Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Module For History of Education 2020-2021
Module For History of Education 2020-2021
SUBJECT:HISTORY OF EDUCATION
YEAR ONE
PREPARED BY SIANZOLO.RODWELL
MA(ZAOU),B.A.Ed.(RU),Dip.(UNZA
Contents
HISTORY OF EDUCATION.......................................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................2
COURSE AIMS........................................................................................................................................3
COURSE OBJECTIVES..............................................................................................................................3
STUDY UNITS.........................................................................................................................................4
ASSESSMENTS........................................................................................................................................5
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT..............................................................................................................5
FINAL EXAMINATION.............................................................................................................................5
SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................................8
UNIT 1....................................................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION:....................................................................................................................................8
2.2 EDUCATION.....................................................................................................................................9
2
2.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION....................................................................................................................12
Introduction:........................................................................................................................................14
LEARNING OUTCOMES........................................................................................................................14
UNIT 2..................................................................................................................................................18
IMITATION...........................................................................................................................................19
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................22
ACTIVITY..............................................................................................................................................23
UNIT 3..................................................................................................................................................23
Introduction:........................................................................................................................................23
3
MISSIONARY GROUPS AND THEIR STATIONS.......................................................................................25
UNIT 4..................................................................................................................................................31
RESOLUTIONS PASSED:........................................................................................................................32
In this law:...........................................................................................................................................32
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................34
ACTIVITY:.............................................................................................................................................34
UNIT 5..................................................................................................................................................34
INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................34
LEARNING OUTCOMES........................................................................................................................35
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4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF EDUCATION..........................................40
ACTIVITIY.............................................................................................................................................44
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................45
UNIT 5..................................................................................................................................................45
INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................46
LEARNING OUTCOMES........................................................................................................................46
5.1EDUCATION....................................................................................................................................46
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................50
ACTIVITY..............................................................................................................................................50
UNIT 6..................................................................................................................................................51
INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................51
LEARNING OUTCOMES........................................................................................................................51
6.1 POLICY...........................................................................................................................................51
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6.3 CHALLENGES..................................................................................................................................53
6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS......................................................................................................................53
6.9.2 PROGRESSION.............................................................................................................................56
6.9.3 CHALLENGES...............................................................................................................................56
.............................................................................................................................................................57
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................57
UNIT 7..................................................................................................................................................57
Introduction:........................................................................................................................................57
7.1.1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................58
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................62
UNIT 8..................................................................................................................................................63
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8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE..............................................................................................................63
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................65
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................65
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HISTORY OF EDUCATION
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INTRODUCTION
The course: History of Education is a one year course.it is course designed for the college
level, programmes in education In other words, it is meant for diploma students.
This course guide tells you briefly what the course is all about, the course materials you will
need and how you can work your way through these materials. It also gives you hints on
your tutor-marked assignments; the details will be given to you at your study Centre. There
are tutorial sessions that are linked to the course. You are advised to attend these tutorial
classes. The time and venue will be made available at the Centre.
The overall aim of this course history of Education is to introduce you to the basic
fundamental elements of history of educational so as to appreciate and place value for
education. During this course, you will learn about very interesting concepts such as
definition of education, aims of education , concepts used in education , types of education,
indigenous African/traditional education, 3components of indigenous education, the
curriculum of indigenous African education, characteristics of indigenous education,
education between 1890 to 1924,missionary education, the British south African company
and education-1890-1924, native schools proclamation of 1918: it’s controversial part,
education in northern Rhodesia 1931-1953, the Phelps stokes commission, federal education
in northern Rhodesia between 1953-1963, post-independence education provision, post-
independence education provision, the development of education up to 1974 (first ten years
and post-independence education policies.
These concepts and many more will make you have sufficient knowledge to appreciate the
need for history of education, which should provide you with the necessary basis for further
study.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of this course is to introduce you to the basic fundamentals of history of education.
This will be achieved by aiming to:
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• Introduce you to the basic concept of education, goals and objectives of education.
• Discuss education and its functions.
• Enumerate the relationship between indigenous education and western education.
• Describe the education in the pre-colonial times.
• Explain the curriculum in relation to education.
• Discuss the concepts of African education and missionary education.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
There are overall objectives set out in order to achieve the aims set out for this course. In
addition, each unit of this course has some performance objectives. These are included at the
beginning of every unit. You may wish to refer to them as you study the unit in order to help
you check your progress. You should also look at the unit outcome at the end after
completing the unit. This will help you ensure that you have done what you are required to
do by the unit. The wider objectives of this course, which if met, should have helped you to
achieve the aims of the course as a whole are set out below.
(1) Explain the meaning and enumerate the goals and objectives of education;
(2) Describe the concept of education and specify the scope and functions;
(3) Discuss the relationships between traditional African education and western
education;
(4) Describe the approaches of history of education;
(5) Give the importance of history of education to the teacher;
(6) Explain curriculum in relation to the nature of Education in Zambia.
(7) Compare and Contrast the ideologies of the history of education;
(8) Explain axiology and its importance to education;
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To complete this course, you are expected to read the study units, and other relevant books
and materials provided by George Benson Christian College of Education..
Each unit contains self-assessment exercises and at certain points in the course, you are
required to submit assignments for assessment purpose. At the end of the course, there is a
final examination. This course is expected to last for a period of one semester. Below, you
will find listed, all the components of the course, what you have to do, and how you should
allocate your time to each unit in order that you may complete the course successfully and
on time.
George Benson Christian College of Education will provide you with the following: The
Course Guide
Also at the end of each unit are lists of books – References and For Further Reading. While
you may not procure or read all of them; they are essential supplements to the course
materials.
STUDY UNITS
The course consists of 8 units. These are made up of the definition of education, aims of
education , concepts used in education , types of education, indigenous African/traditional
education, 3components of indigenous education, the curriculum of indigenous African
education, characteristics of indigenous education, education between 1890 to
1924,missionary education, the British south African company and education-1890-1924,
native schools proclamation of 1918: it’s controversial part, education in northern Rhodesia
1931-1953, the Phelps stokes commission, federal education in northern Rhodesia between
1953-1963, post-independence education provision, post-independence education provision,
the development of education up to 1974 (first ten years and post-independence education
policies.
ASSESSMENTS
There are three aspects of the assessments. First are self-assessment exercises, second is the
tutor – marked assignments and the third is the final examination.
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You are advised to be sincere in attending to the exercises. You are expected to apply
knowledge, information and skills that you have acquired during the course. The
assignment must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessments in accordance with the
deadline stated in your schedule of presentation.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Aside from your course material provided, you are advised to read and research widely using
other references which will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper
understanding of the subject.
Ensure all completed assignments are submitted on schedule before set deadlines. If for any
reasons, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is
due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Except in exceptional circumstances,
extensions may not be granted after the due date.
FINAL EXAMINATION
The final examination for this course will be of three hours duration and have a value of 60%
of the total course grade. All areas of the course will be assessed and the examination will
consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor marked
assignments you have previously encountered.
Utilize the time between the conclusion of the last study unit and sitting the examination to
revise the entire course. You may find it useful to review your self-assessment exercises,
tutor marked assignments and comments on them before the examination.
The work you submit will count for 40% of your total course mark. At the end of the course
however, you will be required to sit for a final examination, which will also count for 60% of
your total marks.
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In distance learning, the study materials are specially developed and designed to replace the
lecturer. Hence, you can work through these materials at your pace, and at a time and place
that suits you best.
Visualize it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer.
Each of the study unit follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the
subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and
the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know
what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. Use these
objectives to guide your study.
On finishing a unit, go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If
made a habit, this will further enhance your chances of completing the course
successfully.
• Organize a study schedule, which you must adhere to religiously. The major reason
students fail is that they get behind in their course work. If you encounter
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know promptly.
• Turn to each unit and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
• Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a
sequence for you to follow.
• Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If
you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult with
your tutor.
• When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then
start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your
study so that you keep yourself on schedule.
• After submitting an assignment to your tutor for grading, do not wait for its return
before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments.
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• After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for final
examination. Check that you have achieved the units objectives (listed at the
beginning of each unit) and the course objectives listed in this course guide.
There will be specific time made available for tutorial sessions, in support of this course.
You will be notified of the dates, time and location of these tutorials, together with the name
and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your
progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during
the course. You must mail your tutor marked assignments to your tutor well before the due
date. They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or your discussion group (board) if
you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact
your tutor if:
• You do not understand any part of the study unit or the assigned readings.
• You have difficulty with the self – tests or exercises.
• You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on
an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face-to-face
contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise
any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from
course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating in discussions actively.
SUMMARY
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This course is designed to give to you some teaching skills that would help you improve
your teaching techniques and thus produce students who pass chemistry methods
We, therefore, sincerely wish you the best and that you enjoy the course.
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION:
This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning of education in general. A
number of scholars are mentioned without many details about them. It will be your personal
interest to investigate further about them.
The word education has its origin in a Latin word ‘educatio’ of which in turn has been
derived from the verb ‘educare’, which means, ‘to bring up’, bringing up or rearing of
children or animals. It may also mean educe re that means to lead out of ignorance. Education
has been defined in different ways by different scholars:
Farrant (1964) defines education as ‘total process of human learning by which knowledge is
imparted, faculties trained and skill developer. R. S Peters defines education as ‘something
worthwhile is being or has been internationally transmitted in morally accepted manner.’ He
goes on to say education is a ‘process, which provides man and woman with skills necessary
for them to take place in society and seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines
education as ‘initiative because it prepares children for social life.
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Schuffler defines education as: ‘a process of developing and transmission of knowledge.
You will find that in each society the education system is influenced by political, economic
and social belief of that particular society.
As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be necessary at this point to look at
different educational definitions.
Ross James- ‘the influence of a person who holds a vital belief brought to bear on another
person with the object of making him also to hold that belief.
2.2 EDUCATION
ii. It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved body of knowledge for
teaching).
iii. Another meaning of education could be that of an activity by the adults upon the
young to make them ready for social life (socialization).
iv. Another school of thought describes education as a process of providing people with
information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body of knowledge or themes.
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vi. Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool used to explain the total
process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained, skills
and competences developed.
You will realize that education in any society had its own objectives and generally to produce
an individual who would fit in a society in which one lived. The relationship between an
individual and the society has been utmost value and concern for social scientists. For this
reason, we may be tasked to questions such as education for what/whom?
b) Education for social service- helping the society though different careers e.g Doctors,
teachers, engineers etc.
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From the above aims, you will understand that education was multi-dimension in such a way
that whatever form it might be, it required certain aspects in order for one to benefit from the
education.
a) Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and the society.
b) Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain your answer.
Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of them are as follows:
c) Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or giving orders, rules, modes
of operating and instructions. The learner follows these orders.
d) Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is repeated over and over until a
person can do the skill without making a mistake.
f) Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions against his wishes usually
through the use of force or threats.
g) Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of believing without much
reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN Everywhere You Go
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There are three types of education and these include: formal, non-formal and informal
education
1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured learning which is found in
schools, colleges and universities.
2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside formal education and aimed at
meeting the specific needs of a particular group of people and
-Learning is supervised by
internal administrative body
-Certificates awarded to
those who are successful
-Certificate of attendance
maybe awarded
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required
In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and how various scholars have
defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and types of education, including the
common concepts found in education.
1) List down and give examples of the types of education that are found in Zambia
2) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the types of education in question.
Introduction:
This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the coming of the
Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have been explored to help
understanding the nature of the education that was there.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Education is part of every society, whether simple or sophisticated. Each community has
evolved its own forms of education based on the religious, social, political, economic and
cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa: 1989). In this unit, we are analysing;
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b) components of indigenous education
During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed their own systems of
education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed Africa as a savage, a pagan with
no history and culture to perpetuate that he was primitive, that he knew nothing and that
Africans never taught their young. This was a mistaken belief which reflected the ignorance
of the Europeans about African education systems. It also help to explain why the first
Europeans educationists never considered that the formal schools they were introducing had
any relationship to the largely informal education, the African children were receiving in their
communities. The basic assumption was that they were introducing something totally new. In
this, there was no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that adults never made
a deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men required by the society.
Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills, some scholars tended to
assume that they had no system of education. Hence, the conclusion that they had no content
and no methods to pass on to the young. To such scholars then, education in Africa would
mean nothing else but western civilization. Therefore, without western education there would
be no education. The scholars neglected anything traditional because of their restricted view
of the nature of the education. It is definitely fallacious to define education in terms of school
or reading and writing, because schooling and education are not synonymous in any way at
all. Education is defined as the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to
the succeeding generation, or a process by which people are prepared to live effectively and
efficiently in their environment. On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see that
before the coming of the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African
clan, chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective ever since the
evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and clearly intelligible.
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There have been no single indigenous form of education In Africa. Societies differing from
each other, developed different systems of education to transmit their own particular
knowledge and skills. The differences were not necessarily great, but it as quite clear that
indigenous forms of education were sometimes remarkably similar but differed in methods
and content. One form could be seen to have influence over another. This was due to the fact
that certain specialists were extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and
Islamic systems. The mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu blacksmiths
of Ivory Coast and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this.
Another misconception is that within one particular society, all young people learned the
same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where all families followed roughly the
same economic pursuits and where political and social roles were relatively undifferentiated.
Some traditional societies like Yoruba, had marked specialization in occupation as well as
pronounced political and hierarchies. Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the
royal court of Ife had a different orientation and training in skills from that of a blacksmith’s
son in the war camp of Ibadan.
To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or ethnic group in a communal
perspective.
The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an education that prepared
one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home, the village and within the tribe. The
education varied from the simple instruction given by the father or mother to the youths to
complex educational system of highly organized and sophisticated such as the one among the
Poro in West Africa which had myriad of ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies
fell between the simple and sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they
provided for their youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying heavily upon
the custom and example as the principal educational agents.
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1. History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what happened and why
things happened the way they did. For example, where did we come from,
when, why did we settle here? Why are we having the drought this year? Why
floods along the Zambezi river for example. The questions which were asked
made the society develop a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs
and sense of belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs, dances
myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names, surnames,
clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were also stories in the evenings
around the fire places about heroic deeds of ancestors, how they developed
loyalty and pride in membership of the tribe.
5. Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had reached the puberty stage
and it marked an epoch in one’s life as the child was being introduced by
elders to the legends surrounding previous exploits of ones tribe and
community responsibilities. It was an intensive course of instruction which
was done in seclusion and the initiates were exposed to tests of physical
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endurance. For example Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were
exposed to harsh environment and taught survival skills such as swimming.
They were also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance. Of
course there were clever women who could only put the pot on the fire when
they were about to come and pick it. They were given instructions in hygiene,
sexual behaviour, expectations in marriage among other areas. In some
societies secrecy surrounded the event.
In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and lived what they learnt.
Education was a lifelong process; it began at birth and ended at death. Education enabled
people to adapt to their environment in which they lived. For instance, those who lived in the
equatorial rain forest and those who lived in the plain areas each had the curriculum to
follow. At society, level education was planned or unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g
initiation ceremonies) or informal. Education transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential
for society’s survival. Learning was by imitation, repetition and observation. Society’s
education was determined by its ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education
ensured national unity and ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up
the contents of any education as “life in all its manifestations.”
In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education was humanization of man in
society. Learning was expected to yield:
d) Practice, not theory- what was learnt was put to use- pragmatism/functionalism,
practicality/utilitarianism was at the centre of learning.
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UNIT 2
IMITATION
Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and grandparents was part of the learning
process.
a) Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired attitudes, values, and forms
of reasoning by virtue of being member of a group, or because of social pressure e.g.
sisters wanting to live like mother Theresa.
Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to acquire a particular skill e.g
grooming someone to be a king, to marry a king’s daughter etc.
-praise an incentive
-Ridicules etc.
a) Most widespread
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3.3 FORMAL LEARNING
The education in an African set up required that the individual had to change in order to
adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing was one of the ways to confirm if
there was education going on. It involved both diagnostic and prescriptive that made rise to
the remedial lessons or for further perfection of skills, manners, attitudes, perceptions and
behaviour among other areas of interest. The testing was in form of:
ii. Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly relatives to see how they
could manage. This was in view of the other elderly people that one might live
with in future especially after marriage as African societies lived in
communities.
iii. A boy could be given an opportunity to express his personality as a man. For
example how to protect ones siblings.
iv. Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in laws for some
years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could take care of their
daughter.
v. The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to identify their cattle or
goats from the rest of the herds of the community.
vi. Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both the maternal and
the paternal.
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among them. On the other hand girls were taught gardening, cooking, laundry,
and simple skills of nursing. The education was centered on the whole life of
the society.
ii. Integration. The education depended on what was available without fixing of
time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome visitors when there were
visitors (situational learning). Teaching for sex roles was done during
initiation.
iv. Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught during specific seasons
such rain season (planting and ploughing).
a) It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for recording acquired
knowledge for future use.
c) It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be transmitted to the other. There was
no common language for different tribes.
e) It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid as they are today. But
measured against the people it had to serve. Traditional education was very
successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this form of education was conservative and
not progressive, some teachers were incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly
(2006) adds that it was orally based with no written records, it could not fully cope
27
with scientific concepts, it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation
inquiry and change.
In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to critically analyse and subject the
aforesaid to reason and take a position out of an academic and informed decision.
In any case, traditional education is believed to have been meaningful, unifying, holistic,
effective, practical, and relevant and community based. There was no separation between
education and the world of work. Graduates were readily absorbed in society upon
completion of their induction or socialization (Kelly, 2006; Farrant, 1980).
African traditional education developed and educated the whole person. This type of
education involved the entire society or community. Because it was human centred, it
promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the people. This education had
clear values, attitudes and morals for its curriculum. This was to exploit the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.
SUMMARY
The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or traditional education means, also
discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and demerits of Indigenous
Education.
ACTIVITY
1. There are some elements in traditional education which are relevant to an individual’s
life in a community. Discuss this assertion in relation to modern way of life.
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UNIT 3
Introduction:
The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time of the Missionaries and the
British South African Company (BSAC).
Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order to comprehend them.
Missionary education derives its name from the group of people who first brought it to Africa
from Europe-the church people or the missionaries. Between 1890 and 1924, many mission
groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in particular. They settled in
different parts of the country and opened many stations (Missions) as well as schools to offer
what became known as missionary education.
Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of these were:
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a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in the evangelization
process: ability to read and interpret the Bible in a local and English Languages.
c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g French policy of
Assimilation.
d) To give Africans some technical schools in carpentry, agriculture, brick laying etc.
Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz, Mungo
Park, and Henry Morton Stanley etc. also helped to stimulate missionaries to come to Africa
and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their aims?
Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the period under review.
Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools and clinics there.
i) Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years when established.
ii) Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating who their leaders
were at that time. For instance
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There are many missionary groups that had already established their mission settlements and
schools before 1890. Indicators are that the under listed were in Northern Rhodesia before
1890:
Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its establishment to David Living
stone’s exploration works which exposed the interior of Africa to the European people. As a
follow up to Livingston reports on events in Africa and Northern Rhodesia in particular,
many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia.
In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot of the Paris Evangelical
Missionary society with three pupils all male.
It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became National Barotse School.
3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the society-village set up/family) to some
place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a host of cultural aspects as the
two cultures clash.
4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific concepts. That it is dynamic
helps to make people adaptive and universal in nature.
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5. Perceived as a tool for national development.
6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy man’s chain. It promotes
“white collar job syndrome” as opposed to manual work that demands physique.
7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types: through medicines, industries,
technology and various disciplines of education itself like social sciences etc.
Depending on one’s view point it can be said that there are many benefits.
a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace slave trade with modern
trade.
b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for independence until it was
achieved.
d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was phased out or moderated e.g.
using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping ancestral spirits etc.
e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals, industries and modern way of
life supported by technology.
According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of Western education in colonial
Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who started their work in the country from
1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown in earlier lesson on missionary education
1883-1889.
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Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration of the British South African
Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a fortune in diamond mining at
Kimberley, in South Africa.
He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer what was then known as
North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he got support from the mother country,
Britain. His entry point was North-Western Rhodesia (1897) after signing concessions with
Lewanika in 1890, 17th October. The treaty of the BSA company mineral rights in all areas
under King Lewanika in turn the BSA company protected the Lewanika’s Kingdom and gave
him an annual grant of 850 pounds. The prime aim of the BSA Company was to:
b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of cheap mineral and
human resources for the development of South Africa.
Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted responsibility to provide social
services to the Africans in practice it was a non-starter. He was a first class capitalist
Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA regarding the provision of education to the
Africans as well as the development of colonial Zambia: the BSA records in regard to
African education was one of the consistent neglect.
It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently refused to give financial
assistance to missionary education in the country. It failed lamentably and shamefully to
implement clear promises regarding education which had been part of the treaties with
Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the BSA never fulfilled: the Lochner treaty
(1890, 1898, and 1900).
One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further agrees that it will aid and assist
in the education and civilization of the native subjects of the king by the establishment,
maintenance and endowment of schools and industrial establishment(vocational trade
schools), Sneson:122).
33
Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the BSA opened Livingstonia
mission school and funded it in a little way. This was facilitated by Rhobert Codrington, the
administrator. In colonial Zambia, the same was done in 1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo
village-Mongu. This school was only one partly funded by the BSA-co. And came to be
known as Barotse National School. It opened in March 1907 with Austin R William as head
teacher. African teachers were drawn from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum: carpentry,
bricklaying, thatching, forestry other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was
under the Paris evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard.
By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers or were employed as
clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule did not support African
education, missionary groups continued expanding in this area. They called on the company
to give grants to mission schools, the move which the BSA co. rejected. In 1911, the BSA co.
formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W. Rhodesia into one territory called Northern Rhodesia.
a) Lost opportunity:
The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African education stance in 1906. In this
year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds for education and other public
social services in his will. B.S.A. through Codrington and Wallace indicated that Northern
Rhodesia had no financial need.
Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department placed for governments
funding of missionary education.
Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to have a coordinated
curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants. The B.S.A. as government
had a duty to provide such a policy.item.
In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary conference was held under
the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was used to work with other churches.
They did so when they translated the New Testament in ILA.
34
These church groups did take part in this conference held in Livingstone in Collard memorial
hall.
a) Primitive Methodists
iii) To give civic education/awareness to local people about missionary work as well
as to care for the locals.
Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference. Rev. John Fell presented a
paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it was the main agenda
a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the education for local people.
By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the government as well; the quality of
teachers and their reliability. A form of control was needed. This led to the Native schools
Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were:
i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of local people whether held in a
building of not.
35
ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school
d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to national peace and security
through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers.
e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes of the society.
UNIT 4
This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern Rhodesia. It seems its first part
was user friendly but the other part was seen to be anti-development in the area of education
provision.
d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty five pounds or to be
jailed for not more than three months or both.
e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of the administrator, chief,
headman and other government officers would be black listed.
f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to magistrates and Native
Commissioners to inspect schools.
36
The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and provision without any
financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main providers of education in Northern
Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed and bitter.
The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918 Proclamation by all the missionary
groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919 conference. It was held in Livingstone from 18-
22 July 1919. Rev. Adolph Jalla of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society was elected
chairperson and Rev. John Fell of Primitive Methodists was elected Secretary. The
Conference proposed amendments to: Clause that referred to churches as schools and the
marriage clause.
RESOLUTIONS PASSED:
In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919, the government repeated the
1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced by the January 1922 New Native Schools
Proclamation.
In this law:
The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was attended by eleven
missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items, key among them were three
papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which advised/suggested recruitment of agriculture
37
expert to advise mission groups on agricultural education. The Government was to pay 1/3 of
experts salary. Coxhead was searching for Native affairs.
Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of primary education in the
hands of missionaries and that Government should support missionaries financially. He urged
the Government to be responsible for secondary education. Loram also suggested the
establishment of a college/university as was the case in South Africa’s Fort Hare. Loram had
come from Natal and was outstanding educationists.
Latham G.C. presented the 3rd paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the country.
He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and respect each other. He advised that
denominational differences be buried and that a first class normal school like Sefula be made
in central area for teacher training.
His paper indicated that missionary education should include: spiritual, moral, social and
economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a good balance between religious,
academic and individual components.
Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for teacher training to be offered by
the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was abandoned to differences that arose.
2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the program-five hundred
pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support the idea. But the
major success of the conference was that the Government was clearly made to
understand it needed to fund education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded
as a radical: He said, “We cannot educate the natives without allowing them
some share in their government, sooner than later.”
Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual self-government rule coming to pass. For
the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for learners at least 2 hours per day in
addition to other subjects (Literacy and numeracy).
38
not run away from funding education and that the Government needed a policy on
Native education.
SUMMARY
The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what was referred to as Missionary
Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what it had to offer in terms of education
ACTIVITY:
UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION:
This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed after the two groups’ involvement
in education as observed in unit 3.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
39
Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.
A lot of educational events took place between the time of Lathan left Northern Rhodesia in
July 1931 and the time when the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1953.
In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of time (era), the time chart
method will be applied. This is to capture events that happened as early as when Northern
Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British Crown in 1924.
1928 First departmental exams for teachers was held based on government standard 4
syllabus.
There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as well as practical
test on First-Aid.
In the same year, government’s Jeanes Agricultural, Normal and Primary schools
were being built.
1938 Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve boundary
1939 A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at Chalimbana (NISTICOL)
One major characteristic of education in the era under review was an attempt to implement
mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out racial school.
40
It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of the Phelps-Stokes Commission
Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee on Native education to come up with
the first ever policy memorandum in March, 1925. Its title was Education Policy in British
Tropical Africa.
Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commission’s chairperson became vivid.
This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policy’s entry point was that: The Controlling Power
is responsible as Trustee for the Moral advancement of the Native Population.
The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the local conditions.
ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the individual
more efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the
advancement of the community as a whole through the
improvement of agriculture, the development of native industries,
the improvement of health, the training of the people in the
41
management of their own affairs and the inculcation of true ideals
of citizenship and service.
The policy went on to state that other than initial training, teachers were to receive further
education from time to time (in service) or continuing professional development (CPD). One
way this could be done for rural school concept of visiting teachers.
a) The policy included the need to provide technical and vocational training to
counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to look down on manual
labour/practical jobs.
b) Girl education re-emphasized within the policy. The education of girls and women
was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done at once.
The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide educated mates for clever boys. It
was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons in hygiene and public health, child welfare,
domestic economy and home management.
42
The policy advised that adult education be given once the experimented stage/version was
confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had no education policy in Northern
Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced one. What remained to be seen was its
implementation for the benefit of the territory and its people.
This was set up to advice the secretary of state on matters of Native Education in British
colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work of this committee was made easy by
the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent records or reports on south and Western
Africa in of educational activities (1920-1921).
The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss Calorine Phelps-Stokes. The
aim of the fund was to enhance the education of Negroes in Africa and United States of
America.
The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist from Gold Coast, Dr. J H.
Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L Shantz agriculturalist and botanist
(USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational secretary, Colonial Office Advisory Committee
on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T Loram (South Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-
Chairperson (USA) and James Dougall (Scotland)
i. To investigate educational needs of the people in the light of their religions, social,
hygiene and economic conditions.
ii. To ascertain the extent to which people’s needs were being met in rural areas.
iii. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational needs of local people (ethnic
group)
The commission set out to do its work by sending an education commission to west, south
and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the first tour encouraged the Phelps Stokes
43
Commission to send another group to survey educational needs of local people in east and
Central Africa. This decision was made in 1923, and implemented between January and July
1924. The countries visited were: French Somali land, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Kenya, Uganda,
Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern
Rhodesia (8-13 June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was provided
by Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.
Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting teachers based on the Jeanes
School operating in USA.
a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort which conformed to the
general policy but the government was to reserve the right to intervene over the
general direction of educational policy and the supervision of all educational
institutions by inspecting and other means.
44
d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This education was going to
be given to those who by character, ability of temperament, showed themselves fitted
to profit by such education.
g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and conditions of service in the
education department should be such as to attract the best available staff. Both the
British and the African
h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff should be adequate in
numbers, qualifications and character which should include women.
k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child welfare and domestic
economy. Adult education for women was to be encouraged. Soon after the
presentation of the above document. The first director of native education was
appointed. This was Geoffrey Chitty Laterin.
l) The first survey of the state of education in British Tropical Africa was done in a
period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission which had made a rapid
tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar tour of East Africa in 1924 and
produced detailed reports which provided the Advisory Committee of Education in
the colonies with clear picture of educational needs.
The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted the following: that a
survey of educational conditions and opportunities among the Negros of Africa, with a
special view of finding the type or types of education best adapted to meet the needs of the
Natives, is undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes Commission.
In 1925, the principles on which the educational systems of the dependencies were to be
based were set out. In summary the points were:
45
a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they should cooperate with
other educational agencies. Each territory should have an advisory board on which all
educational interests should be represented.
b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and traditions of various
peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric
of their social life, adapting them where necessary to changed circumstances and
progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth and evolution. This meant
maximizing the use of African arts and culture and hoped that it would narrow the
gap between the educated class and the rest of the community.
d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men from Britain, whether for
permanent careers of for short service appointments.
It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on April 1 st 1924. Colonial office
was now in charge of affairs in Northern Rhodesia.
The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The purpose for the conference
was to:
46
4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS
a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools with the help from the
government.
b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools with the help of missionary
societies.
d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a. Most of it was to go to
the education expenses for Africans.
Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in April 1924. Among the
immediate tasks for the new government were to:
The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place logistics for administering
education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the Advisory Board set in 1924,
which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the Advisory Board only comprised
Missionaries, government and settlers without the local people.
One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native School Code. In line with the
one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The difference here was the emphasis put on
Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf of the colonial office spelt out the Education
Policy in British Tropical Africa in the White Paper No. Command 2374. This meant that the
47
new government had a framework to use in running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia.
Also those structures for educational administration were put in place for instance the
Advisory Board. Additionally, these were made clear:
ii. The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban) schools were put in place.
iv. Teachers’ conditions of service and qualifications were agreed upon and made known.
ACTIVITIY
The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American Quarker Philantropist. She
believed in the value of little schools for Negroes in the Southern States of USA. She gave
her fortune to their improvement. Part of the money was to be used to train: travelling or
visiting teachers. Travelling (visiting) teachers were supposed to be best trained teachers who
would demonstrate new methods and techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers
were expected to discuss challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and
48
inspire them to forge ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models and
demonstrators academically and professionally.
Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a Jeanes Training school in
Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that plan and idea. In 1928, the Beit
Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of 12,000 Pounds for the building of a Jeanes
and agricultural school in Mazabuka. This was accompanied by a maintenance fund of 1,000
Pounds P.a for subsequent four years.
John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the help of Frederick Hodgson
supervised the building of the Jeanes School, which opened on 3rd February, 1930.
These institutions –Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic School) and Agricultural schools
(now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became the first government educational
institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes School enrolled 21 while Agricultural school had 14
pioneer students.
Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes School was to train African
teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.
SUMMARY
This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its recommendations and the British
Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern Rhodesia.
1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main recommendations
of this commission
UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION:
In this unit you will be introduced to education system that existed during the federal period.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
49
Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference
The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The federation was an act of bringing
together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasa land
(Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger by Colonial Office was copper in
Northern Rhodesia.
Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare) which was the Headquarters
for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly developed from copper resources from here
including United Kingdom herself.
Capital projects built during this era included: Central African Airways, Central African
Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among them. Only mining in Northern
Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963 period. Agriculture at the same time was
the most affected in that prices fell due to preferences given to whites in Southern Rhodesia.
5.1EDUCATION
Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government was responsible for
Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites and other races. Most of the
resources went to fund education for non-Africans. However, from 1956, the number of
secondary schools and trade institutes increased. One institute at that time that became a
major one was Hodgson Institute of Lusaka. Between 1952-1953, ideas to build a university
in Northern Rhodesia were turned down but preferred to open one in Southern Rhodesia
(University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) in March 1957. This is the current
University of Zimbabwe.
The university through qualifications based on A-Levels did not help many Africans. No
teacher training college was built in Northern Rhodesia except for a few run by missionaries.
Unified African Teaching Service was put in place to look into the conditions of service for
the teachers. The few Africans who were exposed to education led to the development of the
African Elite. This group made nationalists movements. African National Congress (ANC),
50
Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) AND United National Independence Party
(UNIP).
After Ghana’s independence in 1957, the wind of change across Africa Nationalism became
the main stay especially in schools and places of work (industries) or urban centres.
Continued passive resistance against Federation by Africans led to its break up on 31 st
December 1963.
The sponsors for this conference were UNESCO and Economic Commission for Africa. It
was held in Ethiopia Addis Ababa from 15th -25th May, 1961. The conference was for African
Ministers of education, as for resolution of the 11th Session of UNESCO General Assembly.
The purpose and aim of the 1961 Addis Ababa conference was to establish an inventory of
educational needs and make a programme to meet those needs in the coming years.
By the time of the conference, it was appreciated that many African countries had shown
good efforts in the provision of education to their citizens, and that many were in the process
of gaining their independence. The conference was significant in that it provided the first
occasion when the education progress, needs and problems of Middle Africa (Zambia
inclusive) were dealt with as a whole, with the drawing up of a regional plan of educational
development for the attainment of the objectives agreed on by the conference.
African countries were careful in aligning needs to educational progress and economic
development. They also recognized the role of skilled human resource. They maintained the
intra balance in education to reduce costs and to seek external aid.
b) Secondary education
51
c) Curriculum reform and
d) Teacher Training.
The Addis Ababa conference set targets for a long term plan as 1960-1980. While short term
plan was set as 1960-1965. Features of the long term plan included:
b) Education at the secondary level to be provided for 30% of the children completing
primary education course.
b) Pooled ideas, visions, experiences, success and challenges became available for
sharing in the administration of the entire education sector.
c) The conference served as a bridge for cultural and academic work between French
and English speaking people (nations).
d) It attracted attention from the developed world, to decide to give aid to African
nations to help them develop their education systems.
From this conference, African countries went to draw up their domestic educational plans to
meet the agreed upon regional plan or framework.
Primary education:
b) There was to be only 10% wastage each year during primary cycle and accumulative
wastage target of 41% for 6 years.
52
c) Distribution of teachers on the basis of qualifications was to be:
It was noted that by the time of the conference most of the term of reference in short term
plans were already met by most countries.
It is believed that people or human resource is the most important asset a country has. All
other resources such as financial, industrial, natural and other are secondary. This view is
backed by one of the development theories called Human Capital Theory. The theory
contends that educating and training people is productive investment with immeasurable
returns in terms of national development.
Therefore, the topic title under review mean that Zambia and other newly independent
nations needed good formulae to develop people’s potential to bring out needed varied skills
and competences. Developing nations generally had no adequate skilled people by the 1960s.
This was caused by inadequate schools for tertiary education such as colleges and
universities.
Other factors included: imbalance in status and payment between white collar and practical
jobs, no role models in self-employment (entrepreneurs) and self-made people.
Another theory that supports Human Resource Development is Modernization Theory. This
theory stresses the need to have educated people in order to upgrade or modernize the process
of national development. However, other people felt that development theories and their
strategies such as Human Resource Development were narrow in approach for they seem to
only look at economic development.
Areas over looked included: lifelong education, health, cultural, traditions, religions and
moral values, leisure and elimination of poverty. Critics argue that the Human Resource
Development was too much aligned to employment aspects. Education was seen as a tool of
development.
53
Arising from the aforesaid, Zambia like other developing countries embarked on an
ambitious human resource development programme. To do this Zambia had planning
sessions called Matero and Mulungushi Reforms. These reforms advocated for a speedy
Zambianisation programme, to replace whites with Zambians.
To this end the government was compelled to give Massive education which was free from
primary to University level. Additionally, the curriculum was tailored to producing workers
for all the emerging industries although white collar jobs seem to have been the major output
as opposed to practical oriented vocations such as farming, building and technical ones.
SUMMARY
ACTIVITY
1. Identify and discuss both the long term and short term recommendations of the 1961
Addis Ababa Conference on Education.
2. Discuss the provision of School education in Zambia during the Federal period of
1953-1963.
3. Critically discuss reasons that triggered the need for a search for human resource
strategies in Africa and Zambia in the 1960s.
UNIT 6
INTRODUCTION:
The unit looks at the happenings in the education provision in the independent Zambia.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
54
Discuss the education system at different levels
Post-independence refers to the period after 1964, when Zambia got her independence.
Therefore the topic makes an attempt to review the approach used to provide education to
citizens in Zambia, more so in the first ten years 964 – 1974.
The review will cover these levels: Primary, Secondary, Technical and Vocational and
University.
6.1 POLICY
The government used the 1966 Education Act and the First National Development Plan to
execute its initial policy on education, during the republican formative years.
National Policy on education: through the First National Development Plan was very precise
on both Primary and Secondary levels. For instance, at Primary level, it set to:
(a) Provide sufficient places for primary education for every child aged seven in Zambia.
(b) Provide opportunities for all upper primary school children in urban schools.
At Secondary School level, the projections were related to the economic needs of the country:
(a) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the numbers and with the
skills required for national development.
(b) To expand secondary school building programme already started to cater for most of
the pupils in this sector form 1-5, (now grade 8-12).
55
(b) Development of an education system that must foster a sense of nationalism or
nationhood and promote national unity.
(c) Supply the much needed human resource in all sectors of the Zambian economy, by
developing relevant training programmes.
By 1974, government had achieved a lot regarding the provision of education at Primary
level.
6.3 CHALLENGES
In spite of successes recorded there were also notable challenges which included the
following: Poor infrastructure (buildings), shortage of teachers’ accommodation. Poor
conditions of service that led to major strikes e.g.: 1968, 1970, large classes, triple sessions,
made grade 7 repetition a visible gap in training between the old and young teachers as well
as high drop-out rates more so with girls at grades 4 and 7. This phenomenon seem to have
been more in rural than urban areas.
Other challenges for the primary sector within the first decade i.e. 1964-1974 included:
How to convince all stakeholders that primary education is terminal, medium of instruction in
terms of English versus local languages, how to enrich primary education to help those who
drop out at grade 7, what to do with the increasing number of grade 7 drop outs as well as the
widening gap between the number of Primary and Secondary schools. At the same time, from
1975 to date, Primary sector has continued to expand and scoring a lot of successes in spite of
persistent challenges of varied nature.
56
6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS
A lot of innovations have taken place in the Primary School sector since mid-1970’s. Many
primary schools have been built, many teachers trained as well, courses for both pupils and
teachers have been revised and changed from time to time e.g: Zambia Primary Course
(ZPC), to Zambia Basic Course (ZBEC), to Zambia Teacher Education Course (ZATEC)
which is being phased out for another course to be announced by MOE.
The term Primary is replaced with Basic. Basic education runs from grade1-9. Grade 1-4 is
lower basic, grade 5-7 is middle basic, and grade 8-9 is upper basic.
Government with partners such as churches, N.G.O, IMF, World Bank and many others have
continued to put their financial and human resources together to develop primary now basic
education.
In the Primary (basic) school sector, we have government, grant aided or (mission), Private
and Community Schools. All these types are coordinated through the MOE for: Uniformity of
the curriculum, quality control, monitoring and evaluation.
This is a specialized form of education where learners get practical skills and competences in
such areas as: Engineering, Mechanics, Building, Woodwork etc. This is done at technical
institutions such as Kabwe Trades, CBU and many other.
In the quest to increase the supply of skilled African workers and to raise their quality of
labour, Northern Rhodesia decided in 1948 to put up many junior trade schools to give 3 year
practical courses in bricklaying and carpentry to supply labour to the construction industry.
The target group at that time was the post- standard 4 candidates.
This three year course was strenuous and practical. In a week, only one day was for
technology and academic subjects. Most of the time in a week was for practicals at sites.
57
The project to establish trade schools started in1950, with three schools built and ended in
1957 with a total of 21 schools built. Of this number, 10 were government while 11 were
mission-run. By this time (1957), entry qualifications to these schools were being upgraded
from standard 4 to 6.
What is important to note is that missionaries pioneered this form of education before
government came on board. For instance, in early 1920 five schools were set up at Kawimbe,
Sefula and Mbereshi. At this time, government efforts in this area seem to have been
concentrated at Munali Centre. Later on, government built Mwekera, Luanshya, Mufulira and
Kitwe trades training Centres. Later on only low performers joined these schools, the rest of
the graduates opted for white collar jobs, especially after independence.
At Independence, Technical and Vocational Training was grossly undervalued. This was due
to its low status coupled with racial discrimination.
Secondary curriculum was reformed to cater for practical and science subjects. This led to
establishment of David Kaunda Secondary in 1969. Aim was for these schools to prepare
pupils for applied science jobs.
Within the first ten years after independence, racial barriers were cleared, NORTEC,ZIT,
Evelyn Hone College, Zambia Air Service Training Institute and many trades institutes per
district developed. In spite of these successes, there were challenges too. For instance,
shortage of trained instructors, low number of female students, inability to keep-up with rapid
changing technology, financial constraints to run these institutions etc.
It is important to note that the 1967 report by Mr W.A.B Saunders who was the principal of
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology- Canada, helped Zambian government in Policy
formulation, called: 1969 Statement of Policy and Intent. From the above policy, many
changes to improve technical and vocational education were done both in terms of the
58
curriculum and school infrastructure. It is hoped that current students will take keen interest
to find out subsequent developments in this area from the 1980s to date.
Idea to establish a University in Northern Rhodesia started as early as 1952 helped by the
Carr-Saunders Commission. But ideas not progress because Southern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland. However, the Tananarive UNESCO Conference of 1962 influence NR to conduct
a survey in March 1963 on the establishment of a University in Rhodesia, now Zambia.
In September, 1963 Sir Lockwood was tasked to lead the commission submitted its report in
December, 1963 and government adopt it in January 1964 for implementation.
The University was to operate on the philosophy that: The new University (UNZA) must be
responsive to the real needs of the country and must be an institution which will merit respect
and recognition throughout the academic world.
(b) It was to admit students based on ‘O’ levels and not ‘A’ levels
(c) The University should strive to merit the respect of the academic world both through
the intrinsic excellence of its course and through the evident quality and subsequent
performance of its graduates. Hence its motto: ‘Service and Excellence’
6.9.2 PROGRESSION
By mid-1964, Provincial University Committee was in place and University Act was enacted
in March 1966 at Ridgeway Campus, while lecturers started at current campus in March
1968.
Aim to give higher education that would facilitate national development by providing needed
skilled human resource in all facets of the Zambian economy. Government provided
university education free of charge but based on quality candidates. From inception to date
university education has gone through several fundamental developments, changes that are
well documented in many available sources such as national archives, books written by Kelly
and Carmody, MOE and many others.
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By 1987/88 Coppebelt University was established at former ZIT Campus in Kitwe while a
third one came into being in 2005 as Mulungushi University in Kabwe. In addition, from
about 2000, many private universities have mushroomed.
6.9.3 CHALLENGES
Many challenges are associated with provision of university education. They include:
shortage of lecturers, adequate infrastructure, LTM, finances and support services: transport,
equipment, communication and changing technology. At implementation level, classroom or
teaching: a host of them exist too
SUMMARY
This chapter tried to look at Post Independence Education Provision at Primary, Secondary,
Technical and Vocational Training and University levels.
1. Outline and discuss the developments in tertiary education following the 1968
Saunders commission of inquiry.
UNIT 7
Introduction:
This unit further explores the provision between 1974 and 1986.
7.1.1 BACKGROUND:
There was what was called the educational reform movement of the 1970, worldwide. These
were large scale innovations and reforms which aimed at reorganizing existing educational
structures and to modernize teaching content and methods.
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The reform movement is believed to have been precipitated by external events. For instance
in the United Kingdom new society had been introduced by the second world war (1939-
1945), In USA, there was a shock in the 19505 at Russian ability to launch a spacecraft and in
Africa and in Asia there was felt impact at the end of colonialism.
Apart from the above the general causes, there were specific factors to the 19705 Education
Reform Movement in newly independent countries.
(i) In the 1960s stress was put on expansion of the education system and quantity.
(ii) National desires to come up with their own new and different programs and
institution.
(iii) The need for economic self-sufficiency: perceived to be tenable thrush massive
changes in school curriculum and out of school education/training network.
(v) Not citified without comes of the 19605 development decade – (disillusions)-
hence the need for something better.
(vi) Misgiving about education system, which was perceived to be: highly selective,
promoting individualism and elitism, credentialism, paper qualifications appearing
more important than knowledge/skills, too academic and irrelevant to the needs of
many promoting inequalities and alienation and undermining self-reliance.
The general pattern of the reform movements was: Pressure from citizens for massive
change-decision by government to change (reforms) - rapid planning – large scale execution.
These include; high public expectations plus overloaded of education bureaucracy, both
leading to (b) delays, unexpected outcomes, public disillusion, resistance; all these resulting
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in (c) reforms being reduced in scale or reforms being swallowed up by traditional structures,
methods etc.
They were ambitions in terms of time, energy, material resources Invested. Seldom with
pilot phase, many initiations such as mob planners, teachers, parents etc did not take part in
implementation phases, frequent failures, maintenance of status quo, external advisors from
aid agencies were rarely used and there was financial, human and infrastructure demand.
In spite of few successes here and there, on the whole the education reforms are considered to
have failed due to various reasons:
(b) Too ambitions. Requirement for their implementation (reforms), exceeded financial,
material, human resources available at that time – (Demand out stripped supply). Did
not pay much attention to economic, demographic and logistic factors.
(d) Wrong strategies were used for instance; management strategies suitable for daily
routine tasks in stable environments (situations) were the ones applied to these
educational reforms and innovations!
(e) Implementations relied too much on political slogans, personal commitment and
voluntary service for a few people.
(h) Concentration on individual elements of the reform instead of on the total package.
(i) Planning took centre stage at the expense of implementation and evolution. This led to
piece-meal executions that stressed quantity instead of quality.
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(j) Ignored important aspects such as: population growth, health and girls education.
Educational Reforms: This refers to reforming and reorganizing existing educational policies,
structures and modernizing teaching content, materials, equipment and methods. The purpose
here is to bring about felt positive changes on the socio-economic level in the country.
These are aligned to revolution, political ideology and large scale movements that advocate
for social and political upheavals. The key stakeholders in this pattern of changing education
provision are the students themselves through unions and youth movements. For instance
Cuba and China are well known for this trend. The aim is to have an integration of education
and work and blending in of society in educational reforms. This is like militant approach to
changes of educational structures and systems.
RADICAL CRITICISM: This view or approach belongs to proponents such as; IVAN
ILLICH. This movement believes in the philosophy of de-institutionalizing education and de-
schooling society. Their argument is that education constitutes an independent variable in
each society and a direct faster in social contradiction. Management of education system
make it unable to meet citizens expectation. Instead the powers that be (political leadership)
uses education as an instrument of repressing, alienating and de-humanizing societies.
Ivan Illich wanted schools changed and suppressed and all institutions to be inverted –turned
upside down or reversed. This he believed would restore man’s freedom in the society and
enable him resume control of the institution and recover his initiative in education. Illich
believed that formed education had colluded (eaten, spoilt) and needed purification.
However, these ideas remained strange for they could not be aligned to any theory or school
of thought.
DISSENT: The fourth clarification of the reform trend or pattern is what is called the dissent
– (strong opposing views, protesting, rejecting stance) against what may have been put in
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place by authorities or approved systems of governance. These opposition’s views usually
would come from users of educating themselves: students, philosophies, politicians,
educationalists and parents.
In the Federal period 1953-1963, there was two tier education system in the then Northern
Rhodesia (Zambia). There was European education which was the responsibility of the
Federal Government, with its headquarters in Salisbury now Harare in Zimbabwe. There was
also African education which was the responsibility of the territorial government in Lusaka.
European education was quantitatively and qualitatively superior to African education
because it was better funded and more adequately staffed.
In 1964, the Zambian government priorities were to unify the two systems: ensure equality of
educational opportunity for all citizens and expand the unified school system at all levels.
To realize the above objectives, there was need to have a legal framework within which to
operate. Consequently, in 1966, the Education Act was legislated into law to guide all
educational enterprises in the country, from the late 1960s and beyond.
The government realized that for education to succeed there should be direction and this
direction was to be seen in the creation of policies which were to be followed. The major
education documents include:
1. Education for development 1976. This document looked at how education was
to be used for development of the economy.
2. Proposals and Recommendations 1977. The main focus of this document was
to achieve socialism through humanism; the cornerstone of this political
philosophy is state control of all commanding heights of the economy and
state provision of all goods and social services to the citizens, including
education. The 1977 education reforms aimed at doing the following:
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d) Giving only a limited opportunity to private involvement in the provision
of education.
SUMMARY
This chapter looked at the development of education up to 1974. Also, it looked at the
evolution of policies and what led to the evolution of these policies. In particular, it looked at
Education for Development 1976, Proposals and Recommendations 1977 and the ERIP report
of 1986.
1) Examine and discuss the reasons that led to the need to change or introduce
education reforms in Zambia in the 1970s.
UNIT 8
b) To expand and rehabilitate existing schools and equip schools with books and
other kinds of educational materials.
e) Motivate teachers
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g) Create conditions for effective coordination of policies, plans and programmes
b) To decentralize education
c) Increase access
e) Resource mobilization
BESSIP was initiated by the MOE in 1999 in collaboration with its development partners to
provide a variety of funding and technical support mechanisms to basic education.
The strength of BESSIP is that it tackled the immediate issue of access and equity in basic
education from grades 1-7 and developed a model for Zambian ownership and more
effective, co-coordinated support from international development agencies.
i. To improve access to basic education (grades 1-9) in terms of equity and gender.
ii. To improve quality and efficiency in high school and tertiary education.
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iii. Effective decentralization of decision-making, procurement and financial
management to districts and schools.
iv. Management or mitigation of the impact of HIV and AIDS. The strategic plan is a
document which improves on how to administer education in Zambia.
a) The vision 2030 is basically looking at how Zambia should move out of being a
middle class country.
b) In addition to this, all the National Development Plans have something to do with
education and the components are prepared by MOE. These give an analysis of the
education system; they also give proposals or suggestions for the future
developments. As they do this, they are trying to promote policies.
SUMMARY
This chapter mainly dwelt on the Education Policies and what emphasis was made in each of
the following policies: Education for All, Jomtein Conference, Focus on Learning 1992,
Educating our Future, 1996, Millennium Development Goals, Basic Education Sub-sector
Investment Programme (BESSIP), Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2003- 2007, Fifth
National Development Plan (FNDP) and Vision 2030.
REFERENCES
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6. Mwanakatwe, J. (1968), The Growth and Development of Education in Zambia
Since Independence: Oxford University Press.
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