Literature review

The Gambling Act of 2005 describes gambling as "any form of betting, gaming, or engagement
in lotteries.". Gaming entails participation in games to get a chance to win for a monetary or
monetary-value prize, while betting is placed to wage on the outcome of sports, races, or events
which does not essentially need a set of skills and where the outcomes are unpredictable
(Gambling Act, 2005). Lotteries (usually) entail a fee to participate in an event where prizes are
awarded solely on the basis of chance (Gambling Act, 2005). Gambling is not only popular in
western countries, but now it has been spread globally as a good form of entertainment (Moore et
al., 2012; Basham & Luik, 2011). However, some people fail to control their gambling behaviour
which causes harm to their health and wellbeing (Wardle, Reith, Best, McDaid & Platt, 2018).
Gambling addiction can strike anyone at any stage of their life (Segal, Smith & Robinson, 2020).
Gambling can go from fun, harmless diversion to unhealthy obsession causing severe
consequences (Wardle et al., 2018). The effects or harms of problematic gambling can be long
lasting and can affect related individuals, their family, community, and society in huge extent
(Wardle et al., 2018).
Gambling Commission defines problem gambling as “any type of gambling that compromises,
disrupts, or damages your personal, family, working and social relationships, as well as your
financial situation. It also has a great effect on the individual’s physical, emotional and mental
health” (Gambling commission, n.d.; Jazaeri & Habil, 2012). Characterisation of Problem
gambling mainly depends on harm experienced by the gambler or others and not by the
gambler's behaviour (Jazaeri & Habil, 2012). It is often categorised as problem gambler,
moderate problem gambler and at-risk gambler on the basis of Canadian problem Gambling
Severity Index scale (PGSI) (Ferris & Wayne, 2001). Severe problem gambling may be
diagnosed as clinical pathological gambling if the gambler meets certain criteria e.g., DSM 5
(The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition) (Bowden-Jones,
2018). Pathological gambling is gambling addiction and a common disorder that is associated
with social and family cost (Hollander, Buchalter & DeCaria, 2000). The American
Psychological Association describes a 'disordered gambling' as a “pathological addiction” and is
graded as “an impulse control disorder” in accordance with the International Classification of
Diseases-10 (Ashley & Boehlke, 2012). It is also known as compulsive gambling or gambling
disorder (Segal, Smith & Robinson, 2020). At-risk gambling is a concept used to identify
individuals who encounter certain difficulties, or adverse effects from their betting activities, but
are not categorized as problem gamblers (Kenyon, Ormerod, Parsons & Wardle, 2017).

1.1 Growing issue of Problem Gambling in UK:

1.1.1 Gambling problem in UK

The UK’s gambling industry and preferential ways of gambling by people has been constantly
influenced and transformed by social and technological developments since last decade
(Gambling regulation: problem gambling and protecting vulnerable people, 2020; The future of
the British remote betting and gaming industry, adopting to a changing landscape, 2014). It is
now getting larger and wider and more accessible than ever day by day which resulted in
increase in gambling problems nationally (Schreiber, 2016). This change has mentioned and
worrying statistics on gambling has constantly been highlighted by numerous charities and
organisations in the field of problem gambling in UK. As mentioned in Gambling regulation:
problem gambling and protecting vulnerable people (2020) article, gambling Commission’s
estimated number of problem gamblers in Great Britain last year is 395,000 of which 55,000 are
children of age 11–16 years. And further 1.8 million people out of these 395,000 gamblers are at-
risk of problem gambling (Gambling regulation: problem gambling and protecting vulnerable
people, 2020). Data shows that almost 14% of problem gamblers in UK are adolescent
(Gambling regulation: problem gambling and protecting vulnerable people, 2020) and unable to
understand the risks and harms of gambling and nature of gambling as disorder (Derevensky,
Sklar, Gupta & Messerlian, 2010).Tons of evidence has proven the link between early exposure
to gambling and increased chances of problem gambler in later life (Petry, 2002; Delfabbro,
Winefield, & Anderson, 2009; Welte, Barnes, Tidwell & Hoffman, 2011; Hayatbakhsh,
Clavarino, Williams, Bor & Najman, 2013; Delfabbro, King & Griffiths, 2014). One of the other
major factors responsible for gambling driving is Marketing (Newall, 2019). The Gambling Act
(2005) in the United Kingdom allowed gambling marketing to take place across all media
platforms, resulting in a significant increase in gambling marketing activity (Gambling Act 2005,
2018). Sport sponsorship is a remarkably efficient kind of marketing because it allows firms to
be affiliated with and capitalising on people' emotional attachments to teams and tournaments
(Vincent, Lee, Hull & Hill, 2020). In recent years, gambling sport sponsorship has become very
popular. During the 2018-19 football season, gambling companies sponsored more than half of
the teams in the English Premier League (EPL) and English Championship, as well as one-third
of the teams in the Scottish Premier League (SPL) (Slatter, 2018). Moreover, researchers Bunn,
C., Ireland, R., Minton, J., Holman, D., Philpott, M., & Chambers, S. (2019), believe that current
level of gambling in UK football professional league and domestic cup competitions in Scotland
and its global visibility to gambling brands is a global public health issue that should be
discussed and addressed.

According to report on Gambling Participation in UK, around 45 % individuals in 2017, 46 % in

2018 and 48 % in 2019 engaged in any form of gambling (Gambling participation in 2019:
behaviour, awareness, and attitudes, 2020). It further states that rates of gambling problems or
gambling addictions are increasing by 1% each year in Great Brittan. Furthermore, in 2017-,
2018- and 2019-year, people aged 16-24 who participated in any form of gambling has increased
to 35%, 36% and 40% respectively and participation of people having age 25to 35-years is 48%,
46% and 49% respectively for same years. This data proves more engagement of individuals
aged 18 to 35 in gambling. The no of students enrolled for higher education in UK are around
12,75,805 from age group 21 to 35 years (HESA,2020). This imposes that UK students
(international and domestic) are more susceptible to problem gambling in UK.

From the end of year 2019 to till date, world is suffering from covid- 19 crisis, which has made
devastating impact on people of world including UK (Brighton & Evans, 2020; Bradbury‐Jones
& Isham, 2020; Ceylan, Ozkan & Mulazimogullari, 2020; Cousins, 2020). In 2020, around 24.7
million people in Great Britain gambled (Lilly, 2020; Warrel, 2020). Though, the participation
rate is declined in pandemic at start of lockdown, the gambling industry shows overall consistent
rate of gambling between 45-48% since 2015. As an effect of pandemic, consumers way of
gambling has changed (Fluharty, Paul & Fancourt, 2020; López-Cabarcos, M. Á., Ribeiro-
Soriano & Piñeiro-Chousa, 202). The last 12 months has seen an increase in online gambling
(Håkansson, 2020). Around 11 million people now gamble online in UK (Impact of Covid-19 on
gambling behaviour, 2021). Data shows high increase in online gambling using mobile phones
from approximately 1.2 million from the previous year to around 5.5 million people this year
(Industry statistics, 2020). While trend of usage of PCs, laptops and tablets to gamble shows
overall decline since 2016 (Wiggan, 2020). Among all age groups, online gambling is very
popular in students aged 18- 34 years (Kalkan, 2017). National Lottery is most recognised brand
for gambling in Britain and Brit’s favourite gambling choice during pandemic (Our strategy for
the next three years, 2021). It is recognised as one of the largest lotteries in the world.

1.1.2 Gambling: Public Health issue

Gambling-related harms are “the adverse impacts from gambling on the health and wellbeing of
individuals, families, communities and society (Wardle, Reith, Best, McDaid & Platt, 2018).
These harms are multifaceted, damages finances, relationships, health and they may be the result
of a complex interaction between individual, family, and community processes (Wardle, Reith,
Langham & Rogers, 2019).). Problem gambling covers gambling related harms from low,
moderate to extreme (Orford, Wardle, Griffiths, Sproston & Erens, 2010). At risk gambling
refers to least harms and minimum future addiction possibility/vulnerability (Cowlishaw &
Kessler, 2016). Although Pathological gambling rate in UK is less than 1% (George & Murali,
2005), there are two million individuals are problem gamblers or at risk of problem gambling
(Conolly, Davies, Fuller, Heinze & Wardel, 2018). Plenty evidence has proven the strong
association between problem gambling and the physical, mental, and social wellbeing of gambler
and vice a versa (Wardle, 2019). It causes financial crises, family problems, difficulties in
educational roles, professional roles, and criminal or legal problems (Shaffer & Korn, 2002).
Developing an addiction to gambling can have a significant impact on mental health (Van der
Maas, 2016). According to research, problem gamblers are more likely to suffer from low self-
esteem, have difficulty sleeping, feel anxious or depressed, and can even develop stress-related
disorders (Shaffer & Korn, 2002; Van der Maas, 2016). Following a gambling binge, feelings of
loss and sorrow might lead to a desire to keep gambling in order to relive the gambling "high."
(Anderson, Dobbie & Reith, 2009).). Gambling addiction is estimated to cost the UK between
£260 million and £1.2 billion per year (Lilly, 2020). Problem gambling deteriorates the quality of
life (Shaffer HJ, Korn). Problem gamblers are treated to be over-represented in the health care
system including primary care, mental health therapy and hospitals (Gambling Commission.
(2018). Evidence recognized problem gambling as major public health concern in the U.K. and
intervention initiatives to resolve it (Cowlishaw & Kessler, 2016; Wardle, Reith, Langham &
Rogers, 2019).

1.1.3 Risk factors for problem gambling

Risk factors are the elements responsible for increase in chances of development of problem
gambling (Offord, D. R., & Kraemer, H. C. (2000). Several systematic reviews and primary
research have been documented gambling and gambling related risk factors (Johansson et al.,
2007; McComb & Sabiston, 2010; Dowling et al., 2016). It includes biological and behavioral
factors on individual basis such as impulsivity, gender, young status, early age, below full
employment status or nature of job, clinical anger problems, and alcohol and substance use
(Dowling et al., 2016). Family risk factors include family’s sociodemographic status, family
members’ attitude and behaviours, parenting nature, and family members interrelationships
(McComb & Sabiston, 2010). Johansson et al (2007) mentioned well established risk factors for
problematic and pathological gambling problem in their systematic review includes demographic
variables (age, gender), cognitive distortions (erroneous perceptions, illusion of control), sensory
characteristics, schedules of reinforcement, comorbid disorders (OCD, drug abuse), and
delinquency/illegal acts.
A variety of psychosocial factors such as depression, anxiety, a lack of social support, loneliness,
and gambling-related cognitive distortions are linked to the development of problematic
gambling (Johansson, Grant, Kim, Odlaug & Götestam, 2009; Dowling et al., 2017; Dowling et
al., 2015). Though some demographic variables, psychosocial factors are supported by more than
two studies as risk factors, yet this evidence is not enough to prove the importance and critical
role of all social, psychological, biological, genetic factors in development of problematic
including pathological gambling (Johansson et al., 2009). Gambling is an ancient human activity
found in all cultures and is played in most part of worlds legally or illegally (Custer & Milt,
1985).

1.1.4 Impact of advertising and pandemic:

Advertising of gambling is a potential public health issue (Binde, 2014; Abbott, 2020; Delfabbro
& King, 2020). It has direct effect on gambling participation and gambling outcomes and mainly
targeted around sports with more feasible strategies for advertisement of their brands, financial
provisions, and incentives for participation in gambling (Djohari, Weston, Cassidy, Wemyss &
Thomas, 2019). Vulnerable groups specially children and problem gamblers are appeared to be
more influenced and lured by these gambling advertisements (Griffiths, M. D. (2005). Gambling
advertisements featuring Celebrity endorsement just not only gives recognition to the brand but
also make advertisements more believable (Lopez-Gonzalez, Estéve & Griffiths, 2018).
Pandemic has a sprawling effect on gambling. According to Brodeur, Audette-Chapdelaine,
Savard, & Kairouz (2021) in their gambling and COVID-19 pandemic: scoping review, though
many researchers raised concerns about the impact of the pandemic on gamblers or the gambling
industry, other ten original studies reported decrease in gambling behaviour during pandemic.
Researchers Lindner et al. (2020) found overall 13.29 % decreased gambling activity during first
outbreak of COVID-19. Analyses of online gambling data revealed that it comprises 39.9% of
the overall market and casinos gaming generated £3.2 bn Gross Gambling Yield making it most
dominate sector (Gambling Commission: Industry Statistics-November 2020, 2021). According
to Hakinsson (2020), during pandemic overall gambling increased by 4 % while in contrast
Donti et al. (2020) found that gambling behaviour reduced during pandemic and there is no
preference given to online gambling.  Auer et al. (2020) also found the same conclusion
supporting those assumptions of spending more time and money on online gambling as result of
lockdown is peculate.

1.2 University students- a vulnerable group

Problem gambling among university students is a concerning issue and the majority of gamblers
are from age group 18 to 35 years (Newall et al., 2019; Gambling participation in 2019:
behaviour, awareness and attitudes Annual report, 2020; College Gambling Facts and Statistics,
n.d.). Many researchers have proved that both male and female of age 18 to 24 years have
positive attitude towards gambling and have observed increased participation in number of
gambling activities (Salonen, Alho & Castrén, 2017). Griffiths and other researchers found a
relatively high amount of problem gambling among university students who were playing online
poker games (Griffiths, Parke, Wood & Rigbye, 2010). Furthermore, the study has displayed the
worrying increasing level of student’s debts in UK and the rate at which online gambling is
developing around the world. Moreover, the most probable evident reason to this increasing rate
of gambling is the social acceptability of gambling as they are promoted through televised
tournaments and celebrity players, in their 24 hours X 7-days-a week availability, and the
assumption that this is primarily a skill-based activity that could be learned ((Griffiths, Parke,
Wood & Rigbye, 2010). Chances of at-risk for problem gambling are two to three times higher in
youth than adults (College Gambling Facts and Statistics, n.d.). The brain is still maturing at
this age, and emotion and reasoning are not fully developed (Weinberger, Elvevåg & Giedd,
2005). This indicates that decision-making capacity of young adult's is not yet developed,
making them more likely to take risks or act recklessly which drives them more towards
severe problematic gambling behaviour (Steinberg & Cauffman,1996).

In the United States 7.3% of college students were identified as pathological gamblers, while the
frequency of pathological gambling among adults is 2-5 % in the general population (Locke et
al., 2013). Moore et al. (2013) found around 5.4% of university students as problem gamblers
and 0.5–1% rate of adult gamblers in general population of Australia (Davidson et al., 2015).
According to research conducted by YAGM (2019), study discovered that around 264,000
students in the UK are at some risk from gambling with around 88,000 as problem gamblers and
7.3% adults are at risk of problem gambling (Wardle et al., 2010). Annual Statistics discovered
that gamblers who attended the clinic for gambling issue are from age group 25-29- and 30-34-
years old accounting 40% of clients in total (National Gambling Treatment Service Great Britain,
2020). Shaffer et al. (2004) declared that 0.2 to 3 % of the adult population experience severe
gambling problems and suggested for further scope of epidemiological gambling study on
vulnerable groups with different methodology and with better psychometric tools.

A study on gambling behaviour of Scotland students had showed high levels of problem
gambling among students (Moodie, 2008). Wardle et al (2015) in their Research Report for
Leeds City Council pointed out that a very little British evidence is available to test students as a
risk category and no further research on gambling behaviour have been reported within British
students. For Westminster and Manchester City Councils, to explore groups of people with a
high risk of developing gambling problems, a scoping review was conducted by Wardle in 2015
discovered that young people, including students were at a higher risk of gambling problems
(Wardle, 2015). Evidence from the British Gambling Prevalence Survey (BGPS) 2010 showed
that “students who were not living in institutions displayed similar levels of risk and problem
gambling to those of the same age who were not in higher education” (Problem gambling in
Leeds, 2016). Based on all available information, students are considered as vulnerable as other
groups of same age, but more evidence is needed for conclusion.

1.3 Exploring College Student Gambling Motivation:

Many people develop their self-identity and sense of independence between the ages of 18 and
25, often known as young adulthood (Arnett 2000). It is a time when young people begin to
assume adult obligations, including those relating to relationships, profession, especially, for
many, college admission. Teens and twenties are also a time when people start engaging in
potentially harmful sexual, liquor, and drug-related habits (Volberg 2003). Now days, the famous
activity gaining attention among university students is gaming, going to sports, and gambling.
When gambling is a legal and most popular form of entertainment who gamble, then individual
can easily get drive from social gambling to problematic gambling (Custer 1984). Plenty of
evidence suggest that University students are at high risk of problem gambling (Nowak & Aloe,
2014; Nowak, 2017). The rate of problem gambling is two to three times higher in youth than
adult, proves the vulnerability to high risk of problem gambling among university students
(Blinn-Pike et al. 2007; Delfabbro et al. 2005). Young people generally have a tendency to
explore new things, experiment them and ready to take risks which is one of the most important
reason to have high problem gambling behaviour among youth or younger people (DiClemente
et al. 2009; Snow et al. 2002). Many young people think alcohol and gambling as ‘rites of
passage’ into adulthood (Welte, Barnes, Tidwell & Hoffman, 2009). And they take more risky
games or activities to gamble such as cards, electronic gaming machines (EGMs) and sports
betting just for fun and to prove themselves as adult (Clarke 2003; Wickwire et al. 2007).

But apart from youthful experimentation and harmful gambling judgements, there are various
other factors that can make young university students susceptible to gambling addiction. New
and young university students are not only transitioning to new communal, emotional, academic,
and financial emancipation but also facing substantial difficulties managing these changes in
their day-to-day life (Mousavi et al., 2018). These mood changes, increased stress and anxiety
make university students who already gamble more vulnerable to problem gambling (Clarke
2004; Lightsey and Hulsey 2002). Jiang & Man, 2018 stated that students face many challenges
in form of assessments, targets completion within time limits, new education system, education-
life transition, and discrimination as more complex challenge, mainly among married students.
Psycho-social models by Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) indicate that gambling offers a fun,
temporary diversion from life issues such as disturbed family and personal backgrounds, weak
coping and problem-solving skills, interpersonal instability due to psychosocial deficiencies.
Many people do gamble for excitement, to take new experience and to get high, to escape
boredom, to cope with depression, anxiety, stress, to overcome negative self-concept (Lostutter,
Cronce & Larimer, 2002) and gradually develop advancement in gambling problems (Dowling et
al., 2017; Johanson et al., 2007). gamble to take risks, experience uncertainty, test their perceived
skill, to adapt peer pressure, and ‘‘because everyone else is doing it’’ (Burger et al., 2006, as
cited in Nowak & Aloe, 2014).

Gambling is mostly followed by posttraumatic stress states or psychosocial factors of hyper or

hypo-arousal conditions as a means of emotional escape (Thomas et al., 2011). Situational life
stressors, isolation, family interaction and communication involvement are positively correlated
with the magnitude of problem gambling (Calado et al., 2017). Researchers found a strong link
between development of problem gambling and negative mood status. Atkinson et al. (2012)
conducted a survey among 448 students in USA to find out the impact of negative affect on
association between behavioural embracement and activation of severe problem gambling.
Another study conducted by Matthews et al. (2009) conducted pilot on 127 self-defined online
gamblers. The findings of this study reveal that problem Internet gamblers experience a wide
spectrum of unpleasant mood states. According to Raylu & Oei (2004), cultural variables are
also responsible for problem gambling including beliefs and values of a cultural community, the
phase of socialization, and Ethnically behaviour-seeking support. But in most studies the target
population was not specifically students. Dowling et al. (2017) insisted that there is a future need
of longitudinal research to explore relationship level, community level and societal level risk and
protective factors associated with the development of consequent problem gambling.
1.4 Problem gambling among international students:
Evidence suggest that international students are at more risk of development of problem
gambling than local students (Moore et al., 2012; Mond et al, 2019). University students are
already trying to cope with various changes in their life and stressors related to their academics
(Torrado etal., 2020). On the top of that, as an international student who move from their home
country to different countries, have to bear the pressure of adulthood and face burden of
adjusting with stressors related to new country and new culture in addition (Moore et al., 2013).
This makes them even more vulnerable or at risk of problem gambling. The pre-arrival period
and the first few weeks after arrival are very crucial periods for students to adapt to a new
environment (Jiang & Man, 2018) They also suffer additional stressors of social isolation and
loneliness (Khawaja and Dempsey 2008; Leung 2001). According to Blaszczynski & Nower’s
(2002) pathway model of problem and pathological gambling, this emotional vulnerability may
increase the risk of problem gambling.

Leung (2001) found cultural variations in aloneness, social empowerment, position of self-
control, and academic fulfilment. He stated that degree of stability was significant for non-
emigrant students, while positive social relations were important for migrant/overseas students
for their sociopsychological and academic adaptation. Different cultures vary in beliefs about
luck and chance, which may affect how chance-based gambling activities are approached.
Cultural beliefs about luck, opportunity, and gambling facilities operate would increase the
appeal of gambling (Dickins & Thomas, 2016). Due to personal interest and a lack of experience
and information about gambling, new migrants (international students) might become potentially
at elevated risk of problem gambling (Moore et al., 2013). International students need to adapt in
new culture, education and communication in new language, study in new. High number of
efforts has to take for acclimatization or adaptation into new country who has different cultural
and language differences which increases even more stress and anxiety among international
students (Dao et al. 2007; Leung 2001; Poyrazli et al. 2004). Failure to manage the socialization
process can have a negative influence on a person's physiological, psychological, and social
well-being (Poyrazli et al. 2004).
The elevated risk of problem gambling among international students is likely to be because of
more constraints compared to domestic students (Dickins & Thomas, 2016). International
students have a lot of pressure to do excellent in academic study as their parents had made lot of
sacrifices to send them internationally to gain degrees, postgraduation or any professional
qualification (Mori, 2000). The additional burden of making money while doing study to support
themselves make them more vulnerable to opt for easy and fast options like gambling (Brooks,
2012). Families often demand high accomplishment from their sons and daughters, who may feel
under intense pressure to excel in their studies, due to the significant financial and emotional
investment (Mori 2000). Students juggle between paid work and studies in order to sustain
themselves financially may experience additional stress.

International students from countries where gambling is not commonly accepted are more likely
to be fascinated about new gambling opportunities and are quite likely to have been informed
about the risks connected with various types of gambling or what constitutes excessive gambling.
Despite their lack of expertise managing their own funds, some carry huge quantities of money
from home. Although these funds are often intended to cover living expenses for a semester or
year, the temptation to utilise them for amusement, such as gambling, can be strong. This
combination of characteristics can be particularly dangerous, since it puts these young
individuals at risk of losing more money than they can afford, chasing losses, and engaging in
other compulsive gambling behaviours. However, limited study has been undertaken to see if
international students are more prone to problem gambling than domestic students.

In UK, international students constitute nearly one-fifth of the nation’s higher education
population (International facts and figures 2019, 2020). Two in every three international student
population in UK is aged between 18 and 30 years, with almost 8% under 30 years of age
(HESA, 2021). In 2017-18, the top five sending countries for international students were China,
India, the US, Hong Kong, and Malaysia. Chinese students at UK higher education institutions
made up 23.2% of all international students. The top sending countries within the EU were Italy,
France and Germany (International facts and figures 2019, 2020; HESA, 2021). In these
countries, access to gambling options is significantly more limited than in the United Kingdom,
where gambling is widely accepted and opportunities to gamble abound (Banks, 2017; Gambling
act, 2005). The increased exposure, high geographic availability to gaming, and long opening
hours of gambling locations are connected to increase in usage, frequency, and issues from
gambling (Moore et al. 2011; Thomas et al. 2011).

From general population samples study, with an individuals’ demographic characteristics (age,
sex, and income) reasons for gambling varies (Francis et al., 2015). Two studies from USA
supported the findings that College students gamble for the same reasons as most other young
people do such as for enjoyment, for social reasons, for thrill, for a chance to earn money, and to
pass the time (Sherba & Gersper, 2017; Neighbors, Lostutter, Cronce & Larimer, 2002).
However, international students are not considered in these studies. Dowling et al. (2019) study
failed to find connections between psychosocial factor and problem gambling status in
international students because of small sample size. It is proved that cultural and environmental
differences limit the generalization of individual study findings to other communities or
locations, even within the same country (Stevens & Golebiowska, 2013). Moore et al. (2013)
suggested that further research on occurrence and correlations of problem gambling behaviour
among international students in UK would be of more interest.

In summary, potential risky behaviour, tendency to experience new thrilling things, and
gambling preferences makes students (international and domestic) more vulnerable to problem
gambling. They ought to manage their emotions, finance, academia, and respective stressors
associated with university studies, new environment, and new transitional change as a part of
their life development. International students may be even at greater risk because of variety of
different factors for gambling. Comparatively little research has been carried out to find
correlation of these stressors to problem gambling among international students in comparison
with domestic students of UK. The purpose of this research is to discover problem gambling
behaviour of students in UK and to explore how it relates to demographic, cultural, and
psychosocial factors. It is hypothesized that (a) rate of problem gambling among international
university students is higher than domestic university students (b)demographic, sociocultural,
and psychological factors would be moderately associated with problem gambling status of
international students than domestic students.