Module-II (Part-I)

Control of dc motors
(static control)
Disadvantages of conventional method:
1. Sliding contacts and contactors are used, which may result in arcing and sparking. So wear of
equipment may take place.
2. Strict maintenance is required.
But, conventional method is cheaper.
Advantages of static method:
1. Power electronic devices are used.
2. No moving parts are used.
3. High speed of operation (SCR can operate in microseconds).
Conventional control of dc motors:
V
Initially, I a= , since E=0.
R a + R1 + R 2 + R4

Fig1.conventional control of dc motors

When motor achieves certain speed, back EMF starts building up and I ais controlled, while the switches
are closed gradually. When motor achieves its full speed, all the switches s 1, s2, s3, s4 will be in closed
V −E
position and now I a= .
Ra
Instead of the switches s1, s2, s3, s4, power electronic devices can be used. Most of the time, SCR is
preferred as its switching time is very less.

1. Starting of dc motors using SCRs and resistances:

This is a semi-static method, which uses static devices and rheostats.

Zener-diode: blocks input voltage, gives out voltage according to its rated value. Zener- diodes (z1, z2, z3)
1 1
operates for rd , nd , full voltage respectively.
3 2
Tacho generator (TG): generates a voltage signal depending up on the speed of rotation of motor.
Resistor (R5): controls field current. Diode (D2): avoids negative current flowing through field winding
and hence de-magnetization is not possible. Diode (D1): is a free-wheeling diode.
Resistor (R1): controls charging current of the capacitor.
S1 and s2: master switches, the former is pressed while starting and the latter to stop. Power wasted in
these switches is very less, usually in milli-watts (in conventional method, contactors are used, where
power loss is comparably more).
Resistors (R1, R3, R4): control starting of dc motor. RC circuit, helps master switches s 1 and s2 stick to the
terminals provided (holds switches form in on condition).
Starting of motor:
 Initially, s1 is pressed and gate signal is given to TH1, by ensuring that it is forward biased.
 When TH1 is turned on, path for current is: source+, armature, TH1, R2, R3, R4, source-.
  When TH1 is conducting, ‘c’ is charged through R1 and the plate marked with dot will be at
higher potential.
 Tacho generator generates an electrical signal corresponding to speed of rotation of motor.
 When ‘V’ reaches one-third of the required value, z 1 conducts the gate signal to TH2 and hence R2
is shunted out. So net armature circuit resistance is decreased, increasing the speed of the motor.
 When ‘V’ reaches two-third of the required value, z 2 conducts the gate signal to TH3 and hence R3
is also shunted out. Net armature circuit resistance is still decreased and speed of the motor is still
increased.
 When ‘V’ increased to the required value z3 conducts gate signal to TH4 and R4 is shunted out.

Fig2.schematic diagram of semi static method

All this operation is very fast. By varying R5, the motor can be made to rotate at rated speed.
Stopping of motor: when s5 is pressed, RC combination firmly holds s5. TH5 is turned on, positive of
capacitor will be given to cathode of TH1, reverse voltage is applied across it and it will be turned off and
motor is naturally braked.
Though control is static, there will be power loss in resistors, which will be converted in to heat and this
must be avoided.
2. Thyristor starting of dc motor without resistances:

Fig3. Thyristor starting of dc motor without resistances

Inductor (L1): doesn’t allow sudden changes in current flowing through it, protects SCR from high rates if
rise in current. Diode (D1): avoids negative current flow through L1.CH1, CH2 are choppers. Gate
triggering circuits: provides gate pulses to choppers (g 1 to CH1 and g2 to CH2).
FW- field winding; C- commutating capacitor; L2- commutating inductor; D- commutating diode.

Principle of operation: voltage chopping.

No resistor is present in the circuit. So no power loss.
T on
Duty cycle=δ= . So by varying ' δ ' output voltage can be varied.
T on+ T off
Initially ' δ ' is maintained minimum, V o =δ V s .
Operation of the circuit:
i) Assume that the capacitor plate marked with dot is positive.
 ii) CH1 is given gate signal from gate triggering circuit (g1) and load current path is: source (+), L1, CH1,
motor, current monitor circuit, source (-).
iii) When CH1 is turned on, C starts discharging via C (+), CH1, L2, D2, C (-) and it charges with reverse
polarity. When the load current increases beyond Imax, current monitor circuit issues gate signal (g2) to
CH2.
iv) When CH2 is triggered, voltage of reverse polarity is applied across CH 1 and it is turned off. Now current
will free-wheel through free-wheeling diode and current will be reduced slowly.
v) Capacitor is charged to source voltage via source (+), L 1, C, CH2, motor, current monitor circuit, source
(-). In this process, reverse voltage across capacitor is wiped out, approaches zero and then charged to
source voltage. When capacitor is charged to source voltage, current through it becomes zero and CH 2
is turned off. When Io is reduced to Imin, gate signal (g1) is given to CH1.

By slowly increasing on time period of CH1 (and hence duty cycle), voltage applied to armature can be
increased and the speed increases accordingly.
Static speed control methods:
a) Armature voltage control
b) Field flux control
c) Supply voltage control

3. Control of dc motor speed using UCR (Un-Controlled Rectifier):

As the rectifier uses uncontrolled switches, we make use of transformer with secondary tapping. As the
available supply is ac, the dc motor is fed by rectified dc via transformer and rectifier.
Lm- main or smoothening inductor- reduces the ripple content in the output of rectifier and gives
improved dc current.
La- armature inductor; Ra- armature resistor; E- Back EMF
UCR- gives fixed dc for a given ac.
The output voltage of UCR or the input voltage to motor can be changed by changing the tapping of the
transformer and the speed of the motor is controlled accordingly.
4. Control of speed of dc motor using control rectifier:
As the available supply is ac, we use rectifier to feed dc motor. Here as the rectifier uses controlled
switches, there is no need of tapped transformer. Both armature circuit and field circuit are fed by
rectified dc, rectification can be done by:
1−φ half wave controlled rectifier; 1−φ semi converter; 1−φ full converter; 1−φ dual converter
3−φ half wave controlled rectifier; 3−φ semi converter; 3−φ full converter; 3−φ dual converter.
1−φ dc drives:

(a) 1−φ half wave controlled rectifier:

Armature circuit is fed from a Single phase half wave controlled rectifier, uses one SCR and one diode,
while field circuit can be fed from a semi converter, which uses two SCRs and two diodes. Half wave
rectifier can also be used in field circuit, but magnetic losses in the circuit increases as the harmonics in
the field current are more.
Armature circuit is fed from a Single phase half wave controlled rectifier, uses one SCR and one diode,
while field circuit can be fed from a semi converter, which uses two SCRs and two diodes. Half wave
rectifier can also be used in field circuit, but magnetic losses in the circuit increases as the harmonics in
the field current are more.
In field circuit, T1 and D1 are operated for positive half cycle, while T2 and D2 are operated for negative
half cycle.
π
1 1 V
Now, V a =
2π α
∫ V m sinωt dωt=
2π
V m [cosωt ]πα = m ( 1+ cos α a ) , α a is the firing angle maintained in
a
2π
a

the rectifier of the armature circuit, o< α a< π .

By varying α a ,V acan be varied.
For semi converter used in the field circuit,
π
2 1 V
Vf= ∫
2π α
V m sinωt dωt= [−cosωt ]πα = m ( 1+cos α f ) ; o< α f < π , α f is firing angle maintained in
π π f
f

the field circuit.

This drive is used rarely in applications maintaining 0.5 KW power level. This is first quadrant drive
only.
Speed- torque characteristics:
Vm
V a T Ra ( 1+cos α a ) T R
π a , as α a increases, voltage applied to armature decreases.
ω= − = −
k φ ( kφ )2
kφ ( kφ )2
 (b) 1−φ semi converter or 1−φ half wave controlled bridge rectifier drive:
As the available supply is ac, the dc motor is fed from a semi converter. Both armature and field circuits
can be fed with output of semi converters. It is not possible to trigger SCR when voltage applied to
armature is less than the back emf of the motor.

For continuous current mode of operation,

Vm V
V a= ( 1+cos α a ) ; o< α a< π ∧V f = m ( 1+cos α f ) ; o<α f < π .
2π π
In both armature and field circuits, T1 and D1 are operated for positive half cycle, while T2 and D2 are
operated for negative half cycle.
In order to have a discontinuous current mode of operation, free-wheeling diode is disconnected in
armature circuit. For this mode of operation,

[ ]
αa π
1 1
V a=
π
∫ E dωt+∫ V m sinωt dωt = π[ m
V ( 1+ co s α a ) + E α a ] .
0 αa

This is also a single quadrant drive. This can be used up to 15KW power level

In case of series motor, only one semi converter is sufficient.

(c) 1−φ full converter drive (for a power level of 15KW):

For continuous load current operation,
π +α a
1 1 2V 2Vm
V a=
π ∫ V m sinωt dωt= V m [cosωt ]πα + α = m ( cos α a ) ,V f =
π a
π
a

π
( cos α f ) 0<α a , α f < π
αa

Both armature and field circuits are fed with outputs of single phase full converters. Single phase semi
converter can also be used to feed field circuit.

For discontinuous current operation,

[ ]
β π + αa
1 1
V a=
π
∫ V m sinωt dωt + ∫ E dωt = ¿
π
αa β

…eq 1
Also,V a =E+ I a R a
…eq 2
V a T Ra
If flux is constant, T =k I a , E=k ω m∧ω m= − 2 …eq 3
k k

With increase inα a, the speed of operation decreases.

Though armature current can either continuous or discontinuous, field current must be maintained
continuous.

2Vm
V a= ( cos α a ) ,0< α a< π .
π
π π
for 0<α a < ,V a is positive∧for <α a <π , V a is negative .
2 2
For positive voltage, motoring mode of operation and for negative voltage, reverse regeneration operation
is possible. So this is a two quadrant drive. Voltage applied to armature can be either positive or negative,
but current is always positive.
(d) 1−φ dual converter drive (15 KW power level):
With this type of drive, four quadrant operation is possible. This consists of two converters. For
converter-I, Ia is positive, Va can be positive or negative. So operates in first and fourth quadrants.
For converter-II, Ia is negative, Va can also be positive or negative. So operates in second and third
quadrants.

2Vm 2V
For continuous load current operation, V a 1= ( cos αa 1 ) , V a 2= m ( cos α a 2 ) ;
π π

0< α a 1 , α a 2 < π

Both V a 1 ,V a 2 are both equal and opposite or V a 1 +V a 2=0.

2V m 2V
( cos α a 1 ) + m ( cos α a 2 )=0
π π
cos α a 1=cos (π−α ¿¿ a 2)¿
α a 2=π−α a 1

Means if α a 1is the firing angle of converter-I, firing angle to the converter-II should be given after π−α a 1
.
 There are two modes of operation:
1. Circulating current free mode or Non-Circulating current mode
2. Circulating current mode.
1. Circulating current free mode or Non-Circulating current mode:
Only one converter operates as the firing signal is given to only one converter. As a result, current
cannot flow from one converter to the other. So, power loss due to current is reduced.
Weight is reduced and complexity is reduced due to the operation of only one converter, but only two
quadrant operation is possible.
2. Circulating current mode:
Circulating current flows from one converter to another converter. This part of current doesn’t flow
through load. In this case, rating of SCRs in converters should be greater than that of the rating of load,
since SCRs must carry both circulating and load currents.
Advantages:
 Four quadrant operations are possible.
 Switching over from one quadrant operation to another quadrant operation is very fast in
circulating current mode.
2V m
For a full converter in the field circuitV f = ( cos αf )field current must always be positive only, since
π
negative current will demagnetize the core.
3−φ dc drives:
(a) 3−φ half wave controlled drive:

As the available supply is three phase ac, dc motor is fed from a three phase half wave rectifier. Single
phase or three phase semi converter output can be used to feed field circuit. We can’t use single phase or
three phase half wave converter in field circuit due to presence of more harmonics and more disturbance
to magnetization.
Frequency of rippled wave for various rectifiers: 3f s- half and semi converters, 6fs- full converter, 12fs-
dual converter. As frequency increases, size and cost of smoothening inductor reduces as the requirement
of filtering is reduced.

3−φ half rectifier: V a 1= √ m ( cos αa ) ; 0< αa 1 < π ,V m = √ 2 V .

3 3V
For
2π √3
Three phase supply can be taken from a three phase transformer. This is a single quadrant drive. Power
level is up to 40 KW.
As the supply may contain dc component, this is not used in industrial applications.
3 √3 V m
Vf=
π
( 1+ cos α f ) for semi converter
Vm
Vf= ( 1+cos α f ) for semi converter
π
(b) 3−φ semi converter drive or 3−φ half controlled bridge rectifier (115 KW power level):
Field converter can be fed from single phase or three phase semi converter.

3√3V m 3 √3 V m 3−φ semi converter in both armature and

V a=
2π
( 1+cos α a ) ∧V f =
2π
( 1+ cos α f ) , for
field circuits. This is a single quadrant drive. Free-wheeling action is there and free-wheeling current
flows through diode and SCR which is conducting.

(c) 3−φ full converter drives (1500KW power level):

Both armature and field circuits can be fed from three phase full converters. Very high power rated SCRs
(400V, 3.5KA) used. So, protection is must. Though SCRs are smaller, they are very costlier. Two
quadrant operations are possible, without any field reversal.
3√3V m V 3−φ full converter.
V a= ( 1+cos α a ) , V f = m ( 1+cos α f ) for a
π π

In 3−φ full converter, thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a phase difference of 60 o
by gate pulses of 120o duration. Each thyristor conducts for 120o and two thyristors conduct at a time, on
from upper group and the other from lower group, applying respective line voltages to the motor.

3 √ 3V m
cos α a
V a T Ra π T Ra
ω= − = −
kφ ( kφ ) 2
kφ ( kφ )2

With increases in α a , speed decreases.

(d) 3−φ dual converter drives (1500KW power level):
Armature is fed from dual converter output, while field converter can be fed from a single or
three phase full converter. Four quadrant operations are possible. Theory of single phase dual
converter can be applied to three phase dual converter, while
3 √ 3V m 3 √3 V m
V a 1=
π
( cos α a 1 ) ,V a 2=
π
( cos α a 2)
Draw backs of rectifier fed dc drives:
1. Low power factor:
When motor is operating at low speeds, power factor is less. In high power drives, it is necessary to install
a static VAR (voltage ampere reactive) compensator for improving power factor.
2. Distortion of supply:
When line impedance is significant, source is termed as weak source. In a weak source with high internal
impedance, line current harmonics cause fluctuations in source voltage.
3. Ripple content in motor current:
High line current may have ac ripple component superimposed in dc. Ripples increases losses and we
may have chance for discontinuous conduction.

5. Chopper controlled dc drives:

Constant dc → chopper→ variable dc.
Available dc supply can be used excite field winding. So there is no need of any converter for field
winding.
Free-wheeling diode assures the continuous conduction of current.
When chopper is turned on, supply voltage ‘V’ is applied directly across armature and when it is turned
off, current free-wheels through FD (free-wheeling diode).
As chopper is a power electronic circuit, power circuit, control circuit and commutation circuit are
necessary. On time period is dictated by control circuit, while SCRs are turned off by using commutation
circuit. Basic chopper operation is confined to single (first) quadrant only.

[ ]
T T off
1 V T on T
V a=
T
∫ Vdt + ∫ 0 dt =
T
=δV , δ =duty cycle= on
T
0 T on

d Ia
From circuit, I a R a+ L + E=V ;0 ≤ t ≤ T on
dt

At time t=T on , CH1 is off, motor current free-wheels through free-wheeling diode.

For T on ≤ t ≤ T off , terminal voltageV a =0.

V a−E δV −E δV T Ra
Now, I = = andω= − .
Ra Ra kφ ( kφ )2
Chopper for regenerative braking (second quadrant operation):

For second quadrant operation, the load must be active.

CH2 is on: V a =0

Current free-wheels through it.

CH2 is off: V a =V

Current is fed back to source.

Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by machine, working as a generator.

( ) ( )
T
1 T −T on T T
V a=
TT
∫ vdt=v
T
=v 1− on =v ( 1−δ ) =v δ ' ; δ= on , δ ' =1−δ
T T
on

E−V
−E+ I a R a +V =0⟹ I a=
Ra

Since I ahas reversed, torque T =−kφ I a

V a T Ra δ ' V T R a
⟹ operational speed , ω= − = +
kφ ( kφ )2 kφ ( kφ )2
In the above equation, first term represents no load speed( ω o ), while second term represents change in
speed( ∆ ω ).As ω> ωo ,second quadrant operation is possible.

We can’t achieve regenerative braking from standstill. Any braking method should be initiated from
motoring mode only.

When we connect CH1 across diode ‘D’, we can have motoring operation with CH1 turned on and CH2
off except for free-wheeling action. With CH2 turned on and CH1 turned off, we can have regeneration
action.
Chopper for dynamic braking:
In dynamic braking, supply to armature is removed and a braking resistor (fixed value) is connected
across armature.For 0 ≤ t ≤ T on , I a increases. A part of energy generated is stored in inductance and rest is
dissipated in resistance.

 ForT on ≤ t ≤ T , I adecreases. Energy generated and stored in inductance is dissipated in R a and RB.
 SCR controls the magnitude of the energy dissipated in effected resistance of R B.
 If I ais assumed to be ripple less dc, then the energy consumed by R Bduring a cycle of chopper
2
operation is W ≃ I a R B (T −T on)
 2
energy I a R B ( T −T on) 2 P
⟹average power consumed (P) = = =I a RB ( 1−δ ) =I 2a R BE ⟹ RBE = 2 ,
time T Ia
T
…eq1, where RBE =RB ( 1−δ ) , δ = on
T
As we vary Ton (¿ hence δ ¿ 0 ¿ 1), RBE can be varied from o to RB.
From equation 1, it is clear that the effective value of braking resistance can be changed smoothly from 0
to RB, as ' δ ' is controlled from 1 to 0.

Chopper control of dc series motor:

1. Forward motoring:V a =δV .

2. Regenerative braking: dc series motor acts as a self-excited dc series generator. For self-
excitation, current flowing through field winding should assist residual magnetism. Means, I ashould be
reversed, but I f should flow in the direction same as that of during motoring.
δV + I a R a
W= , T =−k I 2a
kφ
3.Dynamic braking: field current is reversed in machine from motoring mode to braking mode (this
doesn’t have much effect as winding is having more inductance). Motor acts as a self-excited dc
generated, provided total braking resistance is less than the critical resistance.
6. Ward-Leonard (W-L) system:

 Provides a constant torque as well as constant HP drive.

 In constant torque operation, the field flux of the drive motor is kept constant and the armature
voltage is controlled.
  In constant HP operation, the armature voltage is held constant at the rated value and the
field current is controlled.
 W-L system provides better performance in terms of increased speed range, improved
commutation (no chance of sparking when current is reversed in the commutator), precise speed
control is possible.
Other advantages:
1. Full forward and reverse speed can be obtained.
2. Power is automatically regenerated to the ac line through the M-G set, when speed is reduced.
3. Short time overload capability is large.
4. The armature current of the motor is smooth.
Disadvantages:
1.Capital cost is high.
2.Overall efficiency is low (70%).
3.Large amount of space is required.
4.Periodic inspection and lubrication are necessary.
Solid state control of W-L system:
1. Saturated core and silicon diode dc drives:
Saturated reactor (or core) converts ac into controlled ac, which is converted into controlled dc by silicon
diodes, and is supplied to dc drive.
Though this is expensive, the following are the advantages:
 Long life, high reliability
 Smaller package, rugged
 Significant improvement in performance.
2. Controlled converter dc drive:
SCR replaces M-G set. Converter acts as a higher capacity (voltage and current) variable voltage dc
supply system, capacity depends upon the rating of SCRs used.
SCR converter can either be a single phase full converter (for single phase supply) or be a three phase full
converter (for three phase supply).
The voltage applied to load can be either positive or negative, but armature current is always positive. So
two quadrant (first and fourth) operation is possible.
This is used for variable speed drives.
Advantages:
 This converter eliminates the electrical time lag of the generator field and armature. So, time
response is faster (but is limited by the inertia of the drive and commutation of the dc drive).
 Basic operation is simple and reliable.
 Minimum or little maintenance is required.
 Operating efficiency is high, 95%.
 Small size, less weight and packaging flexibility, result in reduced space requirements lowers
initial, installation, and operating costs.

Disadvantages:
 The higher ripple content in the converter output (increases the usage of the high valued inductor
filter) adds the motor heating and commutation problems.
 Under certain operating conditions, the power factor of ac supply is low.
 The over load capability is lower than that of the conventional M-G set.
 Distortion of ac supply voltage and telephone interference may be produced due to switching
action of SCRs.
 Regenerative action is not possible with only two quadrant operation, since current can’t be
reversed.
Regenerative action is possible with usage of dual converter.
3. Dual converter dc drive:
 Dual converter replaces M-G set.
In addition to the advantages of the previous case, this drive also have:
 Ensured continuous conduction of converter, even at no load.
 Easy turn-over of the load current from rectifier to inverter back without any delay.
Disadvantages:
 No provision for load equalization.
 It generates considerable amount of harmonics.
Note: when the source of power is non electrical as in diesel locomotive or ship propulsion,
conventional W-L drive can only be used. For large size intermittent load applications also,
conventional W-L system is only used.