Sedimentary Geology, 86 (1993) 137-158 137

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Fluid flow in sedimentary basins

K n u t Bj0rlykke
Department of Geology, P.O. Box 1047, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo 3, Norway

Accepted April 16, 1993

ABSTRACT

Bjcrlykke, K., 1993. Fluid flow in sedimentary basins. In: S. Cloetingh, W. Sassi, F. Horvath and C. Puigdefabregas (Editors),
Basin Analysis and Dynamics of Sedimentary Basin Evolution. Sediment. Geol., 86: 137-158.

The pore waters in sedimentary basins are ultimately derived from sea water, meteoric water, mineral bound water, or
from the underlying basement. Geochemically these waters initially have different signatures; however, the pore water
compositions are easily altered by reactions with minerals or by mixing with other fluids.
Meteoric water is driven downwards into sedimentary basins by the gravitational potential, which approximately
corresponds to the elevation of the ground water table above the sea or lake level. It is difficult to model such flow, however,
because the permeability on a large scale is almost impossible to represent realistically. The continuity of confined sandstone
and limestone aquifers plays an important role in determining the flux of meteoric water received by rocks in different parts
of the basin, but this is again difficult to predict.
Pore water flow driven by compaction typically has velocities several orders of magnitude lower than what is commonly
found in meteoric water flow regimes. The average rate of upwards flow is lower than the rate of subsidence and the
difference is the rate of incorporation of sea water in the topmost layer at the sea floor.
The salinity of formation water provides important constraints on fluid flow in sedimentary basins. In the North Sea
Basin and the Gulf Coast Basin, these types of data indicate that vertical mixing by compaction-driven flow and convection
is limited.
Compaction-driven flow obeys Darcy's Law but there are complex interdependencies between pressure, permeability and
compaction. Given the low compressibility of water, the flow which can result from pressure release alone is very limited,
except on a local scale along permeable faults and fractures. The main flow of pore water during burial is driven by
compaction, which is a slow process, even when overpressure is released abruptly with a resulting increase in the net
effective stress. In the case of high permeability faults, the flow into the fault from low permeability sedimentary rocks at
depth may be rate-limiting. The displacement of pore water in adjacent sediments near the top of the faults may also slow
down fluid flow on fractures that do not reach the sea floor. Modelling of fluid flow in sedimentary basins should be based
on permeability distributions which are mostly determined by primary facies, diagenesis and the tectonic history of the basin.
Extensional tectonics produce a predominantly vertical fracture network which may serve as conduits for pore water
flowing deep into the crust. Upward flow of hot fluids in basement fractures must have a high velocity in order to produce
large thermal anomalies. Concentrations of dissolved components precipitate at the surface and form deposits of quartz and
ore minerals. If basement fractures are overlain by a thick sequence of soft sediments, the rate of flow on the fractures will
be reduced because of the low permeability in the sedimentary cover, and conductive heat transport will dominate. Flow of
water at high enough velocities to bring hot water to the surface and produce hot springs is most likely to occur in fractured
basements rocks or well-cemented sedimentary rocks. Concentrated precipitation of dissolved components will occur near
the surface, where the rate of cooling is highest. Also, sediment-hosted ores precipitated from flow of hot water on fractures
are therefore likely to form before accumulation of thick overlying sedimentary sequences.

Introduction we shall here only consider the hydrodynamic

potential, which is P-pgh, where P is the pres-
Pore water in sedimentary basins flows from sure, h is the height of a water column (up to a
areas of higher hydrodynamic and chemical po- reference level, i.e. sea level) and p is the average
tential to areas of lower potential. For simplicity, density of the pore water. Since the hydrody-

0037-0738/93/$06.00 © 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

 138 K.BJORLYKKE
Rechar~te Area
namic potential is also dependent on the density
of the water, flow can also be driven by salinity Precipitation I Potential Lines I
gradients. / [Water Table I
When the pore pressure P exceeds the hydro- Infiltra!ig~i;'~/")// Stre m Lin s
static pressure (pgh) the rocks are said to be Head(...,~,....,,v,,.,x,,,.~,:,:~,L
t ~ / / a e Sea Level
overpressured, and the excess pressure can be
expressed in terms of potentiometric surfaces
(Figs. 1, 3).
Differences in chemical potential will set up
diffusion and this may also cause pressure differ-
ences and flow of some significance (i.e. through
osmosis). Both pressure gradients and concentra-
tion gradients will cause a diffusion-type trans- Fig. 2. Meteoric water flow in a homogeneous rock matrix
port. (uniform permeability). The flow is perpendicular to the
Fluid flow resulting from differences in hydro- isopotentiometric lines.

dynamic potential can be treated mathematically

using Darcy's equation and mass conserving equations during flow (continuity equations).
Modelling of flow in whole basins, however, is
Rain water very complex (Bethke, 1985). The main problem
Meteoric water flow ~ A with fluid flow modelling in sedimentary basins is
adequate description of the rock properties such
as porosity, permeability, compressibility, and
"::i~:::~:: .~,~S'~:;:~:::;:S~:::
i:?.... q ~ ~:i;:::-~;::~:'~:)?~;:~-:::;::-;:i
::::::::::::::::::::::
:_.?::~::~ thermal conductivity, given the limitations of the
models and the availability of data to constrain
Compaction-driven flow \ .M L ~.
these values. Even if the geology should be known
! in great detail, it would still be difficult to specify
Release of overpressure m
OverpressureL will cause only very sufficient grid nodes to give an adequate repre-

Hydrostatic
limited expansion
I sentation of the complexities of a detailed sedi-
mentological or structural model.
pressure , ~ Compressibility of water
= 4 X 10.10pa_L If the permeability is homogeneous in all di-
A potentiometric head of
:?~': 1km(107Pa)wouldcause rections, the pore water flow can be calculated
an expansion of 0.4 % of the
watercolumn. from the elevation of the ground water table and
the fluid densities alone (Fig. 2). However, sedi-
Compaction-driven upwards
flow < subsidence. mentary rocks are generally very inhomogeneous
and the contrasts in permeability caused by clay
layers and sand or gravel beds will generally
BASIN SUBSIDENCE totally dominate the flow of water (Fig. 3). While
Fig. 1. Types of pore water flow in sedimentary basins. Mete- sand and gravel beds may have permeabilities of
oric water flow is constantly fed by rainwater infiltrating into 1-10 darcy, the permeability of poorly com-
the ground. This flow is limited by the rate of infiltration and
pacted-mud may be 1 mD or lower. In such cases,
the permeability distribution in the sediments. Compaction-
driven water flow is limited by the volume of water buried in mathematical modelling is of little value if the
the basin. The velocity of flow is mostly controlled by the rate stratigraphy, sedimentology and the structural de-
of compaction, and the vertical component is on average formation of the sedimentary sequences is not
lower than the rate of subsidence. Due to the low compress- interpreted correctly.
ibility of water, the flow results from release of pressure of
The sediments filling the basins are usually
limited magnitude and duration. Overpressures can be ex-
pressed by the height above sea level to which a water column
quite inhomogeneous and it is not possible to
would have risen from the overpressured sequence. This is map the 3-dimensional distribution of these pa-
called the potentiometric or piezometric surface. rameters. The orientation and distribution of per-
F L U I D F L O W IN S E D I M E N T A R Y B A S I N S 139

meable sediments (usually sandstones and lime- of flow is. a product of the directional nature of
stones) will to a large extent dominate the pattern the permeability tensor and the pressure gradi-
of fluid flow. Sealing versus permeable faults are ent.
also very important because of the properties of This presentation will emphasize the impor-
the fault plane and their consequent offset of tance of basin heterogeneities related to sedi-
permeable layers. mentary facies and structural deformation. Ad-
Pore water flow in sedimentary basins can be vanced mathematical modelling is of little value if
classified according to the origin and driving the model does not realistically represent the
mechanism for the flow: (1) meteoric water flow sedimentologically and structurally controlled
is sourced by ground water which has a potentio- heterogeneities of the basin.
metric head above sea level and flows downwards
into the basin (Fig. 1); (2) compaction-driven wa- Flow of meteoric water into sedimentary basins
ter is driven by the net overburden stress causing
a reduction in available pore space; (3) density- Meteoric water (fresh water) has a potentio-
driven flow is driven by gradients in density due metric head defined by the ground water table,
to salinity or temperature and this can set up which is normally higher than sea level. Pore
convective flow. Convective flow differs from the water will thus readily flow into marine sedimen-
two other types of flow in that " t h e same water is tary basins. In an isotropic rock matrix with con-
used over again", and it does not, therefore, stant fluid density, the flow of meteoric pore
depend on the supply of pore water. water follows a curved pattern perpendicular to
Pore water flow in sedimentary basins is im- the isopotential lines (Fig. 2). Along the coast and
portant because of its potential capacity to trans- underneath islands, lenses of fresh water float on
port heat and solids in solution. This may also more saline pore water. The depth to which fresh
cause dissolution and precipitation of minerals water will penetrate is:
and thus influence the quality of reservoir rocks.
The migration of petroleum in sedimentary basins H = h "Pmw//(Psw--Pmw)
is an example of two- or three-phase flow which Here, H is the depth of penetration below sea
may be very complex. level, h is the height of the ground water table
Pore water flow in sedimentary basins is to a above sea level and Prow and Psw are the densities
large extent controlled by rock properties such as of meteoric pore waters and saline water, respec-
permeability, porosity and the compressibility of tively.
water. The fluid flow is not necessarily perpendic- For Psw = 1.025 g / c m 3 and Pmw = 1.0 g / c m 3,
ular to the isopotentiometric lines; the direction H = 40h, meaning that the depth of the fresh

Head
H1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~nale
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig. 3. Pore water flow into a sedimentary basin through a confined aquifer overlain by a low permeability layer (aquitard).
140 K. BJORLYKKE

RAINFALL water lens is 40 times the height of the ground

5km . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .
I~ U ~ A R O S FCOW f j.
THE METEORIC WATER FLUX
THROUGH SEDIMENTS DEPENDS ON:
1. RAINFALL AND INFILTRATION
2. GROUND WATER HEAD
3. PERMEABILITY
4. SEDIMENTATION RATE
5. CONTINUITY AND GEOMETRY
OF SANDSTONE BODIES
6. BUILDUP OF OVERPRESSURE
Fig. 4. Recharge of meteoric water into an aquifer. The flow
of meteoric water is limited by the recharge, which is the
infiltration of rainwater into the ground water. At 10% infil-
tration and a rainfall of 100 c m / y r , the recharge is 107 cm 3
c m - 2 M a -n and the flux of pore water will decrease down-
wards along the aquifer as more water escapes to the surface.
The fluid flux and the rate of dissolution of feldspar will
decrease away from the area of infiltration. It is also evident
that the total flux of meteoric water will be inversely related
to the sedimentation rate.
100 cm / yr
108cm / m.yr water table underneath an island or within a
confined aquifer along the coast (Fig. 3).
Relative sea level changes serve as a pumping
mechanism, driving meteoric water into sedimen-
tary basins at low stands due to the additional
hydrodynamic head when the sea level is lowered
iii (Bethke et al., 1988). In the modern Gulf of
". " c . ' . \ \ ' ~'. Mexico Basin, the depth of meteoric water pene-
tration is estimated to be about 2 km (Harrison
and Summa, 1991).
The depth of penetration of meteoric water
does not, however, depend only on the head of
the meteoric water, but also on compaction pro-
cesses which can generate overpressures which
may exceed the meteoric water head. High over-
pressures are restricted to rather few rapidly sub-
siding basins, but even slight overpressures due to
compaction will strongly reduce the depth of me-
teoric water penetration. Well log analyses from
offshore Georgia, USA, suggest that fresh water
extends underneath the shelf up to 100 km off-
shore (Manheim and Paull, 1981).
In most basins the change in lithology from
permeable sandstones or limestone to less perme-
able mudstones and the tilting and continuity of

Shallow
Shelf
Sea

.... 111~ Ak't /

~r" l 7 ,Art I

.4k.,,.1 1
Rain Fall

High intensity of meteoric water flow

,,41----- Low intensity of meteoric water flow

Fig. 5. Relationship between meteoric water flushing and depositional environment based on Bjorlykke and Aagaard (1992). The
degree of leaching of feldspar and mica is a function of the meteoric water flux through the sediments. In the North Sea Basin,
fluvial and shallow marine sandstones show a high degree of such leaching and have abundant authigenic kaolinite. Sandstones
representing distal shelf facies and turbiditic environments show little or no leaching of feldspar and have little authigenic kaolinite.
Sandstones deposited in dry climates (Permian and Triassic) experienced little leaching shortly after deposition, but may have been
exposed to meteoric water flushing after later uplifts.
F L U I D FLOW IN S E D I M E N T A R Y BASINS 141

such layers would very much control the pattern
of meteoric water flow. Simplified models assum-
ing a homogeneous rock matrix therefore have
limited value. The flux of meteoric water depends
on the continuity and orientation of permeable
aquifers, usually sandstones, and on the perme-
ability of the mud overlying the aquifers (Fig. 3).
The upper limit of meteoric water flow is deter-
mined by the rainfall, the catchment area, and
the percentage of infiltration into the ground
water (Fig. 4). The flow of meteoric water down
into sedimentary basins must eventually flow up
to the surface. If there is not sufficient outlet for
the flow, pressures will build up in the aquifer
and reduce the meteoric water flow. The large
area of contact between the aquifer and the over-
lying mud compared to their cross-sectional area
will allow relatively high volumes of pore water to
escape upwards, even if the permeability is rather
low. At shallow depths ( < 500 m) prior to severe
compaction, mud will have a much higher perme-
ability than compacted mudstones and shales.
The degree of meteoric water flushing is highly
dependent on climate and facies. Fluvial and
proximal shallow marine sediments will be flushed
by meteoric water shortly after deposition. The
flux is then likely to be high and the pore water
still very much undersaturated with respect to
feldspar and mica. The total volume of water
flowing through each volume of sediment is in-
versely related to sedimentation rates. Sands de-
posited in more distal shelf facies and turbidites
are normally less well connected to the main
ground water wedge, so that the flux is lower and
the pore water is closer to equilibrium with re-
spect to the mineral phases (Fig. 5). In the North
Sea Basin it has been demonstrated that the
reservoir sandstones deposited in fluvial and shal-
low marine environments have been subjected
to more feldspar dissolution (secondary porosity)
and contain more authigenic kaolinite than those
sandstones representing turbidite facies (Bjcr-
lykke and Aagaard, 1992). Sediments in sedimen-
tary basins like the North Sea may be intensively
flushed by meteoric water immediately after de-
position and also after uplifts. The depth of me-
teoric water penetration and leaching below un-
conformity surfaces has been the subject of some

Sandstone
k = 1 Darcy
E Siltstone Shale
o h = 1.0rn h--0.1m
o k=10 -3Darcy k = 10 -5 D a r c y

1
Sandstone
k = 1 Darcy

Zkh : 0.001 Ah = 10 -4
n = 0.001 n = 10 5
n = ratio between the permeabilities in
the thin layers and the thicker layers

R = 1 . 2 • 1 0 -2 • A T K H 2 ]
H I
I
Fig. 6. Thermal convectionin sedimentary basins. Modelling of thermal convectionhas shown that even very thin 0.1 m-thick layers
of low permeability shales may cause very effective flow separation in permeable sandstones (Bj0rlykke et al., 1988). Potentially
large convectioncells may therefore split into smaller ones which are too small to exceed the critical Rayleighnumber.
142 K. B J O R L Y K K E

discussion (Bjorkum et al., 1990). However, good served down to 300-400 m depth in the Missis-
examples of clay mineral diagenesis related to sippi Gulf Coastal plain (Hanor and Mcmanus,
modern ground water systems have been ob- 1988). In Canada there is isotopic evidence of

SOUTHERN NORTH SEA

A
A I
1 O0
I
200
I
3OO 100 200
' I
30o , 100 200
I I
300
I
ppm
SALiNiTY
NaCIeq. XlO00
.................

-_-_-_-_-_
1 Km I ---------
LITHOLOGY
-_~_.----_--
---_--_--._--_ ~ Claystone
-__--__--_----
2 Km I ---...-_---:
:-5-- ~ Sandstone
:.::--5
_--Z-Z---
-_- • • ~ Limestone
"r .....
-_------_.---.'7
-,,, ,,. ,:

t-- 3 K m l [ ~ 1 Dolomite
U_I

N"
I'tN~,'t'd
CI 0 '.'.%'. ~ ~] Halite
I_'.'.'.'.'~
0
o
4 Kml •

5Kml ~

6K m ~

0
• Rodessa
1,000
O Hosston
2,000 ~k Cotton Valley
o= 3,000
4,000
m'o*@aOo O0
Smackover

~o
5,000
eeA
6,000
t--
K 7,000
E3
8,000
9,000
10,000
B | I I i I 11
0 5'0 100 200
150 250 300 350
Concentration, thousands of PPM
Fig. 7. (A) Salinity trends in pore waters in the Central Graben, North Sea (Gran et al., 1992). (B) Salinity gradient from Arkansas,
USA (Dickey, 1979). Increasing salinities with depth indicate stable, crudely stratified pore waters. Recent large-scale vertical
mixing would have destroyed the salinity gradients.
FLUID FLOW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS
recent meteoric water diagenesis extending sev-
eral hundred metres below the land surface
(Longstaffe, 1984).
Pore water flow driven by thermal convection
Thermal convection is an convenient mecha-
nism for mass transfer of dissolved material in
sedimentary basins, because very large fluxes can
be obtained using the same water over and over
again (Cassan et al., 1981; Wood and Hewett,
1982; Davis et al., 1985).
Thermal convection is driven by the inverse
density gradient resulting from the thermal ex-
pansion of water. If the isotherms are horizontal,
a reversed density gradient is stable until a criti-
cal condition is reached and the layers of pore
water start to overturn. This condition can be
expressed in terms of a critical Rayleigh number,
R.
R = gflATHK/Kv
Here, /3 is the thermal expansion of water, H is
the height of the convection cell, and AT is the
temperature difference over the height H. K is
the diffusivity of heat and v is the kinematic
viscosity.
In the case of thermal convection of water this
can be expressed as follows (Bjorlykke et al.,
1988):
R = 1.2.10-2H2(Tt - Tz)/H
Here, K is the permeability, H is the thickness of
the layers, and ( T 1 - T z ) / H the temperature gra-
dient in the layer.
The critical Rayleigh number is about 40, with
the most critical factors being the thickness of the
permeable bed and the permeability. If the per-
meability is 1 D, the layer must be thicker than
300 m for the critical Rayleigh number to be
exceeded so that thermal convection can occur.
Sedimentary rocks, however, are rarely uni-
form and the vertical permeability typically
changes abruptly in a sequence of sandstones and
shales. Thin layers ( < 1 m) of low permeability
shales or cemented layers in sandstones may cause
almost complete flow separation (Fig. 6) and thus
disrupt potentially larger convection cells
(Bj~rlykke et al., 1988).
143
Because of the low vertical permeability in
layered sequences, Rayleigh convection is proba-
bly not very important in sedimentary basins.
Non-Rayleigh convection will always take place
when the isotherms are not horizontal; in such
cases the flow rates are rather low and not very
significant in terms of diagenesis,, unless the slopes
of the isotherms are steep as around hydrother-
mal intrusions and possibly salt domes. Sloping
isotherms will also result from sloping beds be-
cause the heat flux is reflected when the conduc-
tivity of the beds varies.
The density of pore water is primarily a func-
tion of the thermal expansion of water and salin-
ity. Even moderate salinity gradients strongly in-
fluence fluid flow in sedimentary basins. At 30,000
p p m / k m , the effects of the thermal expansion of
water are more than offset so that the water
becomes denser with depth, thus removing any
drive for convective flow (Bjorlykke et al., 1988).
A downwards increase in the pore water salin-
ity in sediments overlying evaporites helps to
stabilize the pore water. When such trends are
recorded in formation water analyses or well logs
it provides strong evidence showing that vertical
mixing is not taking place (Gran et al., 1992) (Fig.
7).
The salinity in sediments surrounding salt di-
apirs can be used to trace fluid flow, since C1- is
not consumed to any significant degree by diage-
netic reactions. Near-linear salinity increases with
depth are often observed (Fig. 2). Analyses of the
salinity distribution around salt domes from off-
shore Louisiana show some evidence of convec-
tion, but the observed salinity stratification and
the lack of more mixing and dilution of the saline
pore water suggest that the rate of convection is
very slow (Ranganathan and Hanor, 1988; Evans
and Nunn, 1989). Inverted salinity gradients are
only likely to develop around salt diapers or
underneath salt layers. The inverse salinity gradi-
ents can only sustain flow on the down-going limb
of a convection cell and vigorous thermal convec-
tion would homogenize the pore water salinity.
Pore water flow driven by compaction
In a sedimentary basin, the average porosity of
the sedimentary strata will normally decrease with
144
Porosity Supply of sea water
layer V2
New layer of
sediments AXt :ial porosity
o :lriven flow
=o lost layer V].
(D-
O
(O
E
E
09
SubsidenceAX2 the sedimentary
nent
Basement
Fig. 8. Simplified illustration of the rate of pore water flow
driven by compaction relative to the rate of sedimentation
and the subsidence rate in a sedimentary basin. A new layer
of sediment with a thickness A X t will be filled with pore
water partly by compaction-driven flow (V2) from underneath
partly by incorporation of sea water (1/1). Assuming constant
sedimentation rate and a constant porosity/depth function
these relationships can be quantified. The difference in the
volume of pore water per unit area buried in the sediments
before and after the deposition of the new layer is V2 = A X 2-
0 b. This volume of pore water (V 0 has to be taken from the
sea water. The remaining volume of pore water needed to fill
the pore space in the uppermost layer (V 1 = A X I . 0 o - A X 2.
0 b) is derived by compaction from underlying sediments.
Compensation for compaction in the ratio between the subsi-
dence of the basal layer and the uppermost layer can be
expressed as A X 2 = A X I ( 1 - 0 o ) / l - 0b). Substituting in the
equations above the Iz2 = 0b'AXI(1 -- 0o)/(1 -- 0 b) and Vt =
AAXI(O o - 0 b ) / ( 1 - 0b). From this it can be seen that during
the sedimentation of the first layers above basement there is
little difference between the porosity of the basal layer and
the topmost layer so that (0 o - 0 b) is small and the contribu-
tion from compaction V2 is low. The new layer of sediments is
then filled with almost only sea water (V~ = Ob.AX O. In the
case where the basin is very deep, the porosity of the basal
layer will approach zero (0 b = 0). The volume of compaction-
driven water will then be sufficient to fill all the pore space
and there is no incorporation of sea water in the sediments.
This means that the same volume of pore water is being
shifted upwards.
increasing burial depth (Fig. 8). The relation be-
tween burial depth ( D ) and the porosity (0) may
be described by a token function f so that 0 = f .
D.
The porosity of each layer of sediment is an
expression of the fluid content, and by integrating
the function f over a depth interval, the volume
of pore water can be calculated. The total volume
K. BJORI.YKKE
of pore water is described by the area under the
p o r o s i t y / d e p t h curve. For simplicity, we assume
that the p o r o s i t y / d e p t h function remains con-
stant, that the basin is subsiding at a constant
rate, and that the sedimentation keeps pace with
subsidence. The pores in each new layer of sedi-
ment deposited will be filled partly with pore
water driven upwards relative to the sediments by
compaction, and partly with sea water from above.
If we assume the p o r o s i t y / d e p t h function to be
constant, the ratio between upwards-directed
compaction-driven flow and subsidence can be
calculated. From Fig. 8 it can be seen that the
ratio between the rate of upwards flow and subsi-
dence depends on the porosity in the topmost
layer and the basal layer. When the first layer of
sediment is deposited on top of the basement, the
difference between the initial porosity (0 o) and
the porosity of the basal layer (0 b) becomes zero,
which means that 100% of the pore volume is
filled by sea water. This is also self-evident since
we have assumed that there is no contribution of
water from the basement. As the basement be-
comes deeper, the porosity of the basal layer (0 k)
will approach zero and the proportion of com-
paction-driven pore water is 1, meaning that there
is a balance between subsidence and pore water
flow and that no sea water is incorporated into
the sediments on the sea floor. This implies that
pore water remains at the same depth relative to
the sea floor.
The above is consistent with modelling of com-
paction-driven pore water flow from basins off-
shore Australia (Caritat, 1990). For theoretical
calculations of compaction-driven flow see also
Berner (1980).
In the above discussion, a constant porosity/
depth function is assumed in the calculations.
This is reasonable in the case of constant sedi-
mentation rates and uniform lithologies where it
represents a highly "idealized basin". It is a use-
ful starting point. We can see from this that as
the sedimentation rate slows down, the rate of
compaction relative to the rate of subsidence will
change, modifying the p o r o s i t y / d e p t h curve and
in this case increasing the relative contribution by
compaction-driven flow. This is because the
porosity of the sediment is not only a function of
FLUID FLOW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS
net overburden stress but also of time. In the case
of zero sedimentation rate (hiatus), compaction
will continue and there will be a net flow of pore
water upwards across the sediment/water inter-
face. If the overlying sea water is oxidizing, this
will lead to precipitation of oxides or hydroxides
of elements that are more soluble in the reduced
state than in the oxidized state above the
R E D / O X boundary (i.e. Mn(OH) 2, Fe(OH)3).
Sulphate reduction will remove most of the iron
as sulphate below the R E D / O X , but manganese
will to a large extent remain in solution before it
is trapped in the oxidized layers at the sea floor.
Accelerating subsidence rates will increase the
porosity of the sediments relative to depth due to
the delay in compaction and more of the pore
space in the top-most layer of sediment will be
filled by sea water.
One of the best quantitative studies of com-
paction-driven flow in sedimentary basins is from
the Gulf of Mexico Basin (Harrison and Summa,
1991). At the present day, the maximum fluid
flow velocity in the compactional regime is 6.5
c m / y r and the maximum vertical velocity is 0.20
cm/yr. This is just a little short of the estimates
of Pliocene/Pleistocene sedimentation rates,
which may reach 0.22 c m / y r (Harrison and
Summa, 1991). Large parts of the basin have
present fluid velocities of 1 0 - 2 - 1 0 -4 c m / y r and
the lowest values (0.5-10 -6 cm/yr) were, not
surprisingly, found near the basement where there
is little underlying sediment to release pore water
by compaction. In contrast, the maximum flow
rate in the meteoric water regime is 58 cm/yr.
This confirms theoretical models and estimates
suggesting that the flow rates of meteoric water
may be several orders of magnitude higher than
compaction-driven flow.
Phase changes
Porosity in rocks is defined as the ratio be-
tween fluids and the total volume (fluid + solids).
If there are no phase changes or mineral reac-
tions, this ratio can only be changed by com-
paction. Mineral reactions releasing or consum-
ing fluids (i.e. crystal bound water) will change
the porosity. As sediments subside and are heated
145
in sedimentary basins, minerals will dehydrate
and denser minerals wilt form. In the case of
dehydration of gypsum to anhydrite, 38% of the
volume is released as water. Clay mineral reac-
tions involving dehydration of crystal bound wa-
ter or OH groups account for a smaller percent-
age of water released (5-10%). An example is the
transformation of smectite to illite, which could
be significant in terms of building-up overpres-
sure (Bethke, 1986).
The reaction between K-feldspar and kaolinite
to form illite also releases water (Bjcrlykke et al.,
1983).
Maturation of kerogen and formation of
petroleum is a very important phase change. The
main effect of the generation of petroleum is not
the slight overall volume increase which may re-
sult from this reaction, but rather the transforma-
tion of solids (bitumen) to a liquid state which
becomes part of the porosity. Assume that a shale
has 5% porosity filled with water at the onset of
rapid oil generation (in the North Sea, typically
3.5 km depth) and 10 weight% kerogen. This is
equal to about 20% by volume and one can see
that by the time half of the kerogen is trans-
formed, the porosity is increased by at least 200%,
if petroleum is not allowed to escape. The excess
porosity in the source rock caused by the kero-
gen-petroleum phase transformation causes high
overpressures since less of the overburden pres-
sure can be carried by the rock strength (grain
framework). If gas is generated directly or by
cracking of oil, the build-up of overpressures will
be even higher.
Expulsion of petroleum from the source rock
into the surrounding rocks must displace the pore
water and contribute to the build-up of overpres-
sure.
Overpressure
Pore water with a potentiometric surface
higher than the sea level or the ground water
table is said to be overpressured (Gretener, 1977).
Overpressure is an indication that the pore
water is not expelled from a volume of rocks at a
sufficient rate for the pore water to remain under
hydrostatic pressure. This depends on the flux of
146
Porosity
~.........-.~ pore. ;l:Ysdr°$static
/~ Top of overpressure
F~f Porosity / Depth curve
at overpressure
Depth /,,~' Volumeof water held back
/~__~__.~ from upward compaction
~,~- driven flow
Fig. 9. Overpressured sediments will normally have higher
porosity than what the same sediment would have had at
hydrostatic pressure. This is clearly true for shales and also
clay-rich sandstones where mechanical compaction is domi-
nant. This m e a n s that the porosity/depth curve is changed
and that the upwards flow of pore water is relatively restricted
to a situation where the pressure is hydrostatic. Well-sorted
sandstones show limited compaction even at high overburden
stress. Chemical compaction (pressure solution) also may be
increased by increasing net stress, but here temperature is
also very important and the relationship between overpres-
sure and porosity is more complex.
pore fluids due to reduction of porosity, thermal
expansion of the fluids, or phase transitions. The
overpressured volume of rocks must be enclosed
by low permeability layers or faults through which
fluids will flow very slowly even at high pressure
gradients. Overpressure reduces the net (effec-
tive) stress acting on the grain framework and
causes reduced compaction. Overpressured se-
quences are therefore usually characterized by
higher than normal p o r o s i t y / d e p t h ratios (Fig. 9).
During the build-up of overpressure the rate of
upwards compaction-driven flow is lower than
normal since water is held back. If the overpres-
sure is gradually released (drained condition), i.e.
due to a reduced rate of subsidence, the excess
pore water must escape upwards and the total
integrated flux will be the same as if overpressure
did not develop. The rate of upwards com-
paction-driven flow relative to the rate of basin
subsidence is then high, since the p o r o s i t y / d e p t h
function is changed. The main factors that con-
tribute to the development of overpressure are a
high sedimentation rate and fine-grained clay-rich
sediments which have very low permeability after
K. BJORLYKKE
compaction. The thermal expansion of water has
been claimed to be a contributing factor in the
build-up of pore pressures. In the Gulf of Mexico
Basin the contribution from aquathermal pressur-
ing to the build-up of overpressure is only 1%
(Harrison and Summa, 1991). We have seen above
that in a thick sedimentary sequence, the up-
wards flow of pore water approaches the sedi-
mentation and the subsidence rates. The pore
water therefore has only a small downwards com-
ponent even in an overpressured sequence. This
means that the pore water is heated at a rather
slow rate if the geothermal gradients remain con-
stant. In areas of very high subsidence, the
geothermal gradients are considerably lower than
P Erosional Unconformity
J J i i:
~Pressure ".' i ,'..........."
l: ~ i f ..~...--~'~ Shale/'~p~r~n~able Sandstone
d,iven flow "',"x,Ov~p . . . . . . . . _~-'-~i'~i'i::i:::'"
.pw,,ras a,,a :'~ ) ~ ~ : i : i : i i : i : i : ! : : , , . ,
~ t u l l offsetting
: . , , " permeable aquifer
Compaction-driven fluids A
," P o r e w a t e r f l o w in a q u i f e r
, !~!!i'iii!iiiiiiiiiiii
:::::::::::::%:::::::::::::::::::::::::
dsto e::!:: }'i:i:
ili;i il;!iili;!i li;!iiiiili;i;
" Fluid Flow' B
Permeability of sands: 1 to 10 `4 D
Permeability of shales: 10-5 to 10 -9 D
Fig. 10. Compaction-driven fluid flow in relation to the depo-
sitional and structural history of sedimentary basins. The
continuity of sandstone facies is the most important factor
controlling fluid flow and subsurface pressures. In an offlap-
ping sequence (A), pore water flows also downward into the
underlying aquifer and a reverse pressure gradient is created.
Faults offsetting continuous sandstones will have a major
effect on the pressure distribution. In the case of onlapping
sequences (B), the potential for build-up of overpressure is
greater but the marginal facies is usually more sand-rich,
providing the most permeable pathway for fluid flow.
F L U I D FLOW IN S E D I M E N T A R Y BASINS
In modelling of older basins in the Mississippi
Valley, compaction-driven flow has been shown
to be quite insufficient to generate hot fluids
capable of precipitating ores (Bethke, 1986).
Compaction-driven flow from thrust belts may
produce significant thermal perturbations on a
relatively local scale, but modelling suggests that
such flow is insufficient to cause large-scale ther-
mal anomalies in the adjacent foreland (Deming
et al., 1990). In continental rifts like the Rhine
Graben where the rift margins are exposed and
elevated topographically, ground water flow can
to a large extent explain the observed thermal
anomalies (Person and Garven, 1992)
Transport of dissolved solids in pore water
The concentration of dissolved elements in
pore waters is a function of initial pore water
composition and the rate of dissolution and pre-
cipitation of solids (mainly minerals). If we ignore
meteoric water flow, all of the pore water is so
called connate water, which in marine basins is
sea water.
The composition of the primary sea water is,
however, changed drastically by interaction with
minerals and amorphous compounds. Sea water
sulphate is for the most part taken out of solution
right below the sea floor in the sulphate reducing
zone.
The pore water will attempt to approach equi-
librium with the mineral phases present through
the dissolution or precipitation of minerals, but
the kinetic reaction rate, which is very much
temperature-dependent, will determine the time
required for such equilibration.
In the case of silicate minerals, the kinetics of
pore mineral precipitation is very critical at low
temperatures. The distance that supersaturated
or undersaturated solution can be transported
before approaching equilibrium with the mineral
phases can be expressed in terms of the half
saturation distances. This is the distance that
pore water can flow before the supersaturation is
reduced to half is original value, and it depends
on the flow and kinetic reaction rates (Giles,
1987).
151
If we disregard the effects of the kinetic reac-
tion rate and assume that the pore water is in
equilibrium with the main mineral phases, the
rates of dissolution and precipitation are func-
tions of the solubility gradients ( a T) and temper-
ature gradient (OT/aZ).
The volume of cement precipitated (Vc) for
each volume of water flowing through a porous
rock is:
Vc = sin fl "a T " dT/dz/p
Here, /3 is the angle between the direction of
flow and the isotherm and p the density of the
precipitated mineral phase. In the case of quartz,
a T 3" 1 0 - 6 O t T (150°C) (Wood, 1986). In the case
=
of vertical flow perpendicular to average geother-
mal gradients dT/dz of 3 0 ° C / k m ( 3 .
10-4°C/cm), Vc = 3 . 1 0 -1° cm 3. This means that
the volume of cement precipitated in each vol-
ume of rock is only 3" 10-10 cm 3 for each volume
of pore water flowing through the volume of rock.
It can be seen that 3.109 volumes are required
to precipitate 10% quartz cement, assuming equi-
librium between water and quartz crystals.
The rate of quartz cementation is also con-
trolled by the kinetics of crystallization, and at
low temperatures ( < 80°C) this rate becomes so
slow that it becomes insignificant, even at geolog-
ical time scales of millions of years.
Carbonate minerals have retrograde solubili-
ties, meaning that upwards flow of pore water
(cooling) will dissolve them rather than precipi-
tate. The rate of dissolution of carbonate miner-
als will in most cases be several times higher than
the rate of quartz precipitation (Bj0rlykke and
Egeberg, 1993).
The rate of dissolution or precipitation during
pore water flow is proportional to the rate of
temperature change. In the case of upwards pore
water flow the temperature change is a function
of the geothermal gradients.
Fluid flow from the underlying basement and the
formation of ore deposits
In most cases we may assume that the base-
ment underlying sedimentary basins does not re-
lease much fluid. If the basement rocks are of
 152 K. BJORLYKKE

high metamorphic grade, they will not be subject
to any significant dewatering during basin subsi-
dence. Basement-derived brines may, however,
flow along fractures in the basement and into
overlying sedimentary rocks. If there is only a
thin sequence of sandy sediments on top of the
basement, the sediments will offer little resis-
tance to the flow to the surface. If there is a thick
sedimentary sequence on top of the basement,
the permeability of those sediments will be the
rate-limiting factor for the total flow (Fig. 13). In
cases where the flow is perpendicular to bedding,
the effective permeability is the harmonic average
(k b) of the permeabilities of n superimposed

II SEA LEVEL

CARBONATE

Intrusion of hot
fluids (1S0°C) into
sediments at < 40 m
Flow o ~ " ,. ,.., ~ x x x ~ x ~ x x ~ , . , , . , below sea level. land. Deposition I ' ; ' ' ; 4 t " . ~ "
Water will boil and of met.~oxides.I ' . ' . p ~
along f r ~ ; ' ~ ' , > ' ; ' ; Surface deposits~'~"
c a r b o n a t e S ~ o r ~ , ~ , ~ , j ~ j , ~ concentrate salts.
Steam dissolves will quickly be I
into k a r s t i ~ r e d p i t a t e metal. weathered or I
Cooling and I Requirement: quartz in sandstones
and metals (Pb, Zn) eroded. I
p r e c i p i t a t ~ must have sufficient
metals ~ y and metal content to be precipitate as
Valley type. J heavier than sea water. sulphides.
Result: preserved.
Result: Exhalative sedimentary
deposits Sed ment hosted ore

4000
B
g 3000 -- PbS Solubility (ppm) from:
Deloule and Turcotte, 1989
2000' . . . . . . Quartz Solubility (ppm)
3 from: Morey et al, 1962
1000.

100 200 300

Temp (°C)
Fig. 14. (A) Flow of pore water from fractured basement to the surface, precipitating ore minerals. Maximum rates of cooling and
concentrated precipitation of dissolved sulphides will occur near the surface. If the brittle and fractured sedimentary rocks or
basement rocks are overlain by a thick (several hundred metres) sequence of soft sediments, the overall flow velocity on the
fractures will be decreased due to reduced overall permeability to the surface. High flow velocities are required to bring hot fluid to
the surface, and rapid cooling will occur in contact with ground water or sea water. Boiling will occur at 200°C if the water depth is
less than 140 m. If thin layers of sediments (sand) deposited in shallow water overlie the fractures, boiling will occur and sediment
hosted lead-zinc deposits may form. The steam will lead to the corrosion of silicate minerals like quartz and concentrate the
salinity of the remaining fluid. If fractures reach the sea floor at greater water depth, no boiling will occur and the hot brines may
flow out on the sea floor and form Sedex deposits. When fractures in carbonate rocks intersect karstic systems, rapid cooling will
occur due to mixing of water and Mississippi Valley-type deposits may form. (B) Solubility of sulphides (galena) relative to quartz
showing that the rate of sulphide precipitation may very much exceed the rate of quartz precipitation during cooling.
FLUID FLOW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS 147

average due to the loss of heat to the subsiding
sediments. The heat flux is then reduced by an
amount corresponding to the heat capacity and
the subsidence rate of the sediments.
The main factors contributing to high over-
pressures in the Viking Graben and the Central
Graben of the North Sea are rapid subsidence
and oil and gas generation (Buhrig, 1989).
In some wells inverse pressure/depths ratios
are recorded. This also suggests that the degree
of lateral drainage of fluids along permeable
sandstones is one of the most important factors
(Buhrig, 1989). Overpressured sections of sedi-
mentary basins are not always defined by strati-
graphic horizons and there may be rapid lateral
pressure variation leading to the formation of
overpressured compartments (Hunt, 1990).
The distribution and continuity of permeability
in permeable sandstone beds are the most impor-
tant factors controlling pressure distribution and
fluid flow in sedimentary basins (Fig. 10). This
can only be understood in terms of primary facies
relationships and the tectonic history of the basin.
As shown above, the transformation of solid
kerogen into liquid hydrocarbon may contribute
very significantly to the build-up of overpressures.
Flow olong fractures and permeable fault planes
Fractures are continuous large void spaces
which may be important conduits for fluid flow.
They are normally formed by tension set up dur-
ing tectonic deformation or uplift and unloading.
Relative movements along faults may also have a
tensional component so that fractures are pro-
duced. The properties of fault planes are deter-
mined by the sediment lithology and the stress
conditions at different depths. Unless there is an
overpressure exceeding the lithostatic pressure,
there will be a component of vertical stress acting

Sea Level

Floor

trying t o :lose ~ ~ | Flow limited by the rate of

fault plane |!i ~ ~ i : displacement of pore water
f:~..~_........
..~%...-::..~. ."-~.:.::.~:..:.:.:?--.-:......
-:.~-..s?..:.-:<-:~Aqulmr):-'~--
-. ~i~
in the shallower aquifers
-E=-=_k'E-_-E--.E--E=_--~
~--_----=--~,E--=- ~"-E~-.Z-~::- (volume, permeability, etc.)

Top of
Overpressure

I Hard sedi:::::!~":!:(:ry ?':i": g":::Sandstone:

I rocks (high shear
strength) may form Flow Limited By:
breccias with high 7) Permeability along the fault plane (low in soft
sediment)
2) Pressure gradient
3) Permeability of sediments in the overpressured
section
4) Rate of compaction following /hcreases in net
stress due to reduced pressure

Fig. 11. Schematic representation of faults and their potential as conduits for fluid flow. T h e velocity of pore water flow on faults
d e p e n d s not only on the permeability along the fault but also on the supply of water from sediments in the deeper part of the
section and the displacement of water in overlying sediments when the fault does not extend all the way to the sea floor.
Particularly if the deeper part of the fracture occurs in low permeability shales, the flow of water from the shale into the fracture
will also be rate-limiting. The flow rate that can be sustained over time through the fracture depends on the rate of compaction of
the sediments.
148
on the fault plane trying to close it. This force has
to be resisted by the shear strength of the rocks.
Soft clays, mudstones, and poorly cemented sand-
stones have low shear strengths. Faults through
such lithologies cannot remain open unless the
overpressure comes close to being equal to the
component of lithostatic stress acting on the fault
plane. Well cemented sandstones, shales and
limestones have a high shear strength which can
resist a much higher mechanical stress.
Fractures are temporary features and will after
some time be destroyed by mechanical deforma-
tion or become cemented-up by precipitating
minerals. Brecciation developing along fault
planes helps to wedge them open and maintain
high permeability.
Sand normally does not become significantly
quartz-cemented at temperatures below about
80°C or 2-2.5 km burial (Bj0rlykke et al., 1992;
Giles et al., 1992). At shallower depths, sand is
usually loose and poorly indurated when not ce-
mented by carbonate or other types of early ce-
ment (Bj0rlykke et al., 1992). Carbonate rocks
more commonly are subjected to early cementa-
tion and frequently develop a high shear strength
capable of preserving fractures at shallow depth.
Even if a fracture or fault plane is highly perme-
able, the rate of flow is not only a function of the
transport capacity of the fracture. In many cases
the rate of flow into the fracture near the base of
the fracture and the displacement of water near
the top of the fracture may be rate limiting. The
continuity of flow is very important and the high-
est velocities can be obtained where the fractures
continue all the way to the surface (Fig. 11). In
the North Sea Basin the main phase of faulting
was of Upper Jurassic age and rather few of the
faults observed on seismic lines extend upwards
beyond the Cretaceous sequence (Glennie, 1990).
Very few faults are seen to offset the Tertiary
sequence on seismic lines and small tectonic
movements may have been partly taken-up by
soft sediment deformation. Deeper faults and
fractures that were no longer active in Tertiary
times would be expected to gradually lose their
permeability. If faults and fractures in the Meso-
zoic sequence in the North Sea should have pre-
served significant permeability, the flow on high
K. BJ O RL Y K K E
permeability conduits would have been reduced
by the overlying low permeability shales and
mudstones.
Fractures will cement-up by two different
mechanisms:
(1) Transport by diffusion of solids from sur-
rounding rocks and precipitation of minerals in
the fracture. Minerals in the rocks on both sides
of the fracture are under stress from the overbur-
den and, in some cases, also tectonic stress. Min-
erals like quartz and calcite are then more solu-
ble than minerals in the fracture which are only
subjected to pore pressure and no stress. There is
therefore a thermodynamic drive for minerals to
dissolve in the surrounding rock and to precipi-
tate in fractures. The rate of this process, how-
ever, is difficult to calculate, since we do not
know the degree of oversaturation due to over-
burden stress.
(2) Precipitation of minerals by fluid flow
through the fracture. The rate of precipitation
can in this case be calculated by assuming differ-
ent fluid flow rates, temperature gradients, and
mineral solubilities.
It is also important to attempt to constrain the
fluid flow rates and total fluxes along fractures in
sedimentary basins. It is therefore necessary to
look into the source of fluids and the driving
mechanisms for fluid flow.
Upwards flow of water on a fracture will trans-
port heat upwards and result in the loss of heat
to the fracture walls. The heat transported Q =
pC'F. T, where C is the heat capacity of water
(4200 J kg -I K - l ) , F is the fluid flux, and T is
the temperature in Kelvin.
The simplest model assumes a constant veloc-
ity of upwards pore water flow on a fracture.
Such a flow will cause an upwards advective
transport of heat which is proportional to the flux
and the geothermal gradient (which is here taken
to be horizontal). This will result in a change in
the temperature distribution compared to what it
would h~ve been without advective pore water
flow. The result is non-Rayleigh convection of
pore water in these rocks. The velocity of such
convection is primarily a function of the slope of
the isotherm, the permeability of the rocks and
the thickness of the beds in which convection
FLUID FLOW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS 149

CAP ROCK influence the flow rate. The highest flow rates
(tightshale) TRAPPED
can be expected when the fault extends all the
RESER
(sand~c way to the surface and the pore water can flow
into sea water or onto the land surface (Fig. 11).
A high flux of pore water on a fault plane will
cause precipitation of cement which will reduce
Locally high
saturation, the permeability. Silicates precipitate as the pore
relatively h water cools during upwards flow and carbonate
permeabilit
minerals may precipitate due to degassing of car-
bon dioxide.
expulsion of petroleum

Flow of petroleum from source rocks to reservoir

rocks

PRINCIPLES OF MIGRATION FROM SOURCE ROCK The flow of petroleum in sedimentary basins
TO RESERVOIR ROCKS
must be understood in terms of two-phase and in
Petroleummigrationafterexpulsion(secondarymigration)
is drivenprimarilyby buoyancy. A pathwaywithhighoil some cases three-phase flow.
or gas saturationis requiredso that the relativepermeability
ofoil will be sufficientlyhigh. The trap willhydrodynamically
The primary expulsion of petroleum out of the
be almosta "deadend",particularlyafterthe accumulation source rocks is for the most part driven by the
of an oil lag. Therefore,practicallyno waterwillflowinto the
reservoirduringmigration. :acreased pressure caused by the phase transition
Fig. 12. S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m i g r a t i o n o f p e t r o l e u m from kerogen to petroleum. In a homogeneous
f r o m s o u r c e rocks to r e s e r v o i r rocks. S e c o n d a r y m i g r a t i o n o f porous medium the relative permeability for oil is
p e t r o l e u m is d r i v e n by b u o y a n c y . T h e t r a p is a h y d r o d y n a m i c
small, as the oil phase fills less than 40-50% of
" d e a d e n d " , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f an oil lag
the pore space. Expulsion of oil therefore re-
w h e r e t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y for w a t e r is close to zero.
quires that enough oil is generated to exceed this
saturation. It is, however, not necessary to reach
takes place. Preliminary calculations suggest that this saturation in the entire source rock. Local
such convective flow is of little significance if the developments of high oil saturation along silty or
bed thickness is taken to be 10 m. sandy layers is sufficient to establish pathways for
Open fractures will also tend to be slowly expulsion of oil and the effectiveness of the ex-
cemented-up by diffusion from the surrounding pulsion depends on such pathways (Leythaeuser
rocks. Carbonate and silicate minerals next to the et al., 1987).
faults are under lithostatic stress and therefore After the primary expulsion from the source
are more soluble than unstressed minerals grow- rock, the oil and gas phases will flow upwards,
ing along the fracture. It is therefore a thermody- driven by buoyancy, along pathways where the
namic drive towards a diffusion of solids into the petroleum is concentrated, so that a high oil
fracture. Consequently, inactive faults will tend to saturation can be reached locally (England et al.,
be cemented-up. It is in general difficult to ex- 1987). On a larger scale a sedimentary basin will
plain total cementation of fractures by advective always have a low average oil saturation. Re-
flow since the permeability will reach very low gional pressure gradients in sedimentary basins
values before all the porosity is lost. will therefore only move water since this is the
The flow rate along a fault depends not only continuous phase on a large scale.
on its permeability and the pressure gradient but When oil or gas flows upwards and accumu-
also on the conductivity of the surrounding sedi- lates in traps, it is probably not accompanied by
ments feeding into the fault plane. If a fault water flow. The trap is in a way a hydrodynamic
plane does not extend up to the surface, the "dead end", and as an oil or gas lag starts to
upwards moving pore water will have to be ac- accumulate, water cannot flow through the top of
commodated in shallower strata and that will the trap (Fig. 12).
150
Rainlatl
Crustal Extension - opening of faults and
fractures. Deep penetration of surface waters
and upwards expulsion of hot fluids.
Flow into a sedimentary basin may be resisted by
build-up of overpressure during compaction and
low permeability in highly compacted sediments.
In the softer sediments of the shallower parts of the
basin, fractures cannot be sustained as in more
brittle rocks.
Fig. 13. Flow of pore water in fractured basement and sedi-
mentary basins. Fractured basement deformed by extensional
tectonics will have a high vertical permeability. Sedimentary
rocks normally have much higher horizontal than vertical
permeability due to sedimentary layering with low permeabil-
ity shales. Flow of pore water from the basement into sedi-
mentary sequences will be resisted by low permeabilities and
also by any overpressure which may develop.
Organic acids generated in the source rocks
must therefore be transported mainly within the
oil phase into the reservoir. However, many of
them are rather water-soluble and will diffuse
into the water phase in the source rock and
during migration..
The sandstones adjacent to or interbedded with
the main source rock in the North Sea Basin
(Kimmeridge Shale) show little or no evidence of
dissolution of feldspar and precipitation of authi-
genic kaolinite, suggesting that generation of or-
ganic acids in the source rocks has an insignifi-
cant effect on the development of secondary
porosity (Bjcrlykke and Aagaard, 1992).
Compared to the total buffering system of,
firstly, the silicate mineral system and, secondly,
the carbonate system, the addition of relatively
small amounts of comparatively weak acids
K, BJORLYKKE
(organic acids) will not change the pH of the pore
water significantly (Hutcheon, 1989).
Heat transport by fluid flow
Heat is transported by conduction and by fluid
flow (advection).
The relative contribution from those types of
heat transport can be expressed by the Peclet
number (Pe):
Pe : pfCfqzL / ( A°f • g~' -o,)
Here, Of is the fluid density, Cf the heat capacity
of the fluid, qz the vertical component of the
Darcy velocity, L the length of the flow path, and
L/AOf. Al<l-0> the thermal conductivity of the flu-
ids (water) and the solid phases (minerals) (Per-
son and Garven, 1992). The heat capacity of
water (4200 J k g - l K - l ) , which is about four to
five times that of minerals (8-900 J k g - I K 1
Deming et al., 1990), but taking the density into
account, the heat capacity of water by volume is
only about twice that of the matrix. The conduc-
tivity of water depends on temperature and salin-
ity but it is much lower than that of the matrix
(0.6 W m -1 ° C - I and 2.5-3.5 W m -1 °C-l,
respectively). Hot pore water therefore rapidly
loses its heat to the mineral matrix. Convection is
driven by the primary temperature gradients. Pore
water convection does change the temperature
field but temperature perturbations due to the
flow are not very large (Ludvigsen, 1992).
Numerical calculations of fluid flow in modern
sedimentary basins like the Gulf of Mexico basin
show that compaction-driven pore water flow is
quite insignificant in terms of advective transport
of heat, and that there are not many local ther-
mal anomalies due to focused compaction-driven
flow, i.e. along faults (Harrison and Summa,
1991).
Also in the North Sea Basin the geothermal
gradients vary within rather narrow limits (35-
40°C/km). The occurrence of locally higher val-
ues in the Stord Basin, North Sea, has been
attributed to the effect of recent glacial erosion
producing transient thermal heat flows (Herman-
rud et al., 1991).
F L U I D FLOW IN S E D I M E N T A R Y BASINS
layers. This can be expressed as k h = n~ ~., 1/k,
where k is the sum of the permeabilities in a
sequence of n layers of equal thickness (Martin,
1992). This means that the flow is very much
controlled by the least permeable strata.
In actively subsiding basins, build-up of over-
pressure at depth is very common. If meteoric
water should flow into overpressured sediments it
would require a head exceeding this overpres-
sure. The head of the meteoric water in a mete-
oric recharge area is considerably reduced along
the flow path. The potentiometric surface must
always be falling along the flow path for flow to
continue, and even moderately overpressured
sediments may have higher potentiometric sur-
faces than the hot fluid from the basements. The
low overall permeability in thick sedimentary se-
quences may cause fluid from the basement to
find other pathways where fractured basement is
closer to the surface. Precipitation of minerals
from upwards-flowing fluids is a function of the
rate of cooling. Since rocks are good insulators
and fluid flow along fractures will heat the frac-
ture walls, the most rapid cooling will occur near
the land surface. Here, hot fluid (150-200°C)
from the basement will cool rapidly. If the base-
ment is covered only by a shallow layer of sandy
sediments, the flow of water from deeper frac-
tures will not be dampened. If, on the other
hand, there is a thick sedimentary sequence on
top of the basement, the rate of flow in open
fractures will be strongly reduced. Cathles and
Smith (1983) showed that the average com-
paction-driven flow was less that a thousandth of
the flow needed to sustain the types of thermal
anomalies that could produce Mississippi Valley-
type ore deposits and they proposed that the
dewatering occurred as episodic pulses. As dis-
cussed above, the velocity of fluid flow is very
much controlled by the rate of compaction of the
sediments, and soft sediments are likely to
dampen the flow. Cemented limestones, however,
have sufficient shear strength to sustain open
fractures.
In the case of the Mississippi Valley Mineral
District, Bethke (1986) has shown that fluid flow
derived from the compaction of the sediments in
the basin cannot produce sufficient thermal
153
anomalies to cause the observed mineralization.
This is because compaction-driven flow moves so
slowly that conductive cooling is predominant.
Introduction of hot fluid from depth into the
shallow subsurface requires high velocities to re-
duce the loss of heat to the rock matrix (Deloule
and Turcotte, 1989). This again requires high
permeability pathways that offer little resistance
to flow. Open fractures in basement rocks, formed
during extension tectonics, may form deep, verti-
cal, highly permeable fractures. This will cause
deep penetration of meteoric pore water from
tectonically uplifted areas (Fig. 14A). The up-
wards return flow of hot fluids will also be con-
centrated along vertical fractures and flow to the
surface as hot springs. Precipitation of dissolved
minerals, including ore minerals, must be concen-
trated where the rate of cooling is highest, and
this is close to the surface. Further down the
fracture, the geothermal gradients are lower due
to slower rates of heat dissipation through the
rock matrix. If there is a thin layer of sediments
on top of the fractured basement, the maximum
cooling and precipitation may occur there.
Thicker layers ( > 200-300 m) of low permeability
sediments like mudstones are likely to slow down
the rate of upwards pore water flow on the frac-
ture. The temperature of the fluids reaching the
surface must then be correspondingly lower, due
to higher heat loss. Pb-Zn deposits like Broken-
Hill in Australia have been interpreted to be
formed by "compactive expulsion of metal-
bearing brines during accumulation of the sedi-
mentary pile" (Wright et al., 1987). As argued
above, it is difficult to see how sufficient flow
velocities and total fluxes of compaction-driven
flow can be obtained during accumulation of soft
sediments which are characterized by low perme-
ability and low shear strength. In modern sedi-
mentary basins like the Gulf Coast and the North
Sea, there is certainly no evidence of recent
"compactive expulsion" of pore water producing
large thermal anomalies or moving large quanti-
ties of metals (see the discussion of compaction-
driven fluid above).
Modelling of flow of hot fluids along open
cracks suggests that this mechanism can transport
volumes of brines sufficient to precipitate Missis-
154
sippi Valley-type ore deposits (Deloule and Tur-
cotte, 1989). Such deposits would therefore be
expected to form where fractures in basement
rocks or well-cemented sedimentary rocks can
provide a highly permeable and continuous path-
way to the surface for hot fluids.
The solubility of sulphides like PbS decreases
by a factor of 10 -~ from 200°C to 0°C (Deloule
and Turcotte, 1989). The maximum rate of pre-
cipitation of sulphides like PbS will occur near
the surface where the rate of cooling is highest.
Soft sediments overlying the fractured rocks must
form only a thin layer if the rate of flow in the
fractures is not to be strongly reduced such that
most of the heat is lost by conduction. The rate of
precipitation of dissolved solids during flow is a
function of the solubility gradient (Fig. 14B).
Concentrated precipitation of dissolved solids in
water flowing in fractures will occur where the
rate of cooling is fastest. This is likely to be near
the termination of the fractures where the fluid
flow mixes with ocean water or is dispersed in
sediments, forming a shallow overburden (Fig.
14).
Fractures in basement may reach the surface
on land or beneath the sea floor and sulphate-rich
hot fluids may then form different types of ore
deposits, depending on the environment at the
upper end of the fracture system:
(1) Hot fluid reach the surface in a land area
without sedimentary cover. This corresponds to
many modern-day hot springs where metal de-
posits are being oxidized at the surface. Precipita-
tion in fractures below the surface may, however,
be preserved. The fluids are being concentrated
by boiling.
(2) Where fractured basement is overlain by a
thin sedimentary sequence and shallow water,
boiling will also occur, but the sulphides may
precipitate in sandstones and form sediment-
hosted ores. Boiling of water at 150-200°C will
generate considerable amounts of steam which
may corrode quartz grains.
(3) If the water depth is more than 150 m,
boiling will not occur even if the temperature is
200°C. Hot fluid from fractures may then flow
onto the sea floor and precipitate so-called Sedex
deposits (Sangster, 1990).
K. BJ(,0RLYKKE
(4) Carbonate sediments are usually cemented
early and are easily fractured. Where fractures
intersect karstic caverns, the hot fluid flowing up
along the fractures will be subjected to rapid
cooling because of mixing with a large volume of
water
Limitations of basin modelling
Great progress has been made in recent years
in the field of basin modelling. Modelling of basin
subsidence and temperature history has been very
useful in predicting maturation of kerogen and
quantifying relationships between tectonics and
sedimentation. Basin modelling can also help to
quantify fluid flow and to analyze the effects of
varying the different parameters. Generalized
models which assume homogeneous porosities
and permeabilities do a poor job of representing
real sedimentary basins. The importance of the
sedimentological and structural development of a
basin on fluid flow has been stressed by Chapman
(1987).
Even if some sort of layering is simulated by
taking the vertical permeability to be a fraction of
the horizontal permeability, the result is still a
rather primitive representation, since the perme-
ability usually has preferred orientations related
to sedimentary facies (orientation of sand bodies)
and tectonic deformation (i.e. faults). The poros-
i t y / d e p t h function which controls the main flow
of compaction-driven water is modified by com-
plex diagenetic reactions. The rate of compaction
of shales as a function of net overburden stress
depends very much on the primary grain size
distribution and mineralogical composition of the
mudstones deposited. Different types of sand-
stones and limestones also have very different
porosity/depth functions, often dependent on
rather small primary compositional differences.
The limiting factors in basin modelling are
now the uncertainty about the rock properties
and the three-dimensional orientation of high
permeability units which will serve as pathways
for most of the fluid flow. The build-up of over-
pressure is a function of very complex interaction
between subsidence rates, sedimentation rates,
thermal history and rock properties such as
F L U I D F L O W IN S E D I M E N T A R Y BASINS
porosity and permeability. The build-up of over-
pressure cannot be predicted from calculations
based on Darcy's equation, since the effective
permeability of sedimentary sequences cannot be
measured or predicted sufficiently accurately.
Since the volume of pore water held back in
overpressured sediments is at most 20% higher
than normal, a 50% higher permeability in the
sediments would have increased the flow rate,
even at lower pressure gradients, sufficiently to
prevent the build-up of overpressure. In mod-
elling compaction-driven flow Mudford et al.
(1991) used the following values for permeability:
sandstones 2.2.10 -11 m 2, shallow shale 4 . 1 0 -15
m 2, and deep shale 2.12-10 -2o m 2 (2 nD). The
ratio between the permeability of sandstones and
deep shales is here 109. The flow of fluids in such
sedimentary basins is then totally controlled by
the distribution of sandstones and the communi-
cation between them through shales and faults.
The flow of pore water is probably not predomi-
nantly vertical and 1-D models therefore have
severe limitations. It does not seem likely that the
necessary data on the permeability distribution
can be obtained to allow realistic 3-D modelling
of fluid flow on a large scale in sedimentary
basins.
The main control on fluid flow in sedimentary
basins is the supply of fluids. The pressure gradi-
ents are transient due to the low compressibility
of water (AV 10-10 pa-1). Very small volumes
of pore water need to be removed by fluid flow in
order to reduce the pore water pressure from
being highly overpressured to hydrostatic condi-
tions, if the rock volume remains constant. The
pressure therefore has to be reinforced by com-
paction of rocks, which are more compressible
( 3 . 1 0 -8 Pa -1, Mudford et al., 1991). Com-
paction of sedimentary clastic rocks involves de-
forming the grain framework and chemical disso-
lution and precipitation to reduce the rock vol-
ume. These reactions require a long geologic time
to reach equilibrium, and the porosity is not a
function only of the maximum overburden stress
but also of the time-temperature history (Bloch
et al., 1990; Ramm, 1992). Diagenetic reactions in
sandstones depend also to a large degree on their
mineralogical compositions and on textural rela-
155
tionships, which, at 4 km burial depth, can cause
sandstones to vary from 10 to 20% in porosity
and from 0.1 to 100 mD in permeability (Bjcrlykke
et al., 1992). The permeability of clays may vary
by 102-103 , depending on the clay mineralogy
(Audet and McConnelli, 1992).
Rapid release of overpressure will cause in-
creased compaction, but the rate is inversely re-
lated to the square of the thickness of the layer
and several other complex parameters (Rieke and
Chillingarian, 1974).
Highly sophisticated models now exist for fluid
flow in sedimentary basins based on the Darcy
equation and formulations of continuity of fluid
volumes. Such models are useful in obtaining
some general quantifications and in testing spe-
cific theories.
The main limitations in the application of such
models, however, is the lack of control on rock
properties like permeability, compressibility and
diagenetic reactions.
The best predictions can be made for meteoric
water flow (Bethke, 1989). Here, the pressure
gradients are defined as the head of the ground
water table above sea level. The flow of meteoric
water is also limited by the rate of infiltration
into the groundwater table from rainfall. The
main control on the rate of meteoric water flow
into sediments and the distribution of such flow is
the permeability distribution in the sediments.
The presence of confined, highly permeable
aquifers and the permeability of the overlying
sequence are other important factors. The strati-
graphic framework and sedimentary facies pro-
vide, therefore, the main control on the pore
water flux through different parts of the basin.
General mathematical models which assume uni-
form sediment properties are not very useful in
prediction of fluid flow since it depends so much
on sedimentary facies and the structural history
of the basin.
Conclusions
Pore water flow in sedimentary basins is driven
by potentiometric gradients which may drive me-
teoric water down into the basins and force pore
water upwards out of compacting sediments. In
156
the case of meteoric water flow, water is added
by infiltration of rainwater and the pressure is
maintained by the ground water table. The rate
of meteoric water flow may be very much higher
than average compaction-driven flow rates.
The upwards flow of pore water driven by
compaction is limited by the volume of pore
water in the underlying sedimentary sequence.
High rates of pore water flow driven by pressure
gradients can continue only for a short time be-
cause of the low compressibility of water. The
flow of pore water which can result from the
expansion of water is small even in the case of
high overpressures. The pore water flow resulting
from release of water pressure alone is rather
limited and mechanical and chemical compaction
are more time-dependent.
The pressure gradients which drive pore water
upwards have to be sustained by compaction of
the sediments. Reduction of overpressure causes
increases in net (effective) stress and will increase
compaction, but this will occur at a rather slow
rate depending on the permeability and com-
pressibility of the sedimentary rocks.
It is therefore unlikely that high flow rates can
be sustained for longer periods of time in sedi-
mentary basins.
The rates of upwards directed compaction-
driven flow in a continually subsiding basin are
very low. At constant sedimentation rates this
flow is much lower than the sedimentation rate in
the sedimentary sequence close to the basement.
In a very thick sedimentary sequence of subsiding
sediments, the upwards pore water flow will ap-
proach the subsidence rate, so that there is no
net movement of the pore water in relation to the
sea floor. The Peclet number of average com-
paction-driven flow is significantly below 1 so that
nearly all of the heat transport occurs by diffu-
sion, except on a very local scale along fractures.
Basement rocks or well-cemented sedimentary
rocks are more likely to sustain open fractures
than are softer sediments. Flow of hot fluid to the
surface requires high flow velocities, otherwise
thermal anomalies are disseminated by conduc-
tion. If fractures do not extend all the way to the
surface but are overlain by soft unfractured sedi-
ments, the flow rate and also the temperature of
K. BJORLYKKE
the water will be very much reduced. Ore miner-
als precipitating from basement-derived hot flu-
ids will tend to be concentrated near the surface,
where rate of cooling is highest.
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by VISTA, a
research cooperation between the Norwegian
Academy of Science and I_ztters and Den Norske
Oljeselskap (Statoil). Support from Norwegian
Research Council (NAVF) is also appreciated.
Reviews by R.T. van Balen, M.R. Giles and
Laszlo Lenkey and comments by T o m Pedersen
and K. H0eg are very much appreciated. The
author has benefited from discussions with A.
Bjcrlykke and D.E. Sangster about the formation
of ore deposits.
Scott Simmons has kindly assisted in the prac-
tical preparation of this paper.
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