principle of work and en-
energiebehoud geld soos vir 'n enke!e dee!tjie, met ver- ergy and conservation of energy applies as for a single

I vanging van W, T en V deur die uitdrukkings wat vir

die stelae! geldig is.
particle, with the replacement of W, T and V by the
expressions that apply to the system.

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 275

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I