CONTEMPORARY/CROSS CUTTING ISSUES IN TANZANIA

Contemporary/crosscutting issue can be defined as any event, idea, opinion or topic in a given subject that is
relevant to the present day found in almost any matter of interest that needs a big debate/discussion as it
challenges the society.

Gender, environment, HIV/AIDS, corruption, and Drug abuse are some contemporary/cross cutting issues in
Tanzania today which affect social, political and economic development in Tanzania today so they are to be
debated.

2: 1.GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Gender refers to a social cultural relationship between male and female on the basis of their functions, roles,
opportunities, behavior and social cultural attributes practiced.

Gender is contextual, time-specific, changeable and determines what is expected, allowed and valued in
women/girls or a men/boys in a given context. In most societies there are differences and inequalities between
women and men in decision-making opportunities, responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, and access
to and control over resources.

Gender concept terms

A. Sex: Is the biological difference between men and women on basis of their biological make up function in
reproduction and nature of their behavior. This difference then brings to two sex types as male and female
sex.

NB: The difference between gender and sex is on the fact that sex is the biological difference between men and
women (female & male) while gender is the social cultural relationship in their difference (masculine for male
and Feminine for female).

B. Gender discrimination: Is the situation in which one kind of sex is denied its rights and opportunities in
the society just because of its being in that category. OR The systematic, unfavorable treatment of
individuals on the basis of their gender, which denies them rights, opportunities or resources.
C. Gender analysis. The systematic gathering and examination of information on gender differences and
social relations in order to identify understand and remedy inequities based on gender.
 Gender analysis examines the relationship between females and males in all sectors such as their access to
and control of resources, their roles and the constraints they face relative to each other and promote greater
equality and justice where possible
D. Gender gap: Is a social economic and political difference in status, level of development or advancement
between men and women. An experience shows that men are of higher status than women.
E. Gender Equality: refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women, men, girls and
boys. Gender equality is achieved when the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men
are equally valued and favored and do not give rise to different consequences that reinforce inequalities.
F. Gender mainstreaming is an organizational strategy to bring a gender perspective to all aspects of an
institution’s policy and activities, through building gender capacity and accountability.
 Gender mainstreaming is a globally recognized strategy for achieving gender equality in all spheres and
at all levels, by assessing the implications of any planned action, including legislation, policies or

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 programmes for women and men and making it as an integral dimension of the design, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so
that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated.
G. Gender equity: Is the fairness and justice treatment for men and women according to their respective
needs. This involves, recognition of both men and women needs and interests and requiring a redistribution
of power and resources e.g. emphasizing balanced diet to both men and women.
 This may include equal/different treatment between men and women but which is considered equivalent in
terms of rights, benefits, obligations, and opportunities.
H. Gender inequality: Is the situation where by there is unequal treatment of gender such that one group is
given more Prentice than the other. These differences arise from distinctions in biology, psychology, and
cultural norms which are either socially or empirically grounded.
 The differences can be observed across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality,
interests, family life, careers, and political affiliations.
I. Gender Sensitivity is the ability to recognize/aware of issues and problems in the way societies look at the
roles between men and women.
 It particularly looks at how women act and how they are treated by men and the different way that women
and men understand their roles. It includes an understanding of stereotypes and how discrimination and
gender roles hurt people especially women.
J. Gender Division of Labor: The allocation of differential tasks, roles, responsibilities and activities to women
and men according to what is considered socially and culturally appropriate for both genders.
K. Gender Violence: is any act or threat by men or male-dominated institutions that inflicts physical, sexual,
or psychological harm on a woman or girl because of their gender.
L. Women’s Empowerment: is a ‘bottom-up’ process of transforming gender power relations, through
individuals or groups developing awareness of women’s subordination and building their capacity to
challenge it.
M. Gender stereotype: Is the assigning of roles, tasks and responsibilities to a particular gender on the basis
of interests. E.g. Women were barred from serving in military combat in Western nations until the latter
half of the 20th century.
N. Gender Training: is a facilitated process of developing awareness and capacity on gender issues, to bring
about personal or organizational change for gender equality.
O. Gender relations: refers to the social roles that men and women play and the power relations between
them, which usually have a profound effect on the use and management of natural resources.

PATRIARCHAL AND MATRIARCHAL SYSTEM

 Meaning of patriarchal system

 Patriarchal system is a systematic societal structure that institutionalizes male physical, social, political and
economic power over women. In this system a father/men are given the power and authority to Control the
Community starting from family which is the primary Unit of a society, predominate in roles of political
leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property.
 The word patriarchy is from two Greek words ‘Pater’ that means “father” and ‘achy’ means to rule. The
patriarchy system is originally linked to various historical sources of data such as Theology verses (God
created Adam first then later Eve) such supporting data give strength over the existence and practice of
patriarchal system in all societies of the world.

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  The patriarchal system has therefore brought to various gender issues, such as gender discrimination.
Gender discrimination, gender inequality, gender oppression and uneven division of work and share gap
etc.
 The works of some philosophers like Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually and physically
inferior to men, so their roles in the society was to produce and serve men in the household and saw male
domination over women is natural and virtuous.

 The influence of patriarchal system on the development of gender relations in Tanzania.

 Since gender relations are power relations, it explains unequal relations between men and women in
political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property from the family level to the
national level.
 In Tanzania patriarchy has been a major cultural heritage that influences the development of gender
inequality in many tribes. This has been directly or indirectly practiced in different institutions in the
socialization process such as family, community and national level as follows;
I. Under patriarchal systems, girls and boys in Tanzania grow up in households and communities that treat
them differently and unequally where boys are taught to learn that they have greater social value or
superior while girls/are regarded inferior. This is also done trough initiation ceremonies where girls are
II. Patriarchy system influences the use of offensive language against female in front of children. This makes
boys feel that they are superior to girls from childhood.
III. Patriarchy system perpetuates men to control resources and inherit property since they are heads and
permanent member of the family. Because of this, women are imposed to economic constraints and
discrimination though they are main producer of the family in their household. As a result, women are seen
to be poor and powerless. In patriarchy system, women/girls are less or not given access to education by
believing that, they can’t develop a family lineage of their family. This increases illiterate rate to women in
the society.
IV. Unequal division of labor is observed I n patriarchy society at the family level where a girl child is
accorded heavier and time consuming work load compared to that of boys. For instance fetching water,
cooking, washing clothes taking care of babies at home which are unpaid.
V. Violence against women is common in patriarchy system such as female beatings and harassment during
marital conflict. Boys/men are trained to be aggressive and muscular with reasonable tolerance while girls
are always told to have tolerance for their emotional expressiveness.
VI. At the community level Women are not supposed to eat certain types of food when they are pregnant. In
some societies, for instance, not allowed to eat mutton, eggs etc. This weakens their reproductive health
and affects the health of both a woman and the baby to be born as they lack nutritious food
VII. Patriarchy societies are characterized by exclusion of women in decision making at all levels because they
are perceived to be weak and narrow minded. That is to say, women are marginalized in decision making
authorities and top positions in their governments. E.g. in some societies girls have no right to choose their
husband, dowry/bride price payment and other issues of their prosperity.
VIII. Some religious doctrines emphasize on submissiveness of women to men and women are denied high
leadership positions in churches or mosques. For example, in Islam there is provision which states that
“Men are guardians over women because Allah has made them to overstay. So a virtuous woman is one
who is obedient…“(Quran 4:34) Also some people quote the Bible that God said to a woman “I will greatly
multiply your pain in child bearing in pain you shall bring forth children. Yet your desire shall be for your
husband and he shall rule over you” (Gen 3:16)
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 The meaning of Matriarchy system

The female equivalent to patriarchy system is Matriarchy which is the system in the society where by
females, especially mother have the central role of all social political issues of the community. In this system a
mother is said to have power to control and run the family however being dominant even in community issues.
 Or just a cultural system in which the mother is the head of the family, or in which inheritance of family
property is through the maternal line.

 So far, there is no evidence of a complete matriarchy society in which women had the final say on every
aspect of communal life. At the same time, there is no known society in which women had absolutely
nothing to say about any aspect of communal or personal life. Evidence from African societies, though
strongly suggesting that there are no purely matriarchal societies, nevertheless shows many traits of
matriarchal practices in the sense that even in what appears to be all-male rule, one finds tendencies of
mother-centeredness.
 Only rarely have women governed entire nations. In addressing the sphere of women’s power, scholars
point to the education of children, arrangements for marriages, types of work, the ownership of property,
social status, and the spiritual welfare of the community.
 In Africa, matriarchal features are evident among communities such as the Ibo of Nigeria, the
Ashanti/Akan of Ghana (West Africa), the Kwaya of Tanzania (East Africa), and the Chewa of Malawi
(Southern Africa).

 Gender discrimination
This can be referred to as unequal and unfair treatment of women or men based on their sex difference and
not otherwise. For example if a qualified woman pilot is denied employment simply because she is a
woman, this is gender discrimination which is practiced mostly in developing countries including
Tanzania.
 Gender discrimination is further reinforced by customs and beliefs which bear a great impact socially,
economically and politically to the discriminated sex and the society in general.
 Indicators of gender discrimination in Tanzania
A. Food taboos. There are some tribal restrictions that are imposed on women regarding the types of foods
not to be eaten by them. This is done in order to deny them the foods that are associated to men because
of taste or mere prestige.
B. Marginalization of women in decision making In most cases women are not involved directly in
process of making decisions even an issues that directly affect their life. This is caused by the traditions
and customs that restrict women from deliberating with them. It is also caused by the negative
perceptions of the community that women are weak and they cannot make sound decisions. This is also
created by the inferiority complex of the women themselves and less education.
C. Forbidding women to inherit properties. In most cases women are not allowed to inherit anything in
the family because of the traditions and customs which treat a woman as a servant to a man and treated as
not a permanent member of the family because of marriage. For this reason she is not allowed to own
family property.

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 D. Widow inheritance is a habit of marrying a wife of a deceased husband of your relative like a wife of
your brother who was a close relative. This shows how women are devalued, disrespected and not even
given a chance to choose who prefer to marry.
E. Ignoring women education due to the assumptions that women are not potential to the society and not
permanent members of the family, so there is no need of giving them education. This is also done
purposely to make women a subordinate class.
F. Beating of women. This is an act of inflicting corporal punishment to a woman. This is caused by a
negative perception that if a husband does not beat his wife, he will not be respected. It is also done as a
sign of subordination that a woman is under a man or disrespectful to women. Although in other tribes
like Kurya in Mara, if a wife is not beaten by her husband, she assumes that she is not loved. For them, to
be beaten is a sign of love.
G. Early and forced marriage; This happens when a young girl is married at a tender age before reaching
18 years. This practice is mostly done by pastoral societies like Maasai, whereby parents receive the pride
price of a baby girl. This due to the desire of the parents to get more wealth accrued from dowry.
Furthermore, it is a prestige to marry a very young girl.
H. Unequal employment opportunities. Women are likely to be employed in works which are not or less
paid compared to men.
I. Unequal chance to participate in development. Some societies in Tanzania regard women as
housewife who their duties are in the kitchen. Women have to remain home to refresh a man when he
comes from work and she4 is not allowed to work outside home.

 The impacts of gender discrimination on social and economic development

1. Social impacts:
 It influences the poor health, Death and maternal mortality late. Gender discrimination leads to poor health
to women due to poor diet, being over worked by reproductive roles, community roles, less education on
reproductive roles, inheritance of widow and unequal access of health services which results into increase
of maternal mortality rate.
 Gender discrimination results into high illiterate rate. Girls are given lower expectations in academic
performance than boys, although they are as capable as boys. This may discourage some girls and drop out
of school. Some are even laughed or mocked by boys for going to school when they are supposed to get
married. But there is a say that “to educate women is to educate a whole society”
 Disability, unnecessary expenses and misery to women due to domestic violence from their husbands,
male partners and male relatives. This may range from pushing, slapping to battering and other forms of
physical violence which reduce women capacity to engage in production and other activities.
 Increase of social evils, discriminated girls may engage in crimes like prostitution, drug abuse etc .Indeed
the street children of the divorced mothers may engage in robbery, drug abuse and other related crimes.
 Psychological effects, Gender discrimination leads to helpless feelings to women in the society which lasts
longer in life and makes them to develop inferiority complex that lowers the effort to engage in different
social and productive activities.
 Girls/women are less or not given the opportunity to make decisions in matters that concern the family;
even others are not consulted in matters that directly affect their welfare, like marriage. Also in some
families a girl or a woman is restricted to urge before a man or to interrupt while a man is talking.
2. Economic impacts;

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 Increase of economic gap between men and women, most women are low income earners because usually
they engage in unpaid works at homes compared to men who do paid works, usually done away from
homes. Most women also lack collateral security to access financial institutions for loans to run their
economic activities since they have no right to own properties a situation that results into financial hardship
to women compared to men.
 In some tribes women are not allowed to work, they are supposed to take care of the children and her
husband. This builds up the ground for economic dependence for women to men.
 Also women have few opportunities of getting jobs due to negative attitude towards them. They are
regarded to be less productive. This is a common assumption that results into side impact on economic
development.
 Girls/women are less or not given the opportunity to make decisions in developmental matters that concern
the family and the society. This results into less participation in decision making of women in development
activities.

NB, most of social impacts of gender discrimination may also affect the society economically.

 Affirmative Action
 By definition, affirmative action is a policy that favors members of a disadvantaged /marginalized group
who are perceived to suffer from discrimination within a society, such as women.
 Affirmative action occurs when employers, university admission offices, and government agencies devotes
resources including time and money to go beyond nondiscrimination, with the goal of actively improving
the economic status of minorities including women with regard to employment, education, and business
ownership and growth stipulated in different programs equally to the majority population.
 Affirmative action is not considered discriminatory since it aims to accelerate the attainment of equality
between the dominant and the marginalized groups of society. These actions should not result in unequal or
separate standards and must be continued even when the objectives of equality of opportunity and
treatment have been achieved so as to keep a regular check
 In Tanzania affirmative action is meant for women who have said to be historically discriminated in many
ways. Affirmative action for women is observed in economic, social, political, and cultural spheres.

 Women’s affirmative action in Tanzania

 Although women are main actors in production of wealth, goods, and services especially in agriculture
(80%) of the rural farming in, their roles are not recognized to men. This situation brings unequal treatment
men and women.
 Tanzania has, since independence, taken measures with a view of realizing equality between women and
men by ensuring access to, and equal opportunities in political, economic and social spheres through the
following measures;
A. Allowing women to inherit property : For example, Land Act of 1999 and the Amendment to the Land
Act in 2004 improved women’s accessibility to land and provided for the right of women to be allocated
land and impose a duty on the village council to ensure maximum protection of their rights. This act

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 necessitated women’s support in production and avail them to more accessible to markets in order to
raise their economic status.
B. Establishment of women bank. This was established in 2007 in order to help women to access loans and
support them in raising their economic progress.
C. Empowering women through education, this is implemented by Lowering of admission cut-off points for
female admitted at the upper secondary and higher education (universities) through pre entry programmes
to female students or six weeks remedial in 1997 especially in science courses, female scholarships and
other forms of financial assistance programmes are being provided in Tanzania.
D. Enacting strict laws against negative cultural practices such as female genital mutilation: For example in
1998, the government passed the “sexual Offences Special Provision Act (SOSPA) to address fun
Gender-based violation of which female genital mutilation to girls below 10 years was made illegal.
E. Gender equal interventions on Employment: There have been measures to bring about equal
opportunities in employment. This has been done through development and establishment of equal
employment opportunity office and putting in place the legal stipulations which strongly discourage
discrimination in the Tanzania Employment and Labor Relations Act No. 6 and Labor Institutions Act of
2004.
F. Placing women in decision making authority. for example: constitutional amendment from 1995, 2000
and to 2005 of allowed the president of the United Republic of Tanzania to nominate up to ten members
of parliament and increased the number of special seats for women from 15% to 20% depending on the
allocation made by the National Electoral Commission from time to time in order to increase women
representation in the parliament.
G. Setting gender specific policies. For example, Women and Gender Development Policy of 2000 which
institutionalized gender budgeting initiative in planning, budgeting, allocating and monitoring the
utilization of budgets.
H. Provision of women and gender needs such as ARV, prevention of HIV/AIDS transmission from
pregnant mothers who are positive to children, increase of hospital beds, delivery kits, encouraging
women to deliver at health centers instead of their homesteads and the issue of Vistula as a health issue is
called for more attention by the government to day.
 Challenges of affirmative action to women in Tanzania
A. Baking services are concentrated only to the town and specifically Tanzanian’s women bank which
founded in 2007 its headquarter in Dar es salaam region with few branches to other region.
B. Land ownership is still a challenge to women. Although the enacted Land act contains provision that
provides for gender equality to land ownership, management, access and control but it contradicts with
customary law (declaration order) which restricts inheritance of land to clan linage where kinship
membership follows the male line.
C. The status of women in decision making is not very pleasing. For example women to decision making and
their exercise of their political rights that can influence at all levels have been limited to willingness of the
reigning authorities and affirmative.
D. The limited level of women empowerment in provision of services. For example limited number of
women leaders in service committees ,poor water supply especially in village, low level of education
compared to men, etc
E. Women violence is still a challenge in some societies in Tanzania, e.g. domestic violence and rape are
increasingly causing an alarm that needs to be considered with regard to the amendments of the laws
which contradict the process.
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 F. Women economic empowerment is still limited to small scale enterprises. There is still lack of women
medium enterprises and big economic empowerment which can easier close the gap between men and
women.

ASSIGNMENT
In the groups of ten students propose other measures that can be used to improve gender relations in
our society (eight points).

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
 Environment refers to the things, conditions, elements and influences that surround and affect the growth
or development of the living things. It implies everything that makes up our surroundings and affects our
ability to live on the earth. The air we breathe, the water that covers most of the earth’s surface, the plants
and animals around us, and much more.
 The environment is composed of the earth (land and water) and the atmosphere (air). In brief, the basic
components of the environment are land, water and air.

 Major problems of the environment

1. Environmental pollution is the addition of excess waste substance in the environment. Pollution leads to
environmental destruction .The substance added to the environment are known as pollutants.
 Environmental pollution includes; air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, noise pollution, and
Thermal pollution and Radiation pollution.
2. Land (soil) degradation: This is the process whereby the soil/land deteriorates in terms of its quality
turning it useless or unproductive for any economic understandings. Soil/land degradation involves Soil
erosion, leaching and increase in salinity and acidity as well as the decline in fertility.
3. Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the earth’s surface. It is mainly
contributed by the increase of gases or accumulation of greenhouse gases in the air. These gases are
produced through human activities in industries or factories, from vehicles, ships, airplanes and from
burning woods and bushes.
4. Depletion of Flora and Fauna/loose of biodiversity: This refers to the disappearance of different species
of organism both Flora (plant kingdom) such as trees and bushes and Fauna (animals and birds) living their
natural environment.

 These major environment can be caused by different natural and human activities including:
Human activities
 Encroachment of wildlife.
 Poor farming methods e.g. the use of agro chemicals
 Indiscriminate hunting and killing of wild animals within and around designated areas,
 Removal of vegetation for any purpose, e.g. industrial activities
 Pollution of aquatic ecosystem by agro-chemicals and industrial waste.
 Indiscriminate burning of forests and grassland areas within and around wildlife areas,
 Deforestation.
 Construction of different infrastructures such as roads, mining activities.
 Uncontrolled game cropping.
Natural factors
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  Wind
 Water and alkalinity or acidity
 Earthquake
 Volcanic eruptions that emit sumptuous gases and harmful dust
 Natural air pollutants, such as pollens, spores, cells of fungi etc
 Natural fires which burn the vegetation cover and other creatures
 Floods which erode the upper layer of soils

 The role and responsibilities of individuals in preserving the environment in which they live
I. Planting trees: trees provide essential shade ,source of energy i.e. firewood and charcoal ,medicine
,maintaining river sources ,material for building ,habitats for animals and birds, etc. Therefore every
individual should be responsible to plant trees, avoiding deforestation and using alternative sources
of energy such as solar, gas instead of firewood and charcoal likewise.
II. Application of proper ways of farming and using fertilizers that have no adverse effects to the soil.
It is the role of every individual to preserve soil from being degraded by using methods like contour
ridging, terracing along steep slope, crop rotation, intercropping, the use of less adverse fertilizers
like manure which can turn the land productive and support the growth of plants as well.
III. Building industries far away from residential area and use smokeless fuels in the factories. This
should be done order to avoid land, water, air and noise pollution.
IV. Destocking: every individual should avoid keeping a large number of animals at a small area (over
grazing).That is to say, animals should be kept according to the size of the land in order to avoid
soil erosion.
V. Proper waste management facility: every individual has a role to use the proper ways for managing
waste such as open dumps, sanitary landfills, recycling and educating other individuals ignorant of
the proper waste management methods.
VI. Using proper fishing methods: every individual should avoid fishing by using explosive materials
like dynamites and poisons.
VII. Every individual should adhere to the laws and regulations enacted for environmental preservation.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMANT COUNCIL (NEMC)

National Management council is the council established on 1983 following the enacting of National
Environmental Management Act of 1983 with the aim of providing legal framework on sustainable
management of the environmental quality, standards public participation environment compliance and
enforcement.

 Contributions/position Of NEMC In Environmental Preservation In Tanzania

 To enhance public education on environmental management procedures
 To render technical support to the entities engaged in natural resources and environmental
management
 To undertake and coordinate research, investigation and surveys in the field of environment, collect
and disseminate information.
 To advice the government on environmental issues.
 To publish and manual codes, guideline relating to environment and prevent environmental
degradation.
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  It enforces and ensures compliance of national environmental quality standard example managing
the quality of factories and industries.
 To issue restoration by giving orders, save and prohibition note.
 To motivate people and institutions by giving rewards. For example rewarding cities which lead in
managing environment.

 Challenges of NEMC
 Financial problems.
 Un favorable climatic conditions
 Low level of science and technology, especially on the ways used to manage the environment.
 Illiteracy among citizens on environmental management.
 Lack of enough skilled personnel.
 Corruption within the council.

ASSIGNMENT
Assume your contesting on the position of environmental prefect during election at Lugeye secondary school,
your main policy is ‘PRESERVE THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT’’. Give seven organized activities for
students to implement your policy at school.

HIV / AIDS
 AIDS is an abbreviation for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. It is a transmissible disease of the
immune system. It is caused by a virus known as HIV-Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This virus
jeopardizes human body immunity (the defense against disease), therefore leaving it prone to other
infections and weakens the human body as the final stage known as AIDS.
 An infected individual may show no signs of illness and remains healthy for a long period up to ten (10)
years before developing AIDS (the last stage of HIV infection).
Origin of HIV/AIDS
 It was first reported in 1981 by investigators in New York and California (USA) from homosexual men,
who contracted the Virus primarily through sexual contact and by intravenous drug users who became
infected by sharing contaminated needs.
 HIV/AIDS in Africa, It spread to Africa in 1980s, which was mainly facilitated by factors like increasing
urbanization and long distance travel in Africa, international travel, changing sexual mores and intravenous
drug use.
 HIV/AIDS in East Africa, It was first experienced in early 1980s in Uganda and Western regions of
Tanzania particularly Kagera region which neighbors Uganda. It was nicknamed as Juliana, the shirts from
Uganda or Slim as the infected person become very thin. It was also associated with witchcraft since it
developed signs and symptoms that were never experienced before.

 Factors leading to spreading of HIV/AIDS

1. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).

2. Raping.

3. Transfusion of unscreened blood for HIV.

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4. Polygamy.

5. Inheritance of widow/spouse.

6. Sharing of sharp tools like needles razor blades etc.

7. During the child birth in breast feeding and child delivery.

8. Unprotected sexual intercourse.

9. Early marriage or forced marriage.

 Effects of HIV/AIDS
 Increase of poverty due to loss of productive/energetic people and high amount of money spent for fighting
against the disease at the family and national level.
 Increase of dependants especially the children aged 0-14 years, due to the death of their parents or other
people who were supporting them. This may also lead to increase of street children.
 Increase of social evils like rape, robbery and prostitution, due to the family disruption and increase in
number of children without parents as well as hopelessness among the victims.
 Low life expectancy and death. The disease destroys the body immunity of the victim and leads to death.
 Stigmatization, this occurs when HIV/AIDS victims are isolated by other members of the community for
the fear of being infected.
 Separation of families: This is due death of one or both parents and sometimes when one of them is
affected or said to be the source of the problem through cheating.
 Psychological problems like loss of hope for life, self-denial, depression, and stresses which perpetuate low
performance of individual and community activities.
 Increase of pressure/chaos in health centers like dispensaries, hospitals etc due to increase of AIDS
patients.

STRATEGIES IN PLACE IN THE COMMUNITY TO COMBAT HIV/AIDS

1. Establishment of National AIDS Control Programme (NACP). In response to the HIV/AIDS pandemic, the
government of Tanzania formed, with technical support from the World Health Organization’s Global
Programme on AIDS (WHO-GPA), the NACP under the Ministry of Health. The NACP formulated a
short-term three subsequent five-year plans from 1985 to 2002 which comprised development of strategies
to prevent, control and mitigate the impact of the HIV/AIDS through health education, mult- sector
responses and community participation.
 Initially HIV/AIDS was perceived as a health problem and the campaign to deal with it involved the health
sector only through the NACP. This resulted into insufficiency of the fight against HIV/AIDS due to
inadequate human and financial resources, ineffective coordination mechanisms and inadequate political
commitment and leadership.
2. Formulation of different policies on HIV/AIDS. For example the 2001 Policy document on HIV/AIDS
which seeks to engage all sectors, including the defense sector, in participating actively in the
implementation of HIV/AIDS programmes due to the ineffective of NACP.
3. Establishment of Tanzania Commission for AIDS: this was introduced through Parliament act No 23 of
2001 under the Prime Minister’s Office in order to facilitate and strengthen the expanded response to the
pandemic. It was the response to the special department located in the Ministry of Health which had
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 insufficient capacity. As a result, this departmental activity was upgraded to a national programme,
TACAIDS.
 TACAIDS provides strategic leadership, national focus, the ability to leverage both local and external
resources, coordination, motivation and monitoring and evaluation of the national response for all sectors,
including the defense sector.
 Since the establishment of TACAIDS, the defense sector, other security sectors and other civil society
organizations (CSOs) have responded by developing or expanding their own HIV/AIDS programmes in
line with the National Policy on HIV/AIDS.
4. Integration of the national policy on HIV/AIDS into defense sector. Since November 2001 Tanzania has
only one specific national policy on HIV/AIDS that caters for all sectors in terms of adoption and
implementation, with due emphasis on the formulation of appropriate interventions by all sectors.
 This mandated the military to translate both the national policy and the National Multi Sector Strategic
Framework (NMSSF) into a specific sector in order to strengthen the capacity of institutions, communities
and individuals to arrest the spread of the pandemic, and the promotion of effective community-based
prevention, care and support interventions.
 The military is also mandated to promote early diagnosis of HIV infection through both compulsory and
voluntary testing, with pre- and post-test counseling, encouraging military personnel who are HIV-negative
to take appropriate steps not to be infected, and assuring that those who are HIV-positive receive the
counseling and care they need to cope with their status, to prolong their lives and not to infect others.
5. Intensifying the provision of comprehensive, affordable and user-friendly reproductive health services to
youth, men and women, and ensuring that essential commodities such as male and female condoms,
delivery kits and ARVS are made available in Tanzania.
6. Establishment of NGOs dealing with HIV/AIDS precautions and prevents e.g. USAIDS
7. Provision of education to people on how AIDS is spread and effect to the society at large through different
programs formulated and implemented by both government and Non government organizations.

 The role of an individual in preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS:-

 To abstain from sexual intercourse before marriage. After marriage the couples should be faithful to each
other
 To avoid excessive drinking and drug abuse which foster the spread of HIV/AIDS due to unwise decision
making.
 To have regular medical check-up in counseling and voluntary testing centre for HIV/AIDS and other
sexually transmitted infections. This enables a person to know his or her status so as to take precautions not
to be infected, re-infected or infecting others.
 To abandon bad cultural practices like female genital mutilation, forced marriage, polygamy,
 To avoid the sharing of sharp objects like syringe and needles during circumcision, nail cutting and
shaving.
 To avoid promiscuous sexual intercourse especially with high risk people like prostitutes, commercial sex
workers and people with multiple sexual partners. For sexually active people it is important to practice
protected sex such as use of condoms.
 To avoid transfusion of unscreened blood for HIV. This should also include avoiding contact with human
blood from other people in situations of injuries and accidents.
 To practice safe sex by using condoms in appropriate way as the last alternative
 To have one partner in sexual relationship
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 To involve pregnant women in the programs to mother to child transmission.
 To abide with religious teachings and parental counseling and guidance.
 To avoid sharing surgical and piercing instruments such as injection needles, air piercing equipment, and
cutting blades. Any piercing or surgical cutting instrument should be property be sterilized.

2.4 CORRUPTION
Corruption is the abuse of public power for personal gain or for the benefit of a group to which one owes
allegiance by accepting, asking or encouraging a bribe. OR “the use of public office for private gain”
 Bribe means dishonestly persuade someone to act in one's favor by a gift of money or other
inducement/things of value.
 Other definitions of corruption stress the role of the participation of public agents, such as public
officials, bureaucrats, legislators or politicians (World Bank 1997, P.8).
 Forms of corruption
Corruption can be categorized basing on the nature of people who are involved in that dishonest and unlawful
behavior and the differences in scales /number of people affected. According to this view, corruption can be
classified into two forms namely petty and grand corruption.

(i) Petty or survival corruption

This is the form of corruption practiced by low and mid level civil servants such as doctors, watchmen
teachers, police officers, and others in their interactions with ordinary citizens who often try to access basic
goods or services in hospitals, schools, police departments and other agencies.
(ii) Grand corruption
This is the form of corruption practiced by high level public officials often involving large sums of money and
hidden overseas bank accounts that distort policies or the central functioning of the state. This may be done by
the politicians (the president, the ministers, and the general secretaries), the policy makers, the bank governor
etc
 According to the global report of 2008 the grand corruption as such as the Richmond affair, Radar, BOT
scandal, ghost workers, tax holidays scandal, public officials accommodation scandal etc
Richmond scandal: The taxes base Richmond development company got is to contract with the Tanzania
government that the company was to provide 100M power to the national grid 179 dollar. However the
program never arises successfully while the country has already started paying such amount using a
ministry.
Radar corruption: The government of Tanzania lost huge amount of money by buying a military radar
for high expense of 40millions pound something of which was not expected to poor country like Tanzania ,
such payment and its transaction was suspected to be corrupt and mockery of justice to poor country. The
radar was to be bought in 10 million pound instead 40 million pound was used.
 This was firstly investigated by the British serious fraud office (BSFO) so brought a hot discussion In
British government (parliament) however discussion was also held in Tanzania government through the use
of parliament just after the issue globally known. From this discussion the British government was required
to pay back 30 million pound which was seen to exceed the required amount of price. However this became
hard since its Tanzania official who was mostly involved in such corruption.
The BOT scandal: The BOT was seen to have misused the external payment Arrears (EPA) fund in 133
billions by paying the ghost company in the financial year 2005 – 2006 involves paying of external debt.

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 The issue become difficult to judge having inconveniences and contradictions toward resolution due to the
death of the director of BOT.
The ghost workers payment: Tanzania have been losing billion of money by paying a non – existing
employee (Ghost workers), the CAG (Controller and Auditor General) report shows that 2009-2010,
9billions in salary were paying to ghost workers, in this 3.4 billion was paid to educating ghost workers and
42 was portrayed to health sector ghost workers the general number of this two Ghost worker reach 2900.
Public officials Accommodation: The government of Tanzania is still losing billions of money in
accommodating the ministry, judges, the RC, DC (District in hotel and expensive apartment during
meeting and seminar something of which is said to be misuse of money unnecessary.
 The report show that 2010 – 2011 some minister were accommodated in Ubungo Plaza in Dar es salaam
where the government paying 105 US dollar per day, other were accommodate in Protean so paying 155
and 180 US dollars per day.

 Effects of corruption to individual’s rights and freedom

 Human rights are fundamental rights which a person has by virtue of being a human being .It is said that
human beings is born with (naturally) and area inherent in him or her and not granted by the state of any
person therefore, they are to be recognized, respected and enforced.
 The Universal Declaration of Human Right (1948) the establishment of the United Nations organization
signaled the beginning of a period of unprecedented international concern for the protection of human
rights Under the auspices of the UN including Tanzania.
 This covers the main areas of human rights which are; civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights
including the right to life, personal freedom, privacy and personal security, movement, expression,
conscience, worship, assembly and association which can be affected by corruption in different ways
including the following:
 Corruption leads to inequality and discrimination to individuals. The principle that every individual is
equal before the law and has the right to be protected by law on an equal basis can be affected by
corruption when a person bribes a public official and acquire a privilege status in relation to other
similar individuals.
 Corruption influences poor and unequal provision of education. For instance, when an Individual bribe a
school master/mistress to obtain a place for his/her child at school, the right can be violated by
corruption
 Corruption leads to violation of environmental right. For example when a public official allow the
illegal importation of toxic waste from other countries or allowing industrial waste disposal in return for
bribe, and waste is placed or close to a residential area which affects the health of individuals living in
that area.
 It weakens effectiveness of enforcement laws which leads to violation of the right to fair trial found in
many human right treaties. For example a judge may be paid a bribe to exclude evidence that would
otherwise leads to conviction of a criminal.
 Corruption affects the enjoyment of the right for a good health. It may affect the management of
financial resources (budget allocation), the relationship with patients and distribution of medical
supplies.
 It brings weak and non qualified experts in offices
 It degrades a human value by replacing with money value. This is due to violation of individual’s
respect and dignity because of corruption.
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  It dates collection of Revenue e.g. Tax avoidance and illegitimate trade due to corrupt government
officials.
 It undermines effective participation of individuals in political matters.

 Effects of corruption in the social, economic development of Tanzania

1. It undermines the policy making process and state capacity. For example the policy on the protection
of domestic textile industry commodities has been jeopardized due to the presence of corruption at
the port where custom agents take bribes to pass different containers in Tanzania.
2. It influences classes in the society. In a corrupt society, public officials emerge superior to other
citizens and start thinking about more ways to extract resources through their positions rather than
improving the quality of goods and services to both poor and wealthy people.
3. It undermines rule of law and state legitimacy. In the corrupt society, only the poor have to adhere to
laws since they don’t have money to get them out of trouble if they are caught braking the laws
while the wealthy people will not have to abide to the laws accordingly.
4. It dates collection of Revenue e.g. Tax avoidance and illegitimate trade due to corrupt government
officials. According to Judge Warioba’s report on corruption in Tanzania in 1970, taxes were raised;
the internal trade policy gave monopoly to Parastatal Trading Organizations in the distribution of
scarce and essential commodities.
5. It increases costs of goods and services without improving productivity, promoting unproductive
investments and leads to the decline in the quality of public services. According to Judge Warioba’s
report on corruption in Tanzania, a lot of restrictions were imposed in the daily lives of citizens like
road blocks aimed at controlling crop movement, restriction on afternoon driving of private cars etc
6. Corruption undermines democracy especially during election process. In Tanzania and African states
some regimes in power are commonly prone to corruption and candidates in different positions are
reported to engage in corruption without fear of any repercussions that could be caused by its
involvement.
7. It reduces the accountability and transparency of government bodies. For example lack of
transparence in worse mining contracts recognized by professor Nehemiah Osoro committee
reported on June 12 in 2017.
 Measures in place for combating corruption in Tanzania
1. Appointment of Presidential Commission on Corruption (Warioba’s commission).It was appointed by
president of Tanzania, Benjamin W Mkapa in 1996 as one of the government strategy to fight against
corruption. The commission under judge Warioba gave some recommendations on the magnitude of
corruption and ways forward.
2. The prevention and combating corruption bureau (PCCB) in 2007.It mainly deal with the investigation and
prosecution of corruption cases with the approval of Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP)
 PCCB has been given the mandate to investigate and prosecute all cases that are presented before it. As
such, it functions as an interior service regulations agent in curbing corruption in the country in
coordination with the police force and other public security organs.
 It has the task of maintaining professional code of ethics in the public duties by setting rules that are
essential in responsible occupation. That is, it tames the exercise of power and strictly controls the
systems and the abuse of power that could be prevented.

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  Moreover under the leadership ethics code in Tanzania, public officials are not allowed to run
businesses or operate enterprises. These codes provide guidance so that government leaders do not use
their relatives and friends to run their businesses.

 The PCCB monitors performance of civil servants so that they do not abuse power. In this way, it is
not allowed to accept gifts, money and any kind of negotiable securities during official activities.

 It enhances management; strengthen supervision, ensure fairness and efficiency in law enforcement
bodies. For instance, if the police force or the judiciary.

3. The office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP).This has the authority to approve corruption cases
for prosecution. PCCB office therefore has to bring forward the investigated corruption cases to the DPP
before prosecution for the approval.
4. The Controller and Auditor General (CAG) in 2007. It audits/checks the economic commitments of the
head of public security organs of various levels, the financial income and expense, economic benefit,
fundamental development, government purchase of public service organs, and also those of the enterprises
and institutions directly under them and presenting the annual audit report to the parliament.
5. Establishment of ethics commission, this commission was established for the aim of ensuring proper
implementation of public leadership code of ethics of 1995. It focus on declaration of acts that ensured a
legal practices of public officials in their leadership, it also involved the revealing and reporting the ethics
conformity in administrative sector in some positions of administration.
 As one of its responsibilities, a commission guides a leader selected or appointed to report on his/her
properties and debts and other close relatives including children before, during and after leadership. It is
under judge Nsekela, a current ethics commissioner.
6. Formation of public Procurement Regulatory Authority (PPAA). The authority was found in 2004 being
responsible is fair and transparent distribution of procurement of services and needs in an equal standard
e.g. the issue of money and procurement process.
7. The commission for Human Rights and Good Governance (CHRGG).This is a national human rights
institution and ombudsman established to promote, protect, and preserve human rights and good
governance within the country mandated by the constitution.

 Weaknesses/Challenges of the efforts

1. Poor involvement of civilians is debating scandals and solving.
2. Inefficiency and lack of resources. The government institutions responsible for investigating and
prosecuting corruption cases are hindered by a several lack resources including both financial and human
resources for addressing corruption.
3. Corruption within the law enforcement and justice system. This is where the institutions responsible for
investigating and prosecuting corruption cases are themselves subject to corruption
4. The high rate of illiteracy and poor access to information which make the population, particularly in the
rural areas more likely to keep corrupt politicians in power.
5. Poor separation of power in the government (interference of duties in the government).
6. Lack of patriotic leaders in the bodies of combating corruption.
7. Lack of government accountability and transparency.
8. The connection between politicians and businessmen.
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 Proposed measures which can be taken to combat corruption in Tanzania
1. To ensure that agencies have enough power and mandate to fight corruption. For instance PCCB has been
criticized for lacking autonomy since it subject to the approval of the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP).
2. Civil society and Media should be allowed to educate, investigate, and criticize on corruption and ant
corruption policy as well as the organs responsible.
3. Upholding transparency especially in signing contracts with foreign investors. That is to say, citizens should
access information on different contracts made.
4. Upholding checks and balances between the three organs of the state so that they can oversee each other.
5. Improving working conditions and increasing the costs and punishment to those who are caught engaging in
corruption.
6. Effective provision of mass education in schools, colleges and universities about the impacts of corruption
7. Respecting human rights. For example, the right to freedom of expression, assembly and association are
vital to fight corruption.
8. Upholding the restructuring and amendment of laws and implementation. (Maintain rule of law).
9. Supporting and involving foreign and independent organs for exploration and revealing of scandals. For
example: the International Crime Police Organization (Interpol) and Independent International Commissions.

 The role of individuals in fighting against corruption

1. Every individual must not vote for the corrupt politicians in elections and electing the most deserving
candidate.
2. Individuals have to abstain from giving/receiving the gifts, cash or liquor when accessing/providing
services.
3. Every individual is responsible to record the event and report to ant corruption organs or put up on the
social media if she/he is asked for bribe.
4. Every individual has a role to pay all the lawful taxes, dues and penalties to the government rather
than trying to save little money by bribing the government officials.
5. An individual must not glorify the corrupt officers for their wealth acquired by illegal means.
6. Individuals have to cooperate with ant corruption organs in providing education in different institutions
and attending different seminars and meetings on corruption.
7. Every individual have to be honest, accountable and developing a sense of humanity. This can help an
individual to feel the worseness of corruption.

DRUG ABUSE
 Meaning of drug, drug abuse and drug trafficking
 Drug is any subsistence which when taken into living organization may modify one or more of its
function. Drug can be taken/ inhaled into the body of a living organism through sniffing, swallowing,
inhaling, injection.
 Drug abuse is defined as a self administration of a drug for non medical reason, in quantities and
frequencies which may impair an individual’s ability to function effectively and which may result in
physical or psychological (thinking) harm.
 The most common drugs in use include: alkaloids, apropos, cocaine, alcohol, nicotine, amphetamines,
opium marijuana and synthetic.

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  Drug abuse develops subsistence dependence which means an individual persists in use of alcohol or
other drugs despite problems related to use of subsistence because they modify the mood or behaviors or
manner of the user.
 Drug trafficking is the black market/illegal market consisting of production and distribution of illegal
drug. In some cases, drug are legally obtained and sold e.g. valium.
 The Illegal drug trade operates similarly to other underground marketing or other legal trades/processes.
The youth are mostly drug pushers and traffickers who get money from the drug dealers.
 However penalties to several drug trafficking convictions vary according to the laws of the country and
quality of the controlled substance involved in transactions.

 Reasons behind/causes of drug abuse and drug trafficking

 Drug abuse and trafficking have spread in very many areas in the world. There are various reasons
that stimulate the problems including the following.
1. Life hardship, some people engage in drug abuse and trafficking in order to escape poor social and
economic conditions. Drug use and addiction is said to be a form of escape behavior because it
provides temporary escape from conditioned or un conditioned stimulation as well as taking risk to
earn their living.
2. The lack of a strong government in many countries, for example Tanzania entertains illegal and other
legal but dangerous products like tobacco and alcoholic drinks.
3. Increased profit of drugs abused, For instance the increase of profit from opium was a deciding factor
which pushed poor farmers to switch from wheat to poppy production which has much high market
value
4. High consumption of illegal drugs can be a stimulating factor for drug trafficking in Tanzania.
5. Easy availability of legal and illegal drugs. With negligence and lack of enforcement on what drugs
should be over the counter, as well as on what constitutes the legal age limit of purchasing drugs, this
may lead to easy access to some drugs by minors.
6. Mob psychology and peer pressure, some youths think it is cool, to take drugs especially when they
see their peers in the state of joy.
7. Situational purposes, like trying to keep awake during examinations, night shift, a long journey
especially for drivers in Tanzania, stress etc.
8. Lack of parental guidance, the situation may rise due to family disruptions and poor upbringings,
leading to separation and child engagement in drug abuse and drug trafficking.
 Effects of drug abuse to individuals and society
1. The loss of human resource (loss of productivity): Many people, who engage themselves in drug abuse,
fail to work productively whether in farms, offices or industries and sometimes die.
2. Drug abuse can also cause health risks. Including sexual transmitted diseases (ST’s), mental illness as
well as social problems including, motor vehicle accidents, homicides, suicides, high mortality, drug
addictions and alcoholism.
3. At the community level, drug abuse increases insecurity due to the Increase of social evils/crimes such
as sex violence, Prostitution, Robbery, petty thieves etc. This is because drugs alter feelings (mental
ability) and physiological being of abusers as a result they become week to engage in constructive
activities and prone to social evils.
4. Poverty among individuals, this is due to inactiveness of drug abusers to engage in productive
activities and a lot of money spent for buying drugs and rehabilitating the addicted ones.
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 5. Cost fully to the nation. Governments in developing countries like Tanzania are more affected with
drug abuse because they do not have the financial and technical capacity in conditioning, treating and
counseling drug addicts and fighting drug trafficking.
6. Drugs can cause temporary insanity to a person since one becomes addicted and highly dependent
on drugs. The user may be reduced to an imbecile or zombie when he/she does not continue with drugs.
7. Death through suffocation, overdose, and drug addiction are also some of outcomes of drug abuse.
8. On other hand, drug abuse creates employment opportunities to counselors and other experts who are
have to be well trained and effective professionals, in vocational education, rehabilitation, mental
health, behavioral disorder and drug abuse.
9. It leads to the increase of street children due to irresponsibility of the users to their families.
 Individual roles in preventing drug abuse
1. To avoid bad peers and peoples who addicted to drugs and risk environment.
2. To participation actively in the community and religious organizations while reducing risk factors
that increase vulnerability to drug abuse.
3. To report any cases or incidents of drug abuse to the authority.
4. Developing individual motivation to quit. If the addict motivates him/her self to quit is very vital
that he/she can take action quickly than depending on the people around.
5. To keep their mind busy with good recreational activities like sports and games.
6. Adhering to the laws against drug abuse.
7. Parents have to build strong family bond. Parents have a critical influence over children and their
role is to change the attitude and behavior of their children in order to grow up as good citizens who
will normally shy away unlawful acts, such as drug abuse and the risk environments.
 The roles of community in preventing drug abuse
1. Strict laws enforcement to combat abusers and traffickers.
2. Provision of mass education on drug abuse and prevention. In addition to putting in place mitigation
programs, education is likely to reduce the number of drug addicts, drug trafficking and unbecoming
incidences, like violence, rapes and sexually transmitted diseases.
3. Educational school and college counselors have to provide individuals and groups with personal
social and educational counseling regarding drug abuse at all levels of educational and careers. This
can be effectively implemented by integrating education on drug abuse in school and college
curriculum.
4. Well developed social skills by the teachers and administrators .Schools can play a powerful role in
prevention as teachers and administrators often are the first to detect warning signs of possible drug
problems, such as poor school attendance or decline in academic performance. Effective school
programs teaching young people to resist drugs by developing personal and social skills such as
decision making, stress management, communication, social interaction and conflict resolution.
5. Parents must be educated and advised to be good role models for their children by not taking drugs,
and also warning their children. Therefore, workshops, meetings, and special days may be used to
educate parents and children on dangerous drug abuse.
6. Cooperation among nations should be made so that there are firm plans against drug traffickers and
abusers.
7. The use of mass Medias such as the radio, TV, and local newspapers to publicize the case and
educational programs against drug abuse.
 The role of the community in rehabilitating the addicts
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 Drug rehabilitation is a term for the medical or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on
psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs and street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or
amphetamines.
 The general intent is to enable the patient to cease substance abuse in order to avoid the psychological,
legal, social and physical consequences that can be causes.
 Drug addiction is a dependence on a legal or illegal drug (substance use disorder) or he/she is. When
a person is addicted is he/she not able to control his/her drug use despite the harm it causes.
 Sometimes a person may need to quit, but most people find they can’t do it on their own unless they
get help/support from doctors, family, friends, support groups or an organized treatment program to
overcome.
 Ways of drug rehabilitation
1. Medications such as methadone are widely used to treat addiction intended to reduce illegal drug use
and the risks of the associated with it in the line with philosophy of harm reduction.
2. Psychological dependency which is addressed in many drug rehabilitation programs by attempting to
teach the patients new methods of interacting in a drug free environment. A patient is encouraged or
required not to associate with friends who still use the addictive substance and engaging in other
recreational activities.

 Types of medical and psychotherapeutic programs in drug rehabilitation

1. Residential treatment: This involves residential treatment living at a treatment facility while
undergoing intensive treatment during the day. It lasts from 30 to 90 days.
2. Partial hospitalization: This is for people who require ongoing medical monitoring but have a stable
living situation. These treatment programs usually meet at the hospital for 3_5 days a week, 4_6 hours
per day.
3. Intensive outpatient program (IOP): A patient does not live in treatment program, but it still requires
a major time commitment. I takes at least 3 days a week foe 2_4 hours a day or more
4. Sober living: Normally follows intensive treatment like residential treatment. A patient lives with other
recovering addicts in a supportive drug free environment. Sober living is useful if a patient has nowhere
to go or she/he is worried that returning to home too soon will lead to relapse.
5. Counseling (individual, group, or Family): This works best in conjunction with other types of
treatment or as follow up support. It involves therapy which can help a patient to identify the root
causes of his/her drug abuse, repair his relationships and learn healthier coping skills.

 Ways to contain drug trafficking and use.

1. Disrupting the market chain of drugs.

2. Stepping up campaigns to educate the public on the potential danger of drug abuse.

3. Law enforcement against current users through medical screening and testing the suspects.

4. Law- enforcement effort against elements of the apply chain through surveillances and undercover work.

5. Providing effective and targeted treatment to dependant users.

6. Provision of mass education on drug abuse and trafficking.

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 1 UNAIDS, AIDS epidemic update 2004, <http://www.unaids.org/wad2004/
 report.html>.
 URT/PMO, National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS: 2003-2007, p 10.
 UNAIDS, Monitoring and Evaluation Operational Manual, 02.47E, August 2002, p 2. Ibid, p 13.
 URT/MOH/National AIDS Control Programme, HIV/AIDS/STI Surveillance
 Report—January to December 2003, No 18, October 2004, p 18.6 New Year Message to the nation,
President H.E. Benjamin William Mkapa, Dares Salaam, 31 December1999.
 URT/PMO, op cit, pp 22-51.Tanzania 2002 Census, Government of Tanzania, p 4.
 9World Fact Book, Tanzania, <http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/tz.html> (12 December
2005

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