Biology – Important Things to Note

Characteristics of Living Organisms

MRS NERG

− Movement
− Reproduction
− Sensitivity
− Nutrition
− Excretion
− Respiration
− Growth

Order/Classification of Living Organisms

KIDS PREFER CANDY OVER FRIED GREEN SPINACH

− Kingdom
− Phylum
− Class
− Order
− Family
− Genus
− Species

HOW TO ANSWER EXAM QUESTIONS

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Structured Questions

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With discuss, start with a definition of the term.

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Do’s and Don’t’s of Drawing Diagrams in Biology

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30 DIAGRAMS YOU NEED TO KNOW: LIFE PROCESSES

No. 1

A: Cell membrane – provides the barrier for the

cells. Controls what enters and leaves the cell.
B: Cell wall – offers structure, shape, and
support for the plant cell (found in plant cell
only)
C: Cytoplasm – jelly like fluid making up the cell
D: Vacuole – stores water, sugars
E: Nucleus – contains genetic information
F: Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
G: Mitochondrion – site of respiration

No. 2

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No. 3

A: Crown – seen and above the gum

B: Root – part of the tooth embedded into the
gum and not seen
C: Enamel – hard outer surface of the tooth
D: Dentine – softer layer under the enamel
E: Pulp or pulp cavity – blood vessels and nerves.
Toothache pain occurs here
F: Gum

No. 4
A: Mouth – teeth, tongue, and saliva to help with mechanical
and chemical digestion
B: Oesophagus – tool that leads to stomach
C: Gall bladder – stores bile until it is ready to be released into
the small intestines
D: Liver – produces bile to emulsify fats and help with
digestion/breakdown of fats
E: Stomach – further digestion occurs
F: Pancreas – digestive function producing many enzymes in
pancreatic juices and secreted in the small intestine; carrying
different enzymes to breakdown starch, fats, and proteins
G: small intestine
H: colon – large intestine – absorbing water and forming the
stool or faeces. Carrying undigested material which is
released at the end via the rectum/anus.
I: rectum – leads to the anus

PLANT STRUCTURES

No. 5

A: Lamina – allows easy penetration of sunlight

B: Apex – point of the leaf
C: Veins – carries the vascular bundle. Transporting
materials throughout the leaf and adds structure
and support to the leaf
D: Midrib – large vein offering support and carrying
materials throughout the leaf. Prevent leaf from
easily tearing
E: Petiole – point of the leaf that is attached to the
stem

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No. 6

A: upper epidermis – leaf if you were looking at it under a microscope

B: palisade layer – comprises palisade cells – majority of photosynthesis takes place. Lot of chloroplasts here
C: spongy layer - irregular shaped, rounded and carry out photosynthesis. Loosely packed to allow for exchange of
gases
Note: Mesophyll layer – combination of the palisade and the spongy layer
D. Lower epidermis – cells which don’t participate in photosynthesis. Allows sunlight to penetrate. Same for upper
epidermis.
E: waxy cuticle (upper epidermis) – helps to conserve water/prevent water loss. Thicker here because it most
exposed to the sunlight so more dried out.
F: air space between the cells of the spongy layer. Important in gas exchange and diffusion of the gases among the
cell of the leaf.
G: waxy cuticle (lower epidermis) – helps to conserve water/prevent water loss.
Stoma – small openings in the epidermis layer of the leaves. Gases enter the stoma (oxygen and carbon dioxide)

No. 7

1. Nose/Nostrils – air enters and

leaves
2. Mouth – better to breathe through
nose than mouth to allow proper
filter of air and prevention of
bacteria via nose hairs
3. Larynx – voice box/vocal cords
4. Right lung
5. Right bronchus
6. Diaphragm – muscular sheet
underneath the lungs
7. Throat/Pharynx
8. Trachea/Windpipe - air flows
downwards to the lung
9. Left bronchus
10. Bronchiole
11. Alveoli – site of gaseous exchange

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No. 8

A: Carbon dioxide (CO2) going out

B: Oxygen (O2) gas going in
P: Capillary – wrapped around the alveolus.
Transport system which carries the gases to
and from
Q: Red blood cells – responsible for
transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Carries
R: Lining of moisture inside the alveolus.
Makes it easier for the gases to diffuse across
the surfaces (capillary and the alveolus)
S: Alveola membrane or wall – very thin to
make it easy for gases to diffuse

No. 9
A. Vena cava – largest vein in the body.
Deoxygenated blood to right side of heart
B. Right atrium
C. Right ventricle
D. Aorta – largest artery in the body. Carry
oxygenated blood throughout the body
E. Pulmonary artery – connected to right side
of the heart. Take blood away from the
heart.
F. Pulmonary vein – carrying oxygen rich
blood from lung to left side of heart
G. Left atrium
H. Left ventricle

Note on Valves
• Bicuspid valve – on the left side between left
atrium and left ventricle
• Tricuspid valve – between the right atrium
and the right ventricle
• Aortic valve and pulmonary valve –
between ventricles and arteries
• Purpose of valves is to prevent back flow

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No. 10

Difference between an artery, a vein, and a capillary

• Capillary – smallest of the blood vessels

• Blood vessel A – artery
• Blood vessel B – vein

Capillary
• Known for exchange of materials – heart
tissues, nutrient and oxygen to the cells and
waste returned to the blood
Veins
• have the valves
• have thin muscular walls
• lumen/opening of the vein – much larger than
artery to allow the blood to flow under low
pressure

Artery
• Much smaller lumen/opening
• Thicker walls to withstand thick pressure blood
flowing through. Don’t need valves as blood
usually flows in one direction.

No. 11

A. Red blood cells – no nucleus, carry

haemoglobin. Bi concave shaped
discs/cells. Transport oxygen around the
body.
B. Platelets – known for blood clotting. No
nucleus.
C. Lymphocyte – white blood cell. Larger
more rounded shape nucleus. Produces
antibodies.
D. Phagocyte – white blood cell. Irregular
shaped. Engulfs pathogens

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No. 12

A. Xylum vessels – transport water

and minerals up to the leaves from
the roots.
B. Cambium – tissue between the
xylum and the phloem – group of
rapidly dividing cells giving rise to
the xylum or the phloem
C. Phloem – transport organic
solutions, mostly sugars, goes
downward from the leaves to the
different parts of the plant.

No. 13

1. Kidney – main organ of the urinary

system. Two kidneys. Makes the
urine.
2. Ureter – carries the urine from the
kidney to the bladder.
3. Bladder - stores the urine for a
period
4. Urethra – connects the bladder to
the outside world (toilet)

No. 14 I. Renal artery – takes

blood to be purified
towards the kidney
II. Renal vein – carry
purified blood away
from the kidney
III. Pelvis – all urine is
drained out towards
the ureter
IV. Ureter
V. Medulla
VI. Nephron – functional
unit of the kidney.
Makes the urine.
VII. Outer cortex

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No. 15

A. Bowman’s capsule
B. Glomerulus – knot of
capillaries where filtration
occurs. Filter out small
substances in the Bowman’s
capsule.
C. Proximal tubule – selective
reabsorption. Only useful
substances to be
reabsorbed into the blood.
D. Loop of Henle – water
regulation occurs
E. Distal tubule
F. Collecting duct – all water is
adjusted, salts adjusted,
urine is fully formed and
No. 16 ready to leave nephron, exit
into the kidney and then to
the ureter.

A. Skull – consists of cranium (top part of the skull protects the brain), mandibles (jawbone) and the orbits
B. Orbits – eyes located there. Also called eye sockets.
C. Clavicle or collarbone
D. Sternum or breastplate
E. Ribs or the ribcage – protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs
F. Pelvis or pelvic girdle (hip bone)
G. Femur – largest bone in the body (thigh bone)
H. Tibia/shin bone (next to it is the fibula – smaller of the 2 bones)
I. Vertebrae (spinal bones) – cervical vertebrae (neck), upper back (thoracic vertebrae – bones that interconnect
with ribcage), lumbar vertebrae (larger bones), sacrum, coccyx (tailbone)
J. Humerus/funny bone/upper arm bone
K. Ulna (forms the point of the elbow) – larger of the 2 lower arm bones
L. Radius (smaller of 2 benes2 lower arm bones)

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No. 17

• Muscle X – biceps – arm lifts/bends, biceps contract; arm extends, biceps relax.

• Muscle Y – triceps – arm lifts/bends, triceps relax; arm extends; triceps contract.

• Note: biceps and triceps work antagonistically or in opposite directions to facilitate arm

movement.

• Joint W – ball and socket joint. Bone moves like a ball in a socket. Full 360o movement. Shoulder

joint – can swing arm around completely.

• Joint Z – hinge or elbow joint.

• Tendons – connect muscle to bone.

o Tendon of origin – connects muscle to more stable bone (scapula and clavicle in the shoulder

joint)

o Tendon of insertion – connect to bones that do most of the movement

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No. 18

View 1
A. Ligament – connect bone to bone. Also called joint capsule.
B. Bone
C. Synovial membrane
D. Synovial fluid – keeps joint lubricated. Helps with easy movement,
E. Cartilage – located where two bones meat at the joint. Prevents friction and damage at the point.
Absorbs shock from sudden movement

View 2
A. Bone – humerus
B. Synovial fluid
C. Synovial membrane – produces synovial fluid
D. Ligament
E. Cartilage
F. Ulna – Lower arm bone 1
G. Radius – Lower arm bone 2

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No. 19

I. Cerebrum – largest
surface area of the brain.
Thought, reasoning,
memory, sensory, motor
action
II. Cerebellum – control
muscle activity, balance,
and positioning.
III. Medulla Oblongata –
controls involuntary
actions – breathing, heart
rate, peristalsis – actions
we cannot consciously
control

No. 20
1. Dendrites – small fibres
connected to other neurons
and receives electrical
impulses.
2. Nucleus – all cells have a
nucleus, except red blood
cells
3. Cytoplasm – basic parts of the
cell body
4. Myelin sheet – helps to
increase the rate of
transmission of the nervous
impulses through the neuron.
5. Node of ranvier – between
myelin sheath and axon.
Electrical messages can hop
from node to node
6. Axon – thin nerve fibre that
transmits electrical impulses
away from the cell body
downwards
7. Nerve or synaptic endings –
connect to another neuron,
muscle, or gland

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No. 21

Front Parts
A. Sclera – all around the eye. Gives the eye its bouncy structure. The white of the eye.
B. Ciliary muscle – Process of accommodation, lens change shape to receive light rays coming at
different distance. Can either contract or relax based on the distance of the object.
C. Cornea – refracting or bending light rays as they enter the eye. Transparent region of the eye.
D. Aqueous humour – contains water and nutrients
E. Pupil – appear as a black dot in the eye
F. Lens – transparent part of the eye that does some refraction. Focuses light rays at the back of the
eye (retina)
G. Iris – coloured part of the eye made up of muscular tissue to control how big the pupil will get
based on the intensity of light. Dim light – pupil gets bigger; bring
H. Suspensory ligaments – accommodation – loosen or tighten to adjust the shape of the lens.

Back Parts
I. Vitreous Humour
J. Choroid – darkly pigmented region that prevents light from scattering as it enters the eye. Directly
under the sclera.
K. Retina – receives light, contains photoreceptors or light sensitive cells (cone – bright light and
allows colour; rod – less light, allows us to see black, and grey; and create messages to the brain
L. Fovea – concentrated with cone cells. Most light rays focus here. Light falls here results in clear
sight and the ability to see in colour.
M. Optic nerve – transmits electrical messages created in the retina to the brain. Brain processes the
image so we can see it right side up (retina sends the image to the brain upside down).

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No. 22

A. Pituitary gland – found in the brain. Master gland. Secretes various hormones that controls different

activities in the body. E.g., antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - osmoregulation

B. Thyroid gland – located in the neck. Secretes thyroxine and controls metabolism. Physical and

mental growth.

C. Adrenal glands – secretes main hormone adrenaline (fight or flight hormone)

D. Pancreas – (I) digestive function (ii) produces 2 hormones insulin and glucagon

E. Ovaries (in females) – produce oestrogen and progesterone. Controls menstrual cycle.

F. Testes (male) – produce testosterone. Also produces follicle simulating and luteinising hormones

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No. 23

Skin Layers
A. Epidermis
B. Dermis – largest of the 3 layers
C. Hypo dermis or subcutaneous layer

1. Hair
2. Sebaceous gland – produces oily fluid that helps to keep the skin moisturised and supple. Exocrine
gland.
3. Malpighian layer – rapidly dividing skin cells. Above the malphigian layer = Cornified layer – dead skin
cells
4. Sweat gland (exocrine gland) produces sweat during high temperatures and goes through sweat pores
5. Blood vessels – veins lie closer to the skin, capillaries, and arteries deeper
6. Hair follicle – root of the hair where the hair grows out of the skin
7. Hair erector muscle – controls how the hair would stand or if it lays flat depending on the temperature.
Muscle contracts, hair stands erect; relaxes, hair lies flat.
8. Nerve ending

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No. 24

A. Uterus/womb – implantation and growth and development of foetus. Expands multiple times

during pregnancy to allow for the development of the foetus.

B. Fallopian tubes/oviduct – process of fertilisation occurs with the eggs from the ovary – sperm

meets eggs, and the fertilised egg (zygote) is implanted in the uterus

C. Uterus lining/endometrium

D. Cervix – neck of the uterus. Dilates during birth

E. Ovary

F. Vagina/vaginal canal/birth canal – main sex organ receiving the penis. Exit from menstrual blood

and birth canal for baby.

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No. 25

Process A – Ovulation – release of matured egg from the graafian follicle of the ovary into the oviduct.

Empty oviduct known as the corpus luteum

Hormones (responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle)

1. Oestrogen – secreted by the graafian follicle found in the ovary. Purpose is to repair the uterus lining

after menstruation.

2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – increases rapidly approaching ovulation. It triggers ovulation.

3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – stimulates the growth of the follicles.

4. Progesterone – only increase after ovulation (after day 14) to maintain the thickness of the uterus

lining in preparation for pregnancy. Comes from the corpus luteum.

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No. 26

A. Bladder

B. Vas deferens/sperm duct

C. Seminiferous gland

D. Prostate gland

E. Urethra

F. Epididymis – where the sperm goes to mature and stored until ready to release at ejaculation.

Ejaculation is release of the sperm from the sperm duct and collect fluids from the seminiferous and

prostate glands, and accessory gland (semen) which nourishes the sperm as it goes down/swims to

the urethra down to the penis.

G. Testis (Testes – plural) – manufactures the sperm. 2 of them housed in the scrotum to provide the

suitable temperature to secure the sperm.

H. Penis/glans penis

I. Scrotum

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No. 27

1. Placenta – baby’s life support where exchange of materials (nutrients and waste substances) from

baby to mother and vice versa. Attached to mother’s uterus.

2. Umbilical cord – attaches foetus to the placenta. Has arteries and veins which facilitates the

movement of nutrients and oxygen and other substances to and from the baby. Forms the navel when

cut at birth.

3. Amniotic fluid – surrounds the foetus. Protects the baby during growth and prevents against

shock/sudden movement

4. Cervix – protects the baby from incoming bacteria and viruses. Comes out just before birth.

5. Foetus

6. Amnion

7. Uterus – womb. Carries the baby during pregnancy.

8. Vagina – birth canal where baby passes through during labour

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No. 28

1. Petal – coloured part of the flower. Usually scented and attracts insects and birds to facilitate
pollination.
2. Filament – long structure which attaches the anther
3. Anther – forms the male part of the flower with the filament. Produces pollen grains which carries
the male gametes. Stamen is the male part of the flower
4. Stigma
5. Style
6. Ovary – turns into the fruit
7. Ovule – carries the female gametes. Turns into the seed
8. Female parts of the flower: carpel/pistil)

This is an insect pollinated flower. Students will need to know how to differentiate between a wind and
an insect pollinated flower.

Wind Pollinated Flower

− Smaller petals
− Feather stigma
− Anthers hang loosely outside the flower

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No. 29

A. Exocarp/epicarp – outside
layer
B. Mesocarp – middle region of
the fruit. Juicy part of the fruit
that is eaten.
C. Endocarp – inner layer
surrounding the seed
D. Seed – formed after double
fertilisation

No. 30

A. Testa/seed coat
B. Plumule – young shoot, green part of the seed that comes up after germination. Turns into
the leaves and stem.
C. Radicle – young root
D. Hilum – scar tissue left behind after the seed is removed from the ovary.
E. Micropyle – opening remaining in the seed after fertilisation occurs. Prior to fertilisation, it is
the opening where pollen tube grows through and enters the ovule for double fertilisation to
occur. Allows water to enter the seed during imbibition. Water enters and cause the seed to
swell and breaks the testa, the beginning stage of germination.
F. Cotyledon – majority of the area within the seed. All the nutrients are stored here – starch,
fats, proteins – and enzymes. Nutrients are necessary for the growth of the embryonic plant.

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