Electricity

- A form of energy. Also a manufactured product

- a "secondary energy source". It is manufactured from the conversion of other "primary
energy sources" like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources
- The energy sources used to make Electric Energy can be renewable or nonrenewable,
but Electric Energy itself is neither renewable or non-renewable.
- Electricity is the flow of electrons. All matter is made up of atoms, and an atom has a
center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged particles called
protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an atom is
surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons.
- The negative charge of an electron is = to the positive charge of a proton, and the
number of electrons in an atom is usually =to the number of protons.
- When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force,
an atom may gain or lose an electron. An atom that loses electrons has more protons
than electrons and is positively charged. An atom that gains electrons has more negative
particles and is negatively charged. A "charged" atom is called an "ion."
- When electrons are "lost" from an atom, the free movement of these electrons
constitutes an electric current

Four basic units of electricity

● Voltage (v)
Volt - A unit of electrical pressure (or electromotive force) which causes current
to flow in a circuit. One volt is the amount of pressure required to cause one
ampere of current to flow against one ohm of resistance.
Voltage - That force which is generated to cause current to flow in an electrical
circuit. It is also referred to as electromotive force or electrical potential. Voltage
is measured in volts.
● Current (I)
- The standard unit used in measuring the strength of electric current is ampere.
- It is the amount of current flow sent by one volt through the resistance of one
ohm
- When there is too much flow of electricity in a small conductor or wire, heat is
produced which may cause the protective device to blow-off, or burn the wire
insulator and create fire.

● Power (P)
● Resistance ®
- The standard unit for measuring resistance to flow of an electrical current is
OHM.
- Every electrical conductor offers resistance to the flow of current, just as a tube
through which waterflows offers resistance to the current of water.
 - One ohm is the amount of resistance that limits current flow to one ampere in a
circuit with one volt of electrical pressure.

OHM’s Law
- states that 'the current drifting in a conductor is directly-proportional to the potential
difference across the ends of that conductor, provided all physical conditions, such as
temperature, remain constant'.

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY

Static Electricity
- Static electricity is when electrical charges build up on the surface of a material.
- It is usually caused by rubbing together two or more objects/materials and making
friction.
- The result of a build-up of static electricity is that objects may be attracted to each other
or may even cause a spark to jump from one to the other.
- Before rubbing, all materials have a neutral charge. This is because they each have an
equal number of positively charged subatomic particles (protons) and negatively charged
subatomic particles (electrons).
- When materials are rubbed with each other, electrons are transferred from one material
to the other because of differences in the attraction
- of the two materials for electrons. One material becomes negatively charged because it
gains electrons from the other material, while the other material becomes positively
charged because it loses electrons.
Current Electricity
- Current electricity is the flow of electric charge across an electrical field.
- Current is the rate of flow of electrons. It is produced by moving electrons and it is
measured in amperes.
- Unlike static electricity, current electricity must flow through a conductor, usually copper
wire.
- Current with electricity is just like the current of a river. The river flows from one spot to
another, and the speed it moves is the speed of the current.
- With electricity, current is a measure of the amount of energy transferred over a period of
time. That energy is called a flow of electrons. One of the results of current is the heating
of the conductor. When an electric stove heats up, it's because of the flow of current.

Energy Sources to Generate

● Electricity
- A turbine can be turned by many different sources of energy. These vary widely and
include fossil fuels, water and wind.
 - A most common way to generate electricity throughout the world is with high
temperature and pressure steam from boiling water. Many different fuels can be burned
to heat the water including wood, coal, oil and natural gas.
- In a nuclear generating plant, a process called nuclear fission creates the heat by
splitting uranium atoms.
- With our abundant water, coal and natural gas resources, the most common
forms of electricity generation are hydroelectric followed by thermal coal and
gas-fired generation.
- In recent years, generation from these traditional fuels has been supplemented
with a growing list of emerging technologies that use the sun, wind and even
biomass to produce electricity.
- Primary among these technologies are wind turbines and photovoltaic or solar
cells.
- Fuel cells are also emerging as possible energy sources for homes, businesses
and automobiles.
- So far, these new technologies are both costly and limited in their capacities.
Most of the electricity produced comes from water, fossil fuels, and coal.
- Although turbines and generators are the basic machinery used to produce
electricity, the technology differs somewhat based on the energy source.
- There are two main categories of generation:
- hydroelectric generation, which uses falling water to turn the turbines
- steam generation, which uses fossil fuels or nuclear fission to heat water to
make the steam that turns the turbines

Forms or Electric Current

● Direct Current (DC)

- Does not change directions-- the electron flow is always from the negative pole to the
positive pole.
- Easy to determine voltage because it is non-varying or varies slowly over time
- DC electricity also loses much more voltage when transmitted.
- Direct current is almost always what is used inside of electronic devices to power the
various internal components.
● Alternating Current (AC)
- Does change direction
- Voltage is constantly changing; can be controlled using transformers to increase or
decrease the strength of the current, thus making it more suitable for long-distance
transmission.
- Standard household electricity is alternating current, because of its flexibility in traveling
long distances. It changes direction at a specific frequency-- 60 times per second, or 60
Hz (in the United States, Japan, and a couple of other countries; in Europe the standard
is 50 Hz).
Common electrical units used in formulas and equations

Volt - unit of electrical potential or motive force - potential is required to send one
ampere of current through one ohm of resistance

Ohm - unit of resistance - one ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of one
ampere when impelled by one volt

Ampere - units of current - one ampere is the current which one volt can send through a
resistance of one ohm

Watt - unit of electrical energy or power - one watt is the product of one ampere and one
volt - one ampere of current flowing under the force of one volt gives one watt of energy

Volt Ampere - product of volts and amperes as shown by a voltmeter and ammeter - in
direct current systems the volt ampere is the same as watts or the energy delivered - in
alternating current systems - the volts and amperes may or may not be 100%
synchronous - when synchronous the volt amperes equals the watts on a wattmeter -
when not synchronous volt amperes exceed watts - reactive power

Kilovolt Ampere - one kilovolt ampere - KVA - is equal to 1,000 volt amperes

Power Factor - ratio of watts to volt amperes.

ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

What is needed for electrical transmission?

- Electricity is a function of voltage and current. Combining high voltage and low
current generates the same amount of power as combining low voltage and high
 current. During the transmission of electricity, current produces heat. This heat
represents the loss of electricity from the line. To minimize electricity losses in the
transmission system, power is transmitted across lines with high voltage and low
current.
- After the electricity is generated, large "step-up" transformers at the power plants
increase the voltage to carry electricity efficiently over long distances along high
voltage transmission lines. The lines can be as high as 115,000 to 735,000 volts.
At the other end where the electricity is used, "step-down" transformers in the
distribution system lower the voltage to suitable levels for domestic, commercial
and industrial users.
- To step down electricity, a transformer takes in electricity at a higher voltage and
lets it run through a coil of wire wound around a core of iron or steel. Because the
current is alternating, the magnetism in the core is also alternating. Also around
the core is an output wire with fewer coils. The magnetism changing back and
forth makes a current in the wire. Having fewer coils means less voltage. So the
voltage is "stepped down.”
- Substations are key transformation points in the transmission system. A
substation at the power plant houses the step-up transformer that prepares
electricity for long-distance transmission. Nearer to the delivery points, utility
substations use step-down transformers to lower the voltage to feed the
distribution system. Some substations also provide equipment for switching to
connect power between different transmission systems.
- Power can be transmitted along overhead power lines or underground cables.
More expensive underground lines are used in urban areas or for crossing bodies
of water. Transmission lines are made of copper or aluminum because of their
low resistance.
- Overhead power lines have three main parts: supports, insulators and
conductors.
- There are many different types of transmission line supports used, including
wooden poles or steel towers. Steel towers are commonly used for higher voltage
lines.
- Transmission lines are connected to the towers by insulators made of porcelain,
glass or other materials. These are designed to support the weight of the
transmission conductors while separating live (energized) wires from the towers.
Each insulator consists of a metal cap on top and a metal pin underneath
separated by the insulating material. The number of insulators used varies with
the voltage level and application.
- Transmission lines may have smaller conductors called shield wires strung above
them. These are connected directly to the transmission line towers and protect
the main conductors from a direct lightning strike. The shield wires provide an
easy or low resistance path to the ground through the transmission towers. If
lighting strikes, it will hit the shield wires rather than the conductors.
What is electricity distribution?
- The electric system is made up of an interconnected network of generating plants,
transmission lines and distribution facilities.
- High voltage transmission systems carry electricity from the power plants and transmit it
over long distances.
- At the distribution substation, local electrical utilities take the power from the high voltage
transmission lines and lower the voltage to suitable levels for local domestic, commercial
and industrial customers.

The first step in understanding building electrical systems is to examine the

means by which electrical service is brought into the structure.

Small Electrical System

- Typically have a service of 120/240 volts at 60- 200 amps
 - One panel box of circuit breakers or fuses.
- Rarely has any large electrical motors, 3-phase wiring or extensive distribution networks.
Convenience outlets and lighting fixtures are usually on the same circuit
- Typically found in residences and small commercial buildings.

Medium Electrical System

- Typically regulated by a main switchboard near the service entry and several
smaller panel boxes in the building
- Typically regulated by a main switchboard near the service entry and several smaller
panel boxes in the building
 - Found in apartment complexes, hotels, recreation centers, and commercial
buildings

Large Electrical System

 - Primary service is usually 2400, 4800, 7200, or 13400 volts and passes thru a
stepdown transformer before entering a regulating equipment in a mechanical
room
- Distribution systems include long feeders, extensive laterals, and large electrical
closets containing small SD transformers and panelboards
- Have large motors to operate elevators, HVAC equipment, and heavy business and
industrial machinery
- Circuitry wiring is typically laid above suspended ceilings, under access floor
panels or in wall-mounted raceways
- Feeder and branch conductors are placed in protective enclosures that require ample
chase space for maintenance, heat removal, and future upgrading
- Require grounding and power conditioning devices to maximize electron flow in each
conductor

Parts of Building Electrical System

● Service - where electricity enters and is regulated; includes power-handling equipment,
such as transformers, switchboards, panelboards, large switches and circuit breakers
● Distribution – the conductors that carry the current to all parts of the building; includes
wirings and raceways of all types
: include long feeders, extensive laterals, and large electrical closets containing small SD
transformers and panelboards
● Circuits – where the current is utilized; includes actual utilization equipment, such as,
lighting, motors, controls, and wiring devices
Factors to consider
- Length of the service run
- Type of terrain
- Customer participation in the cost of service installation
- Service voltage
- Size and nature of the electric load
- Importance of appearance
- Local practices and ordinances
- Maintenance and service reliability
- Weather conditions
- Type of interbuilding distribution, if applicable

Electric Service
How is electric service availed:

Overhead service drop – service tap may be connection on a pole

Types of Overhead Cables:
● Bare copper cables
supported on porcelain or glass insulators on cross-arms; normally used for high
voltage lines (2.4kV or higher)
● Weatherproof cables
generally run on porcelain spool secondary racks using single conductor; used for
low voltage circuits (600V and below)
● Pre-assembled aerial cables
consists of 3 or 4 insulated cables wrapped together with a metallic tape and
suspended by hooks from poles; used for voltages of up to 15kV; more economical
than cross-arm or rack installation and more resistant to damage from severe weather
conditions

Underground service lateral – connection to an underground utility line with a service lateral to
the building
- Direct burial
- Installation in Type I, concrete-encased duct
- Installation in Type II, direct burial duct
Factors in Choosing Underground Service
- Cost premium for underground raceway installation, including handholes if required
- History of outages for direct burial installation in the immediate area
- Cost and availability of repair service (repair of customer-owned underground
service laterals are done for a fee)
- Impact of electric service outage in terms of time delays, inconvenience, necessity
to dig lawns and paved areas, and cost impact in the case of a commercial facility.