ALLOWABLE STRESSES OF STEEL - 2 sections can be combined as a

substitute for W-Shapes

Terminologies 4. WT-Shapes
● Uniform Building Code (UBC) 1997 - Structural tees
● American Institute of Steel Construction - Cut from W-shapes
(AISC) 5. L-Shapes
● Allowable Stress Design (ASD) - Angles
● Load and Resistance Factor Design - Mainly used as truss members
(LRFD) - 2 or more sections can be
combined to create a
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) stiffer/stronger section– used as
columns and at times beams
● Founded in 1921, it is a non-profit,
- Can have equal or unequal legs
technical institute and trade association
6. HP-Shapes
for the use of structural steel in the
- Wide flange shapes usually used
construction industry
as bearing piles
● Steel Manual for Design, Fabrication, &
- Webs and flanges have same
Construction
nominal thickness
● It has among others, various section
7. HSS-Shapes
properties of different steel shapes that
- Hollow steel sections
can be used in the design, investigation,
- Typically circular, rectangular, or
fabrication, & construction
square cross-section
By using the AISC Steel Tables;

● You can determine the requirements of the

beam
a. Maximum moment
b. Section modulus (Sx or Sy)
● Always select the lighter of all possible
sections
● Shear stress and deflection should also
meet the requirements, if not, choose a
new section

Steel Shapes

1. W-Shapes (Wide Flange)

- Used as beams, columns, top &
bottom chord of long span trusses
- Most common and commercially
available locally
2. S-Shapes
- Previously referred to as I-beams
- Have relatively narrow flanges with
sloping interior face
3. C-Shapes
- Channels-shaped section
- Used as beams, columns, purlins,
truss members

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

Structural Steel DESIGN AND INVESTIGATION OF STEEL BEAMS
AND GIRDERS
● In designing steel members the yield
strength or yield point will dictate the Members Subject to Bending (Design
sizes of the sections Considerations)
● All allowable stresses will stem from the
value of the yield point (Fy) Bending Stress
● Locally available Fy of steel section
○ A36 or 36 ksi (248 MPa)
○ A50 or 50 ksi (347 MPa) by special Shear Stress
order

Design Method/Codes
Deflection
1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
- Also called Elastic Design or
Working Stress Design
- Working Stress are those resulting
from the working loads, which are
applied. Working Loads are also
Allowable Bending Stress will depend if:
known as service loads
- Compares allowable stresses of a - The section is COMPACT or
material to calculated working NON-COMPACT
stresses resulting from service - The section is laterally supported or not
loads
- A single factor of safety is applied L (unsupported length) should not exceed the
to a nominal design value to arrive smaller of:
at the allowable design value

Actual stress ≤ allowable stress

2. Load and Resistance Factor Design

(LRFD)
- Adjusted capacities (resistance)
are compared to the effects of
factored loads
- The factors are developed for both
resistance and loads such that
uncertainty and consequences of
failure are explicitly recognized
Where:
bf = width of flange, in
d = depth of section, in
Af = area of compression flange, in2
Bending Stress Formula

Ru ≤ ⌀Ru

ASD Load Combinations

Where:
M = maximum bending moment, Kn-m
S = Section modulus, m3
fb = allowable bending stress, KPa

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

Why Check for Compact Section? Allowable Shear Stress

1. Ratio of bf with tf
Shear stress formula
2. If the Ratio of bf to tf is greater than the
prescribed limit, there is a possibility of
the occurrence of Local Flange Buckling
which could affect the overall strength of
the section. Allowable shear stress
3. Third Criteria:
- Ratio of d with tw
- If the ratio of d to tw is greater than
that prescribed limit, there is a
possibility of the occurrence of Where:
Web Crippling which could affect V = maximum shear, KN
the overall strength of the section d = depth of beam, m
- Web Crippling can also affect the tw = thickness of web, m
shear carrying capacity of the fv = Allowable shear stress, KPa
section. Thus this is also checked
with a prescribed limit to Allowable Deflection
determine the allowable shear
stress Deflection formula

Compact Section Criteria

(Laterally supported beams)

Using the AISC Steel Tables

1. Determine the load that will be carried by a

Non-Compact Section Criteria single joist
(Laterally supported beams) 2. Determine the bending moment
2
requirements (Mmax = wL /8)
3. Select from steel tables then choose the
lightest section
4. Check the bending requirements inclusive
of the weight of the beam
5. Check shear requirements
Where:
6. Check deflection requirements
bf = width of flange, mm
d = depth of section, mm Steel: Design of Flexure Members
tf = thickness of flange, mm
tw = thickness of web, mm Depends on the width-to-thickness ratio:
Fy = yield stress, MPa
- Compact
- Non-compact
- Slender

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

 Members Subject to Compression

Allowable Stresses
● Will depend on the effect of the
slenderness ratio

fc = Pcomp/Anet ≤ Fc
Where:
fc = Applied axial stress
P = applied axial load
Anet = Net cross sectional area of section

Slenderness Ratio = KL/r

Where:
K = Buckling coefficient
For laterally supported COMPACT section L = Unsupported length of member
r = radius of gyration of the section = 𝐼/𝐴
Fb = (0.66)(Fy)
Limits for Slenderness as per NSCP 2015 & AISC
For laterally supported NON-COMPACT section
- Tension members, KL/r < 300
Fb = (0.60)(Fy)
- Compression members, KL/r < 200
- K values are the same ones used in
timber design (1.0 - pinned supports)

AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS (STEEL)

● Columns
● Truss members
● Struts
● Cables
● Canopy Supports

Members Subject to Tension

Allowable Stresses
● Tension on net section, except at pin
holes:
Ft = 0.60 Fy Compute for the
● Tension on net section at pin holes: allowable stress in
Ft = 0.45 Fy compression:

ft = Pten/Anet ≤ Ft
Where:
ft = Applied tensile stress
Pten = applied Tension load
Anet = Net cross sectional area of section

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

STEEL CONNECTORS
Bolted Connections
Individual parts or members assembled
together compose every structure. These
members must be fastened together by means of:
1. Rivets
2. Bolts
3. Welds
Rivets (Hot driven)
● Installation requires heating rivet to light
cherry red color, inserting into hole and
applying pressure to the preformed head
while at the same time squeezing the
plain end to form a rounded head
● During the process, the shank of the rivet
fills the hole in which it is inserted and
shrinks upon cooling thereby providing a
clamping force
● The amount of clamping force varies and
cannot be counted on in design
calculations
Advantages of High-Strength Bolts
Bolts
The most common and economical
connections used. High strength bolts have
replaced rivest as means of making non welded
structural connections.
● Advantages of bolted connections
against riveted and welded
a. Rapid field erection
b. Requires less skilled labor
c. Requires no special tool
d. Overall cost is cheaper because of
reduced labor and equipment cost
e. Less noise compared to rivet and
there is no blinding light of welding
f. Not fire hazard
● Types of Bolts
a. Common bolts
- Also called unfinished bolts or
ordinary bolts
- Classified by ASTM as A307 bolts
- Made from carbon steel
S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/
- Stress-strain characteristics are
similar to A36 Steel
- Design strengths are appreciably
smaller than those for
high-strength bolts
- Primarily used in light structures
subjected to static loads and for
secondary members
- Square heads and nuts to reduce
costs
- Sometimes hexagonal heads to
have slightly more attractive
appearance, easier to turn with
wrenches and require less turning
spaces
b. High strength bolts
- A325 (made from a heat-treated
medium carbon steel)
- A490 (also heat-treated but made
with alloy steel)
- Used for all types of structures,
from small building to skyscrapers
and monumental bridges
1. Smaller screws are involved, resulting in
quicker steel erection
2. Compared with rivets, fewer bolts are
needed to provide the same strength
3. Less training and experience necessary to
produce connections of equal quality as
welded and riveted
4. No erection bolts are required that may
have to be later removed as in welded
joints
5. Though quite noisy, bolting is not nearly as
loud as riveting
6. Cheaper equipment is used to make
bolted connections
7. No fire hazard is present, not danger from
the tossing of hot rivets
8. Bolted joints have a higher fatigue
strength
9. Changes in connections are quite simple
due to ease of bolt removal where
structures are to be later altered or
disassembled
Salad Review
Connection Types
Joints containing high-strength bolts are
designed either as slip-critical/friction type where
high slip resistance at service load is desired, or
bearing type where high slip resistance at service
load is unnecessary
1. Friction Type/Slip-Critical Connection
- For fatigue situations, and for connections
subject to direct tension, it is desirable to
use connections that will not slip
- Bolts clamp the plates being connected so
tightly together that a great deal of friction
is created between them
- The shearing stress is the maximum
allowable shear stress before the friction
is assumed to be overcome
- Used in structures with a great deal of
impact and vibration with stress reversal
or where slippage is undesirable
2. Bearing Type Connection
- Snug-tight conditions: defined as the
tightness that exists when all plies in a
joint are in firm contact. This tightness
may be attained by few impacts of an
impact wrench or by full effort of a person
using an ordinary spud wrench
Bolt Hole Sizes
S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/
Size of Bolt Holes
A. Standard Size Bolt Holes (STD): are 1/16”
or 1.6mm larger in diameter than the bolts
B. Oversized Holes (OVS): may not be used
in bearing-type connections
C. Short-slotted holes (SSL): may be used
regardless of the direction of the applied
load of slip-critical connections
D. Long-slotted holes (LSL): used when
connections are being made to existing
structures where the exact positions of
the members being connected are not
known
● Washers: used to prevent scoring or
galling of members when bolts are
tightened
● Bolts may be utilized in single shear or
double shear
● Single and double shear refer to the
number of planes across which shear is
transferred through the bolts
Note: Shear is always x2 in double shear (don’t
forget when solving this kind of problems)
Salad Review
Load Transfer and Type of Joints STEEL CONNECTORS (TENSION MEMBERS)

A. Lap Joint Failure of Bolt Connections

- Center of gravity of the force of members
are not in line 1. Shearing of Bolt: the possibility of failure
- Used only for minor connections in a lap joint by shearing of the bolt on the
- Designed with at least two fasteners in plate between the members (single shear)
each line parallel to the length of the
member to minimize the possibility of a
bending failure
B. Butt joint
- Shearing force is split into two parts,
2. Tension Failure of Plate: the possibility of
load-carrying ability of a group of bolts in
a tension failure of one of the plates
double shear is theoretically twice as great
through a bolt hole
as the same number of bolts in single
shear
- Result is a reduction or elimination of the
bending
C. Double-Plane Connections
- Bolts are subjected to single shear and
bearing, but in which bending moment is
3. Crushing failure of plate: possible failure
prevented
of the bolts and/or plates by bearing
Spacing and Edge Distance of Bolts between the two

● Pitch: the center-to-center distance of

bolts in direction parallel to the
longitudinal axis of member
● Gage: the center-to-center distance of bolt
lines perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of member 4. Shear failure of plate behind bolt:
● Edge distance: the distance from center of possibility of failure due to the shearing
a bolt to adjacent edge of a member out of part of the member

Spacing of the Bolts

Spacing

Use , otherwise:

5. Double shear failure of a butt joint: the

Allowable Bearing stress:
possibility of a shear failure of the bolts
Minimum Edge Distance along two planes (double shear)

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

Allowable Tensile Stress on Plates Allowable Shear Stress on Bolts

For bolted/riveted connections

Fv – depends on bolt type/material

Allowable stress on gross area (yielding) 𝑓𝑣 =

𝑃
𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡)(𝑛')
Ft = 0.60 Fy

Allowable stress on net area (fracture) Block Shear (Plate)

Ft = 0.45 Fy P = Ptear + Pshear
P = FtAt + FvAv
Allowable tensile force, P (yield) P = 0.5FuAt + 0.3FuAv
Pyield = Ag x Ft Note: smallest P is critical

Allowable tensile force, P (fracture) Shear Capacity of bolt

Pfracture = Ae x Ft V = Fv - cross sectional area of bolt
Ae = U x An
Force carried by one bolt, Pbolt
Gross Area, Ag Pbolt = P/nbolt
Ag = Bt
Shear at one bolt = (P/4)/2
Net Area, An
An = Ag - ∑Aholes Where:
nbolt = number of bolts
Where:
B = gross width _________________________________________________
T = thickness
L = angle leg length (Hindi na raw to kasama sa finals pero sama ko na
U = 1.0 (constant) lang din in case @_@ wahahahoho)

STEEL CONNECTORS (WELDS)

Allowable Bearing Stress on Plates at Bolt Holes
Welding
● In standard or short slotted holes w/ 2 or
more bolts in line of force, when ● A process by which metallic parts are
deformation of hole is of concern connected by heating their surfaces to a
plastic or fluid state and allowing the parts
Fp = 1.20 Fu
to flow together and join
● In long slotted holes with axis of slot ● Usually accompanied by the addition of
perpendicular to load direction & w/ 2 or filler metal from an electrode
more bolts in line of force ● Advantages of welding:
a. Fewer pieces are used, speeding
Fp = 1.00 Fu up detailing and fabrication
● If deformation around the hole is not b. Total weight is less than bolted
considered since gusset and splices may be
eliminated, bolts and rivets are not
Fp = 1.50 Fu needed either
c. Connecting unusual members
𝑃
𝑓𝑝 = ϕ𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡)(𝑡) (such as pipes) is easier by
welding than bolting

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review

 d. Provides truly rigid joint and Welding Electrodes
continuous structures
● A possible drawback is the need for
careful execution and supervision
● For this reason, welding is sometimes
done in the shop and bolting in the field
● American Welding Society’s Structural
Welding Code is the generally recognized
standard for welding

Types of Welding

Arc welding is a general term for the many

processes that use electrical energy in the form
of an electric arc to generate necessary heat for
welding.

A. Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW) Types of Welds

- Structural welds are usually made
by the manual shielded metal arc A. Fillet Welds
welding - Made where parts lap over each
- The SMAW process is designed other. They may also be used in tee
primarily for manual application joints and the most economical
and is used in both the shop and in welds to use
the field B. Groove Welds
B. Submerged Arc (SAW) - Generally more expensive than
- Arc is not visible because surface fillet welds because of the costs of
of weld and electric arc covered by preparation
blanket of granular fusible material C. Plug Welds
surrounding air D. Slot Welds
C. Gas Metal Arc (GMAW)
Typical Fillet Weld
- Electrode is a continuous wire that
is fed from a coil through the The effective area of fillet welds shall be
electrode holder considered as the effective length of the weld
- Shielding is from an externally times the effective throat thickness.
supplied gas
D. Flux-core Arc (FCAW) Allowable shear stress for weld metal is:
- Process is similar to GMAW
except that the continuously fed
filler metal electrode is tubular and
contains flux material within its
core
- Core material provides same Where:
function as SMAW coating or Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of
granular flux in SAW the electrode
- Useful for field welding in severe z = fillet leg length
cold weather L = length of weld

S&T Finals Good luck peeps! \(*v*)/ Salad Review