UNIT – 1 NATURAL RESOURSCES & ASSOCITED PROBLEMS

Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the meaning of natural resources
• Discuss the importance of natural resources
• Elucidate natural resources and our planet
• Discuss the reasons for the exploitation of natural resources
• Elucidate the need for conserving natural resources

Structure
1.1 Meaning of Natural Resources
1.1.1 Land
1.1.2 Water
1.1.3 Food
1.1.4 Forests
1.1.5 Mineral and Energy
1.2 Importance of Natural Resources
1.2.1 Natural Resources and Our Planet
1.2.2 Exploitation of Natural Resources
1.2.3 Reasons for Exploitation
1.2.4 Burden of Overpopulation on Natural Resources
1.2.5 Burden of Industrialisation on Natural Resources
1.2.6 Conservation of Natural Resources
1.2.7 Need for Conserving Natural Resources
1.2.8 Methods of Conserving Natural Resources
1.3 Summary
1.4 Keywords

1.1 MEANING OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Since the origin of human history, man has used natural resources provided by Mother
Earth for his consumption and/or for manufacturing man-made products. These natural
resources include land, water, air, plants, animals, coal, minerals, natural gas, oil, and
sunlight. These resources are provided by nature, we cannot produce them. However, we
can use and modify them for our benefit. For example:

• The land is used for living, agriculture, and recreation.

• Water is used for drinking and eating cleaning, agriculture, recreation, and electricity
generation.
• Air is used for producing wind energy and for manufacturing tires.
• Plants are used for producing timber, paper, cotton clothes, fruits, and vegetables.
• Animals are used for producing a variety of foods, such as milk, cheese, chicken, and
for clothes like woolen sweaters, silk shirts, and leather shoes.
• Coal is used for electricity generation.
• Minerals are used for minting coins and manufacturing wire, steel, aluminum cans,
and jewelry.
• Natural gas is used for producing electricity and heating.
• Oil is used for electricity generation and as a fuel for automobiles.
• Sunlight is used for photosynthesis in plants and for generating solar energy.

Let us discuss some common natural resources in the following subsections.

1.1.1 LAND

Land is one of the most important natural resources available to us. However, it is a finite
resource, which is constantly shrinking due to the pressure from a growing population.
Every year almost a thousand square kilometers of land disappear around the world due to
urbanization, infrastructure development, increased needs for food, fiber and fuel
production, and production of biomass.

Land and its resources refer to the terrestrial area of the Earth, including all elements of the
biosphere immediately above or below it. This includes the following:

• Near-surface climate
• Soil and terrain forms
• Surface hydrology (such as shallow lakes, rivers, marshes, and swamps)
 • Sedimentary layers near the surface and associated groundwater and
geohydrological reserves
• Plant and animal populations
• Human settlement patterns

Physical repercussions of human activity (such as terracing, water storage, drainage

structures, roads, and buildings)
The following table shows the distribution of land by regions:

Grassland Sparsely
Cultivated Settlement and Inland water
Country category Forest land and woodland vegetated and
land ecosystems barren land infrastructure bodies
Global Share of
share of global MHA % MH % MHA % MH % MH % MH %
land % population % A A A A
Low- 22 38 441 15 564 20 1020 36 744 26 52 1.8 41 1.4
income
Middle- 53 47 735 11 2285 33 2266 33 1422 21 69 1 79 1
income
High- 25 15 380 12 880 27 1299 39 592 18 31 1 123 4
income
Source: adapted from Fischer et al. (2010)
Note: The extents of land cover classes were extracted from a dataset used for global agro-ecological modeling. Owing to
different dates of data acquisitions, spatial resolutions, definitions, and processing techniques, the estimates in this tale
may differ somewhat from those of other more recent sources. For example, the global extent of forest land is reported in
FAD (2010d) as 4 billion ha versus approximately 3.7 billion ha reported here. See Annex A1 for the definition of regional
and subregional country groupings.

Source: http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e03.pdf

The land is used for various uses, such as for agriculture, building houses, setting up
industries, mining, forestry, infrastructure development, and recreational activities. The use
of land depends on the following two factors:

• Physical factors: Climate (temperature, rainfall, pressure, and humidity), soil types,
terrain (mountains, plateaus, and plains), minerals, and forests.
• Human factors: Population density, technological ability, economic status, cultural
values, and personal needs.

The two most critical issues related to the land resource are:

• The decline in land quality: Due to increasing pressure on more production of crops,
the quality of the cultivated land is declining more in poor countries. Each year about
5 million – 7 million hectares of land are added to the degraded cultivated land. The
 intense overuse of soil for farming and crop production results in its rapid erosion
through wind and rain. Too much irrigation of cultivated land leads to salivation
because evaporation of water brings the natural salts to the surface of the soil. The
crops are unable to grow on this soil. Over-irrigation also results in problems like
waterlogging which damages the roots of crops. With the growing use of chemical
fertilizers, the soil is poisoned and finally, the land becomes barren.
• Soil erosion: The features of terrestrial ecosystems like forests and grasslands
depend on the type of soil. There are different types of soil, i.e., some of them highly
fertile while others not so. However, the misuse of an ecosystem will erode the
precious topsoil from the land through rains and winds. Consequently, the roots of
plants are not able to gain a good foothold, leading to deforestation. The process is
vicious, as deforestation leads to further soil erosion.

1.1.2 WATER

Water is a precious resource that is required for the existence of any life on a planet. Water
exists in the form of oceans, rivers lakes, groundwater, deep subsurface water, glaciers, and
icecaps. Water is a renewable resource. Its availability depends on the climate, geographical
and physical conditions, and the conservation of water.

The following figure illustrates the distribution of freshwater resource on the planet:

Distribution of Freshwater

Surface
water
0.27%

Groundwater
30%
Glaciers and
ice caps 70%

Distribution of Freshwater on Earth

There are three main categories of water resources, which are discussed as follows:
 • Saltwater resources: Although 97.5% of the Earth’s water resources are oceans
(saltwater), this water is not fit for drinking. The process of desalination of saltwater
is very expensive. However, there are certain uses of saltwater, such as:

1. Tourism (ocean views)

2. Fishing (saltwater fish are a staple diet globally, although overfishing has started to
threaten the population of marine life)

3. Generation of hydroelectric energy through tidal waters

• Groundwater resources: This constitutes 30% of freshwater reserves on the planet.

Freshwater is formed through the water cycle. As the water reaches the ground due
to rain or other precipitation, some water sticks to the topmost surface layer. This
zone of the topmost layer is called the unsaturated (vadose) zone where most pores
are filled with air rather than water. Water in this zone is used by plants for
photosynthesis. The rest of the water seeps to the ground through the layers of soil,
clay, and rock. Finally, it reaches a saturated zone where all the pores are filled with
water.

The following figure shows the origination of groundwater:

Origin of Groundwater

Source: https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/36064.html

The groundwater that seeps through layers of soil and rock is held in permeable rocks
called aquifers, which have many fractures and connected pores. Limestone, sandstone, and
gravel are examples of good aquifers. Shale and clay layers are poor aquifers, as they are
impermeable. This groundwater erupts on the surface through springs and wells. A well is
built by drilling into the ground past the water table. As water is pumped from the ground, a
cone of depression is created around the well, as shown in the following Figure -

Water-Table Drawdown and Recovery After Pumping

>5 4 months 3 months 2 months

Static water level

1 month

Cone of Depression Steady-state drawdown

Unconfined aquifer

Zome of influence

Bedrock

Well Pumping
Source: http://www.kgs.ku.edu/HighPlains/atlas/apdrdwn.htm

The groundwater from the surrounding area fills the cone of depression. Too much
pumping, however, can enlarge the cone of depressions, causing the well to run dry during
scanty rainfall. The water from the well is clean and pure, as it is filtered naturally through
layers of soil, clay, and rock. However, if the soil around a well is contaminated through
septic tanks, the well water becomes poisonous. If the well is a near seashore, then the
saltwater can be pulled into the cone of depression, making the groundwater salty.

• Surface water resources: The water in the streams and lakes is called surface water.
This water is mostly used for drinking, irrigation, livestock, industrial use,
transportation, recreation, and the generation of hydroelectric energy. Therefore, it
 is extremely important to maintain the quality of surface water. The quality of water
can deteriorate from natural and human causes, such as dumping of oil, solvents,
pesticides, and nitrogen in water making it unfit for use. The water quality is
assessed by measuring its conductivity, pH, temperature, phosphorus levels,
dissolved oxygen and nitrogen levels, and bacteria. Another measure of water
quality is turbidity. The more turbid the water, the lower its quality is.

Table - Lists some causes for the depletion of water resources and some ways to
manage it:

Causes Management of Water Resources

High demand for water due to Treatment and recycling of effluents in
urbanization and industrialization water
Poor storage of water due to carelessness Rainwater harvesting
Poor groundwater resources due to
Non-disturbing the natural river systems
overgrazing and deforestation
Constructing small reservoirs instead of
Bad water management
big dams
Loss of water in reservoirs due to
Protection of wetlands
evaporation
Loss of water in long canals due to
seepage
Dumping of pollutants in water bodies
Checking of overgrazing and deforestation
Siltation of water bodies due to
deforestation and loss of natural
vegetation cover

Table: Causes of Water Depletion and Measures to Prevent it

1.1.3 FOOD

Food is essential for human survival, but the growing population has started to put pressure
on our natural food resources. There are three main sources of food for humans:

• Croplands (agriculture): Although there are thousands of edible plants on the Earth,
we consume only four essential crops:
 1. Wheat
2. Rice
3. Corn
4. Potatoes

Similarly, only a few animals are bred in livestock (chicken, pigs, goats, and cattle) for our
consumption of milk, meat, and eggs.

• Rangelands: The rangelands are the grazing areas of animals, such as goats, cattle,
and sheep. These animals are raised for milk and meat.

• Fisheries: Fisheries are used as a major source of protein, particularly in coastal

areas.

Of the above sources, most of the food from the human population is derived from
croplands. There are two kinds of croplands:

• Industrialized croplands: These croplands consume a large number of commercial

fertilizers, pesticides, fossil fuels, and water. Thus, they are called high input
agricultural croplands. Mostly, a single crop is planted in a large field. Plants are
selectively chosen to produce a large yield of crops. The harvested crop is sold at a
huge profit. It is an expensive and technology-intensive agricultural process common
in industrialized countries. Some developing countries also use this type of
industrialized plantation for a single cash pasture for profit such as coffee, cocoa, or
bananas.

• Traditional croplands: These croplands are used for traditional agricultural activities.
They are mostly followed in developing countries. They can be further divided into
two groups:

1. Traditional intensive agriculture: This type of agriculture uses more labor, irrigated
water, and fertilizers to produce food for the farmer’s family as well as for selling in
the market. Here, intercropping can be used to maintain the fertility of the soil. In
this practice, two crops are planted simultaneously
 2. Traditional subsistence: This agriculture produces only that amount of food that is
sufficient to feed the family of the farmer.

Although agriculture has provided mankind with food for centuries, it has also significantly
affected the environment as follows:

• Deforestation: As the recent episode of Amazon fires has demonstrated, the forest
area is being cut all over the world to make way for agricultural land. This has
severely depleted the forest cover, which is a major source of controlling climate
change. It has also imbalanced the natural ecosystems of the world and destroyed a
large population of plants and animal species in those ecosystems.

• Soil erosion: Due to reduced vegetation cover and cattle tramping, the topsoil is
eroded. The soil erosion eventually makes the land barren and causes silting of land.

• Irrigation: Enough rainfall is not guaranteed in drylands in arid and semi-arid regions.
Therefore, irrigation is required to expand the acreage of suitable cropland. About
one-third of the world’s harvest is derived from irrigated cropland. However,
modern irrigation practices such as over-pumping of wells have severely degraded
the croplands and aquatic systems from where the water for irrigation is drawn.

• Loss of genetic diversity: Deforestation of land and agriculture of the same crop
(monoculture) has damaged the genetic and ecological diversity.

• Pollution due to fertilizers and pesticides: Crops need micronutrients and

macronutrients for growth, which are supplied through fertilizers. Chemical
fertilizers have been increasingly used to increase crop yield. However, they have
created several problems, which are as follows:

1. Excessive level of nitrates in groundwater

2. Excessive phosphorus in water levels due to use of phosphoric fertilizers
resulting in eutrophication
3. Net loss of organic matter in soils
 Therefore, organic fertilizers should be preferred over chemical fertilizers. Another
problem is caused by the overuse of pesticides to control pests. Pesticides are also
chemicals that can cause problems such as:

1. Poisoning and illness if used in high doses

2. Diseases such as cancer, birth defects, Parkinson’s disease (long-term use)
3. The decline of soil fertility
4. The killing of beneficial predators
5. Resistance among pests against pesticides and their consequent resurgence

• Waterlogging: Irrigated croplands result in bringing the water table near to the
surface, which can cause waterlogging problems. This will decline crop productivity
due to anaerobic conditions in the soils.

• Salinity: Salinity is caused due to intensive agricultural practices and a high

concentration of soluble salts. Poor drainage causes salts to accumulate on the
surface of the soil and reduce its fertility. If soils are highly concentrated in the soil,
then they may form a crust on the surface, which may damage the plants.

1.1.4 FORESTS

Forests are the main terrestrial ecosystem on the Earth. These are one of the most diverse
and widespread ecosystems on our planet. They can be broadly categorized into biotic and
abiotic components. The forest ecosystems can also be classified as follows:

• Tropical forests: These are mostly rain forests found in equatorial regions of South
and Central America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the
Caribbean Sea and South Pacific Ocean. Trees in the forest grow dense and tall due
to abundant precipitation, year-round warmth, and competition for sunshine. These
trees are high in biomass. They are natural habits for a diverse range of animals and
birds. Decomposition occurs frequently in rainforests. In addition to rainforests,
there are other tropical forests, such as cloud forests, mangroves, and deciduous
forests (monsoon trees). Some tropical forest ecosystems may also have a
combination of different types of forests (such as deciduous and evergreen trees).
 This may be due to seasonal patterns, such as the onset of monsoons after a
severely hot and dry climate.

• Temperate forests: These forests are found in northeast Asia, eastern North
America, and western and central Europe. Most trees are either deciduous or
evergreen or their combination. There are defined seasons due to which
temperatures fluctuate widely in these forests. These forests have exceptionally high
levels of precipitation in the form of rain or snow (at higher altitudes). Due to this
abundant moisture, the forest floor and tree trunks are covered with lush greenery
in the form of ferns, mosses, and lichens. These trees are also high in biomass, but
they have a lower diversity of species than tropical forests.

• Boreal forests: These forests are found between temperate forest ecosystems and
the tundra in the Arctic. They are also known as taiga. They are found in Siberia,
Scandinavia, Canada, and Alaska. Most of the trees are coniferous or evergreen
trees. They have a large diversity of insects and migratory birds.

Forests are critical for maintaining ecological balance. They play a crucial role in controlling
temperature. They are a natural and huge reservoir of food and shelter for plants and
animals. They provide timber, bamboo, grasses, oil, resins, gums, tanning materials, hides,
dyes, fruits, nuts, roots, tubers, and other useful things for our consumption. They are also
natural sources of medicinal herbs and plants. Finally, our efforts of preventing climate
change depend on the conservation of forests. They are a major source of precipitation and
the maintenance of water cycles. They prevent soil erosion and floods, improve the quality
of land, water, and air. They are natural purifiers of water and air.

1.1.5 MINERAL AND ENERGY

The Earth is endowed with naturally occurring materials called minerals. These are the
homogeneous substance of organic or inorganic origin and have specific physical and
chemical properties. Based on their properties, minerals can be divided into two groups, as
shown in Figure:
 Minerals

Non-metallic
Metallic minerals minerals

Ferrous Non-ferrous Fuels (Coal, Other non-metallics

metals (Iron, metals (Copper, Petroleum, (Mica, Limestone,
Manganese) Bauxite) Natural gas) Graphite)

Classification of Minerals

• Metallic minerals: These are the sources of metals such as iron ore, copper, and
gold. They are divided into two groups:

1. Ferrous metals: These metals have an iron (ferrous Fe) content.

2. Non-ferrous metals: These do not have iron content.

• Non-metallic minerals: These minerals are non-metals. These are divided into the
following:

1. Fuels: These minerals have an organic origin. They are derived from the buried
animal and plants that have become fossils over centuries. Thus, these minerals
are also called fossil fuels.
2. Other non-metallic’s: These have an inorganic origin.

Minerals are unevenly distributed across the globe. However, there is an exhaustible supply
of minerals on the Earth. Since they are developed geologically over a long period, their rate
of replenishment will take centuries. Therefore, it is critical to properly conserve them and
ensure that they are not misused.

Mineral fuels including coal, petroleum, and natural gas are critical for the generation of
electricity, agricultural purposes, industries, and transportation. However, these are
exhaustible resources. Their emission is also causing the greenhouse effect. Therefore, there
has been an increased focus to gradually reduce their usage and switch over to non-
conventional resources for energy. These non-conventional fuel resources will provide more
sustained, cost-effective, and eco-friendly energy.

These non-conventional sources of energy include the following:

• Nuclear energy resources: These are feasible sources of energy that require
radioactive uranium and thorium as inputs. The concentrated fuel rods of radioactive
uranium is used to trigger a nuclear fission reaction, which produces a large amount
of heat. This heat is used to convert water into steam which, in turn, is used to drive
a turbine and generate electricity. Although nuclear energy is a clean and safe
method, there is a problem with disposing of radioactive wastes. Moreover, there is
pressure to find sites for nuclear plants that are not vulnerable to accidents caused
by earthquakes, landslides, floods, or volcanic eruptions. The twin memories of the
Chernobyl nuclear accident in Ukraine and the Fukushima nuclear disaster in the
aftermath of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan are still fresh in our minds

• Solar energy: In the areas that receive abundant sunlight, direct rays from the sun
can be trapped into photo-voltaic cells and converted into solar energy. This
conversion process uses photovoltaic and solar-thermal technology. Solar energy is a
cost-effective, eco-friendly, and easy-to-build method of energy generation. It is 7%
more effective than coal or oil-based energy generation plants. It is 10% more
effective than nuclear plants. Today, solar energy is used in heaters, cookers, and
crop drying activities.

• Wind energy: Wind energy is generated from the kinetic energy of blowing winds. In
this process, permanent wind systems such as trade winds, westerlies, and seasonal
winds are used to produce electricity. It is a pollution-free, inexhaustible source of
energy.

• Tidal and wave energy: Large tidal waves in the oceans can also be used to generate
electricity, particularly in windy coastal areas.
 • Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is generated from the eruption of magma
from the interiors of the Earth to the surface. The heat and hot water that is released
in this process are used to generate thermal energy.

• Bio-energy: This energy is derived from biological products such as agricultural

residues and other urban-industrial wastes. Bio-energy is mostly used for cooking
purposes, but it has the potential to generate electrical energy. This will not only
improve the livelihood of rural areas in developing countries but will also reduce
environmental pollution.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

The real wealth of a country is attributed to its natural resources such as oil, gas, minerals,
and timber. They contribute towards the fiscal revenue, income, and poverty alleviation of
nations. They are job-creators and usually the only source of income for poorer
communities.

There are two types of natural resource capital:

• Renewable resource capital: This includes forests or fish populations. These

resources can be indefinitely harvested into the future, provided they are managed
sustainably. The revenue generated from these resources is considered as the
income derived from the flows of these resources.

• Non-renewable resource capital: This includes oil and minerals. These resources will
eventually finish as they cannot regenerate over a period that is meaningful to
human life. Thus, the revenue generated from the depletion of these resources
should be evaluated as a loss of capital.

Natural resources are vital to the economies of countries. Everything that we consume or
use today is built from a natural resource. Our food, clothes, cars, cell phones, etc., and the
essential items of our lives are built with natural resources. However, with the invasion of
technology and increasing urbanization, mankind’s appetite for natural resources has
grown.
Put simply, we are taking more from Mother Earth than she can replenish. Moreover, once
we are done with our consumption, we dump the wastes on the land, oceans, and
atmosphere without any regard to the environmental balance. An irony is that the richest
countries of the world consume about 10 times more natural resources than the poorest
nations. According to the Global Footprint Network, if every individual in the world would
like a US citizen, then we would need four more planets like Earth to sustain ourselves.
Therefore, each one of us must come forward to implement the right policies and practices
to do our bit to conserve natural resources.

1.2.1 NATURAL RESOURCES AND OUR PLANET

According to a study by Living Planet, we are using 30% more natural resources than Earth
can regenerate. As a result, Earth’s forest cover is diminishing at a rapid rate, leading to soil
erosion, air pollution, and water degradation. Huge populations of fish and other marine
animals are being wiped out. Each year, our ecological debt is running into trillions of
dollars, based on the annual value of services provided by ecosystems such as rainfall or
flood protection.

If the current rate of population growth and consumption keeps up, then by 2030, we will
need 1.7 more planets like Earth to sustain our current standards of living and increase
economic activity. This is a conservative estimate, provided there is no sudden acceleration
of climate change. In the 1960s, most countries lived within their ecological resources.
However, today about ¾ of the world’s population live beyond their natural resource
reserve, i.e., they consume more than they can regenerate.

The ecological footprint accounting measures the demand and supply of natural resources
and ecological services, as follows:

• Ecological footprint: This represents the demand for natural resources by a

population. It evaluates the ecological assets required to produce the natural
resources that they demand and absorb their wastes and emissions. These ecological
assets include:

1. Cropland
2. Grazing land
 3. Fishing ground
4. Built-up land
5. Forest area
6. Carbon demand on land (forest areas required to absorb carbon dioxide
emissions, which cannot be absorbed by the oceans)

• Bio capacity: This represents the supply of natural resources by a region. It evaluates
the productivity of the ecological assets of the region. If these assets are not used,
then they can also absorb the waste generated through carbon emissions.

1. If the Ecological footprint of a population, Bio-capacity of that region, then,

that region runs an ecological deficit. In other words, the demand for the
natural reserves by the population is more than what the ecosystems in the
region can regenerate. To meet its demand, that region (country) does the
following:
2. Import natural resources from other regions
3. Liquidate its ecological assets such as over-fishing
4. Emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

On the other hand, if a population’s ecological footprint, Biocapacity of that region, then
that region has an ecological reserve. Both ecological footprint and biocapacity are
measured in global hectare (GHA) units. The following table shows the world-average
ecological footprint and biocapacity:

Table 3: World-Average Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity in 2016

World-average Ecological Footprint World-average Biocapacity

By person 2.75 GHA 1.63 GHA
Total 22.6 billion GHA 12.2 billion GHA

Thus, the global ecological deficit is 2.75 – 1.63 = 1.12 GHA per person And 22.6 – 12.2 =
10.4 billion GHA in total
To sustain our ecological resources, we need to have a smaller ecological footprint than the
bio-capacity of the planet. If a country consumes more than 1.73 GHA per person of natural
reserves, then its demand for reserves is not sustainable.

The following table shows the top 10 ranked countries by ecological footprint as of 2016:

Table 4: Top 10 Ranked Countries by Ecological Footprint

Bio The
Ecological Bio capacity Populati Total population
Ran Country Footprint capacity deficit or on Biocapac when
k (GHA/per (GHA/ reserve (millions ity Biocapacity
son) person) (GHA/ of (gMha) equals
person) Ecological
people) Footprint*
1 15.82 1.68 −14. 0.52 −7.35 0.0552
Luxembourg 14 21
2 Aruba 11.88 0.57 −11. 0.1 −1.13 0.0047
31 98
3 Qatar 10.8 1.24 −9.5 2.05 −19.60 0.2353
6 7
4 9.31 16.57 7.26 23.0 167.34 41.024
Australia 5 54
5 United 8.22 3.76 −4.4 317. −1416. 145.23
States 6 5 05 11
6 Canada 8.17 16.01 7.83 34.8 272.80 68.272
4 75
7 Kuwait 8.13 0.55 −7.5 3.25 −24.64 0.2198
8 65
8 7.97 0.05 −7.9 5.3 −41.98 0.0332
Singapore 2 5
9 United 7.93 0.56 −7.3 65.6 −483.8 4.6359
Kingdom 7 48 3 24
10 Trinidad 7.92 1.56 −6.3 1.34 −8.52 0.2639
and Tobago 6 39

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ecological_footprint

1.2.2 EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Overpopulation, urbanization, modern technology, requirements, lifestyle changes, and the

race to economic growth has put the natural resources on the planet under considerable
stress.

Resources like land, water, timber, paper, and minerals like gold and silver were always
used. But post-industrialization, we discovered new technologies which required new
resources. Oil was discovered. Coal mines emerged. We started urbanization on a large
scale. Our industries dumped effluents in rivers and lakes, polluting them irrevocably. We
bored deep wells into the ground to irrigate lands for our cash crops. In the process, we ran
the land dry. To fuel the demand for more land for urbanization, we started cutting down
forests on a large scale. We discovered new means of traveling, which required oil-guzzling
vehicles like airplanes.

All of these activities exploited natural resources. This exploitation began in the early 19th
century when natural resources were extracted and processed for mines, steam engines,
and machinery in industries. The increased consumption of energy in the 20th century
speeded up the process.

Today, almost 80% of our energy consumption is based on the use of fossil fuels, including
oil, coal, and gas.

The topmost resources that are under maximum pressure due to the current rates of
consumption are:

• Water: Freshwater only makes up 2.5% share of the water resource available on the
earth. 70% of freshwater is in the form of glaciers and icecaps. Thus, we have only
30% of the freshwater stock available to use, which is about 200,000 cubic kilometers
of supply. As per the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the UN, 1.8 billion
people in the world will live with absolute water scarcity by 2025.

• Oil: The oil industry is spooked by the fear of exhausting the oil supplies. According to
the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, at the current rate of consumption, the oil
reserves will only last till the year 2056.

• Natural gas: At the current rate of consumption, the natural gas reserves with
enough gas will last only till the year 2069.

• Phosphorus: It is a necessary ingredient for the growth of plants in the soil, and
hence it is a key ingredient of fertilizers. Phosphorus is found only in some countries
such as the US, China, and Morocco. According to the Global Phosphorus Research
 Initiative, the current phosphorus reserves will be exhausted by 2060 to 2100 until
new reserves are found.

• Coal: Of all fossil fuels, coal has the largest reserves. However, with the growing
consumption of coal in China and other developing countries, the coal reserves will
last only for the next 178 years.

• Rare earth elements: Rare earth elements such as scandium (Sc) and terbium (Tb) are
used for manufacturing electronic circuits in smartphones and magnets in wind
turbines. 97% of these elements occur in China. Their exact reserves are not known.

1.2.3 REASONS FOR EXPLOITATION

There are several reasons behind the exploitation of natural resources. Some of them are as
follows:

• Economic growth: The 21st century will be noted in history as the century of emerging
markets like China, India, Brazil, Russia, South Africa, Malaysia, and Indonesia. By
2030, it is estimated that these emerging markets will drive 66% of the global
economy. However, as compared to developed countries, these countries will have a
higher consumption of natural resources. In 2010, China became the largest consumer
of energy in the world, overcoming the US. Despite that, the per capita consumption
remains low, which means that over the coming years, the demand from China for
energy will rise further. India is one of the world’s fastest-growing major emerging
markets. However, it's per capita energy consumption is only 1/3rd of China’s. Thus, it
is evident that as these giants will grow, their need for energy will also increase in
large quantities.

• Overpopulation: The global population is set to reach 8.5 billion by 2030. 95% of the
growth will be driven by the youth and growing populations of emerging countries.
The urban population is estimated to grow at twice the rate of the global population.
By 2030, there will be 4.2 billion people living in urban areas. These people will need
housing, infrastructure, transport, food, energy, and other consumable products. As a
result, the strain on natural resources will increase tremendously.
• Income gains: The emergence of the middle class globally has considerably increased
consumption. According to the Euro monitor International, a leading market research
organization, the number of households earning more than $10,000 increased by 27%
from 2010 to 2015. If this trend continues, it is estimated that the consumption
expenditure in developing countries will increase by 89% by 2030. For instance, the
average disposable income of more than ¾ of Chinese households will increase to
$10,000 in 2030. These households will purchase more consumer goods, putting an
increasing demand for natural resources, including food, water, energy, and minerals

• Environmental change: Due to environmental concerns, there is a global shift in the

demand for some materials relative to others. For example, the demand for natural
gas and renewable energy sources is increasing, while that of coal is decreasing across
the globe. Similarly, there is an increased focus to replace toxic materials such as lead
in batteries with lithium. Consequently, the production of lithium has increased by
30%.

• Technological advancement: Advances in technology have increased the demand for

specific resources. For example, the increased demand and production of Electric
Vehicles (EVs) will put pressure on minerals such as lithium, graphite, and cobalt.
Similarly, the increased penetration of mobile phones globally has fuelled the
requirement for rare earth elements. The push towards the use of solar cells has
increased the demand for silicon, which is used in photovoltaic cells.

• Pressure on price: The demand for natural resources is impacted by their price
fluctuations. For example, the demand for solar and wind energy increased when their
costs declined due to the availability of new technology or governments’ subsidies.

1.2.4 BURDEN OF OVERPOPULATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES

Today, we are 7.2 billion and growing by 74 million people every year. The world population
will be 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN estimate). This explosion of the population is fairly recent. Till
1804, the human population was less than 1 billion, but the industrial revolution and
improvements in nutrition, medicine, and technology changed the equation forever. The
increasing lifespan of people due to modern medicine has put much pressure on natural
reserves. Naturally, the growing population will need food, clothes, education, income,
gadgets, recreation, etc. Since the last century, humans have consumed more resources
than ever before.

After evaluating the devastating impacts of the huge population on the earth’s natural
resources and environment, scientists have proposed our period to be called the Holocene
or Anthropocene epoch. In other words, unlike previous geological epochs when climate and
geological processes defined the periods, humans have emerged as a new global geophysical
force that has and continued to shape our period.

Let us none explore some factors to further understand the burden of population on natural
resources:

• Population size: We have only one planet with a finite number of resources to
sustain life. The consumption of resources is unevenly distributed around the world.
For example, an average American eats 3.3 times more food and consumes 250 times
more water than the subsistence level. Hence, if all the people in the world start
living like Americans, then Earth will only be able to sustain 2 billion people, rather
than the current 7.2 billion. Overpopulation will not only exhaust our natural
resources supply but will also lower the standard of life and create huge income
inequalities.

• Population distribution: Developing countries have a higher rate of birth than

developed countries due to poverty, lack of family planning, and education. 80% of
the current population is living in developing countries. Their growing numbers are
putting additional pressure on local environments. Half of that population is moving
to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities. However, the rate of
population migration is much higher than the rate of infrastructure development.
Most of these people live in refugee camps or slums, which have put even further
pressure on water supplies, have caused land damage (such as cutting down of trees
for fuel), and polluted environments (due to lack of sewage systems).
 • Population composition: The largest shares in the current population are of:

1. Young people (under 24 years): These people are more likely to migrate to
urban areas, resulting in environmental concerns.

2. Elderly people (over 60 years): Since 1960, the average life expectancy has
increased by about 20 years due to better nutrition and medical science.
Although it is a major achievement for the advancement of humanity, it is
bad news for the earth’s resources. This is because an elderly person living
40% longer than in the past is just another body consuming resources and
generating waste. With the growing number of people getting old, there will
be increased requirements of government spending on pensions and
healthcare.

• Population income: The rising inequality among populations is also putting pressure
on natural resources. The need for survival induces poor people to consume natural
resources in an unsustainable manner, which are as follows:

1. Burning of waste, tires, or plastics for fuel

2. Cutting down of trees to get wood
3. The killing of protected animals to feed their families
4. Burning down of forests to expand the farm area
5. Allowing their cattle to graze from the forests
6. Expanding villages to the protected forest reserves
7. Lynching wild animals that venture into human settlements due to cutting
down of their natural wild habitats
8. Overfishing of aquatic bodies
9. Use of agrochemical and harmful pesticides to produce crops

On the other hand, the affluent lifestyle of rich people is also draining natural resources.
They purchase, consume and use disproportionately a large number of levels of houses,
cars, food, gadgets, clothes, and other products. From the country-level perspective, the
resource consumption pattern is as follows:
 • Rich (most developed) countries: These countries have historically consumed unduly
high levels of resources in the last 70 – 100 years as they were growing economically.
However, now they have taken effective steps to curtail their resource consumption
while maintaining high levels of production. To reduce their ecological footprint, they
are implementing innovative ways of improving technology and energy efficiency and
are strictly enforcing environmental protection policies among their populations at
large.

• Poor (least developed) countries: Since these countries have lower levels of
industrial activity, they put the least pressure on environmental resources. However,
the lack of education among the population regarding population growth and
sustainable use of resources are matters of concern.

• Middle income (developing) countries: The overpopulation, requirements of

urbanization and infrastructure development of the growing population, and the
intense resource consumption among the population are serious concerns in these
countries. When economic development was taking place in the US the world had
more natural resources than reserves we have now. The large population countries like
China and India consume more resources as a result. The stocks of natural reserves
are simply not sufficient for the population’s demand.

• Population consumption: The unsustainable patterns of production and

consumption in developed countries are putting a severe strain on natural resources.
Unfortunately, the overconsumption of goods and resources is a part of their life and
culture. For example, for some rich and privileged people in the US, hunting animals
is a way of life. For an average person in the US or Europe, purchasing the latest
model of a car, moving to a bigger house, and striving for a jet-setting life are signs of
personal success. However, such a lifestyle fed by unstoppable consumption is
neither healthy for the earth or the individual’s emotional health.

Companies produce goods in large quantities for-profit and spend billions of dollars on
advertisement and promotion to fuel their demand. All these goods, which are not required
for a comfortable life, are depleting large reservoirs of energy, minerals, water, land, and
other resources for production. They are creating pollution during production through
effluents and their wastes are getting harder to dispose of.

According to the Global Footprint Network, today, humanity uses the equivalent of 1.5
planets to provide the resources we use and absorb our waste. This means it now takes the
Earth one year and six months to regenerate what we use in a year.

1.2.5 BURDEN OF INDUSTRIALISATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES

Ever since the industrial revolution in the 18th century, the demand for natural reserves has
exponentially increased. Today, we are moving towards the fourth industrial revolution.
Before we learn about it and understand its implications on the natural reserves, let us
revise the key points about the first three industrial revolutions, which are discussed as
follows:

• First industrial revolution: This period is known as the age of mechanical production.
It began around 1760 in Great Britain and from there it spread to the rest of Europe
and then to America. Before this period, human society was mostly agrarian. With
the invention of the steam engine, factories powered by steam engines emerged.
However, life in factories was tough. There was a surplus of cheap and unskilled
laborers, who were forced to work long hours in unsafe conditions. Even children
used to work 14-hour shifts in factories. These conditions prevailed till the beginning

of the 20th century. This period also created a new social class in society called the
middle class of skilled workers. As factories grew, people migrated to work in them.
Cities started to grow rapidly. These growing factories and cities required large
supplies of coal, iron, wood, and cash crops. Consequently, the world was divided
into two zones:

1. Industrialized countries: These countries manufacture products for other

countries as they have more industries e.g., England.

2. Less industrialized countries: These countries provide the raw materials

(from their natural reserves) to other countries for the production of goods
 e.g., India.

Due to this division of labor, industrialized countries started colonizing other countries to
gain control over their natural reserves to meet the increasing demand for coal, iron, and
textiles. Several colonized countries became highly dependent on cash crops such as sugar,
cotton, and rubber, which made their fertile fields barren. Due to colonization, migration of
people started. The factory owners traveled to their colonies, while large numbers of
workers were brought as indentured slaves to work in factories. Consequently, sea travel
became more efficient. New canals were opened to reduce travel time.

• Second industrial revolution: This was the period of critical scientific inventions such
as gasoline engines, airplanes, and chemical fertilizers. The scientific principles were also
applied to the factories. People migrated in large numbers to urban areas to work in
these mass-production factories. An increase in urbanization brought inventions such
as electric lighting, the radio, and telephones. Forests were cut down to build cities to
accommodate the urban population. To feed the growing population, intensive
agricultural methods were adopted where chemical fertilizers were used liberally to
increase the crop yield. The discovery of oil in the Middle East changed the word
equation, and oil-producing countries controlled the price of oil. Innovative and useful
products were made from fossil fuels. The mass consumption of these products
increased the amount of greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide. The
increased levels of greenhouse gases depleted the Ozone layer in the atmosphere and
introduced the threat of climate change.

• Third industrial revolution: This is called the period of the digital revolution. It started in
the 1950s when semiconductors, mainframe computing, personal computing, and
the Internet were invented. From analog electrical and mechanical devices, factories
started producing digital devices.

• Digital technology has proved to be a disruptive force for the old way of
industrialization. It has revolutionized the way the world communicates and uses its
energy. Automation was introduced in factories and supply chains became global.
• Fourth industrial revolution: The fourth industrial revolution, also called the 4IR or
Industry 4.0, is driven by innovation. It is a fusion of the physical, biological, and digital
technologies that will not only transform how humanity will produce and consume
resources. Sustainability development is the goal of the fourth industrial revolution. It
will bring new technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of
Things, 3D printing, genetic engineering, etc. In 2015, all the UN member states
adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) to eliminate poverty, ensure peace
and prosperity of all people, protect natural reserves and save the planet by 2030. 4IR
is based on these SDG goals, which will be discussed in the next section.

1.2.6 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation of natural resources in the preservation of resources so that all the natural
resources are utilized efficiently. Conservation of natural resources is essential to protect
and care for the resources so that they can be perpetually kept for future generations.
Conservation of natural resources in promoting and protecting the natural resources for the
future generation. Although both aim to protect natural resources, their modus operandi is
different. Some of these are discussed as follows:

• Conservation of natural resources: This means sustainable use of natural resources

during human activities. For example, National Forests in the US are open for human
activities such as logging, cattle grazing, hunting, and recreational activities, provided
these activities are done sustainably.

• Preservation of natural resources: This means the protection of resources by

emphasizing minimal change to the landscape and environment. For example, National
Parks in the US are preserved.

• Absolute conservation: This approach of Conservation Focus is on the sustainable use of

natural resources so that they are preserved in the same condition as they currently exist
in nature. The objectives of absolute conservation are to:

1. Work with nature and stop working against it

2. Interfere with other species only for basic requirements
 3. Stop wastage of resources
4. Protect environmental damage

• Relative conservation: This approach focuses on the integration of conservation

programs when using natural resources. Examples are as follows:

1. Reuse and recycle resources

2. Minimum use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels
3. Use plant resources in limited quantity

1.2.7 NEED FOR CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation of natural resources is essential, as their overconsumption, careless use, and

exploitation have caused the following problems:

• Deforestation: This is the act of cutting down forests for non-forest uses such as
agriculture or urban development. Without sufficient reforestation programs, removal
of trees can cause loss of biodiversity, decline, and extinction of species due to the loss
of their natural habitats, soil erosion, conversion of fertile land into a wasteland,
climate change, increase in greenhouse gases leading to global warming, change in
weather conditions due to damaged hydrological cycles, and loss of long-term income
and biological productivity.

• Desertification: This is a type of land deterioration where a once fertile land starts
losing its water bodies, vegetation, and wildlife, eventually becoming a desert. The main
cause of desertification is overexploitation of soil due to human activities such as
deforestation and overgrazing. The process is speeded up by climate and weather
change. Figure 1 shows the vulnerable areas of desertification in the world:
 Figure1: Global Desertification Vulnerability Map
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification
At least 90% of the highly vulnerable dry areas are based in developing countries.
Overpopulation and economic pressures in these regions cause poor people to
overexploit lands in the forms of overgrazing, deforestation, and tillage for agriculture.
A theory suggests that the Sahara desert was once a savanna but due to climate
change and overgrazing by cattle, it became a desert.

• Extinction of species: Earth is going through the sixth mass extinction of species known as
the Holocene extinction. This mass extinction is mainly due to human activities related
to the over-exploitation of natural resources. With the extensive deterioration of
ecosystems and biodiversity, several families of plants and animals have become
extinct. Many of these species were not even discovered and studied. The Holocene
extinction will continue into the next century due to our overpopulation and
overconsumption of resources as well as environmental pollution.
• Forced migration: This is the forced movement of a person (people) from their homes
due to living hardships such as war or drought. Consider the dark areas in Figure 1.
These areas in Africa and Asia are those areas from where refugees are fleeing in large
numbers and seeking shelter in Europe and elsewhere. Apart from the ongoing war in
these regions, a major cause of this displacement is also because it has become hard
to earn a sufficient livelihood there. Most of these areas have become dry and the
land is simply not sufficient enough to feed the large populations there.
• Oil depletion: This is the lowering of oil production in an oil well, field, or area. The
supply of natural oil is limited because the natural formation of oil takes millions of
years. At the current rate of consumption, the oil reserves are likely to be exhausted
by 2056. This will have critical repercussions on the world economy. Despite the
progress made on renewable sources of energy, our industrial economy still relies
heavily on oil as a fuel and chemical input. A key product of oil refining is a pesticide.
Since the invention of pesticides, food production has risen dramatically. Shortage of
oil may force people to switch over to organic agriculture methods. Since organic
farming is more labor-intensive, large populations may need to shift from urban to
 rural areas. The shortage of oil will also have a more visible effect on our
transportation methods.
• Soil erosion: Soil erosion is a natural process caused by geological factors such as
water flow and wind movement. However, human activities have unnaturally
increased this activity by 10-40 times, causing severe loss of nutrients in the soil. The
harmful activities causing soil erosion include deforestation, road development, and
urbanization. When the nutrient-rich upper soil layers are removed from the land, the
quality of the land deteriorates and it becomes barren.
• Increase in greenhouse gases: The earth’s atmosphere contains greenhouse gases
such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. These gases
(GHG) trap the heat of the Sun, which makes the earth’s atmosphere liveable.
However, since the industrial revolution, human activities have increased the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by about 45%. These activities
include the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, agricultural use, and soil erosion.
• Environmental pollution: To encourage overconsumption, industries are polluting
natural resources blatantly. Record numbers of wastes are being generated. Natural
land areas and oceans are being dumped with rubbish. Waste disposal has now become
a matter of conflict among countries. For instance, recently a court in the Philippines
ruled to return the ships containing wastes to Canada.
• Natural disasters such as floods and landslides: Flooding, hurricanes, and landslides
have become common news across countries. Their destruction to life and property
has become more widespread, regular, and expensive. A major reason for their
frequent occurrence is the loss of natural barriers such as forests and vegetation,
which are used to regulate the flow of water and maintain the balance of the water
cycle.

• Water scarcity: If floods and landslides are causing devastation in one corner of the
world, then more than half of the world is grappling with severe water scarcity.
Although water is a renewable natural resource, its wastage and pollution are fast
depleting the freshwater reserves.
• Minerals depletion: The desire to purchase the latest mobile gadgets and other
products are resulting in the over-extraction of minerals. Minerals have limited stocks
in the world and a very slow regeneration process

1.2.8 METHODS OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation of natural resources is an integrated effort by the governments, industries, and

local populations. Some popular methods of conserving natural resources are:

• Conservation of freshwater: This can be done by adopting methods such as rainwater

harvesting, preventing water pollution, and reforestation. People should be educated
to use water judiciously for their daily activities such as drinking, bathing, washing,
cooking, etc. They must ensure that taps are closed when they are not being used and
take less time in the shower. Some of the water can be reused for watering gardens
and washing. Excessive use of water for agriculture should be discouraged by using
drip and other water delivery systems. The use of chemicals for washing floors and
farming purposes should be discouraged, as these chemicals pollute the water and
make it non-renewable. The sewage of industrial wastes into surface water bodies like
rivers and lakes must be stopped immediately. Waste treatment plants should be set
up to prevent thermal and chemical pollution of water bodies. The use of plastics and
other harmful products must be banned so that water reservoirs are not clogged.
Rainwater harvesting must be taken up by individuals and institutions on a large scale.
In this method, rainwater is collected, stored, and used in different ways for recharging
water bodies. Small water reservoirs should be constructed to store water.

• Conservation of air: The quality of air in urban cities in developing countries is a critical
concern. Every year health warnings are generated in cities like New Delhi and Beijing
on account of air pollution and the heavy concentration of particulate matter in the
air. Businesses attempt to profit from this man-made pollution by selling products such
as air purifiers and masks. However, the need of the hour is to reduce air pollution.
This can be done by encouraging the use of electric vehicles instead of vehicles run
by fossil fuels, incentivizing farmers not to burn their crop wastes, regulating the
construction activities so that less dust is accumulated in the air, treating industrial
 effluents before they are released into the atmosphere, encouraging the use of biofuels
instead of fossil fuels for domestic purposes and planting trees in home compounds
(natural air conditioners).

• Conservation of soil: Although soil is a renewable resource, it replenishes very slowly.

Soil erosion is a natural process where the topsoil is washed away naturally by winds
and rainwater. This layer of soil is the most fertile for the growth of plants and crops. It
binds the roots of plants to the ground. When the topsoil is eroded, then the bottom
rock gradually becomes the topsoil. However, overgrazing and deforestation have
drastically eroded the topsoil. Soil can be conserved by reforestation as trees can slow
down the natural erosion of the soil. Trees are also natural habitats for most plants,
birds, insects, and animals. Therefore, reforestation is an effective method of
conserving wildlife also. Wastes such as plastics and paper bags should be recycled to
avoid pollution. Planting the same crop for a long period may deplete its nutrients
level. Therefore, crop rotation should be adopted to restore and maintain soil fertility.
The number of cattle per household must be regulated to control overgrazing. Finally,
the construction of terraces and gabions in sloping land will prevent soil erosion.

• Conservation of forests: There must be strict implementation of laws against cutting

down trees in the forests. Forest officers must remain vigilant against forest fires and
other hazards. The following methods can help to save trees:

1. Planting of more trees to reduce the natural reduction in tree population due
to old age, heavy winds, or rains
2. Using tree guards to protect the small trunks of newly planted trees or saplings
from cattle grazing
3. Using organic fertilizers to increase the lifespan of plants and protect them
from diseases and pests
4. Growing more fruit-bearing trees instead of just ornamental trees so that
people have less desire to cut them down if they find them intrusive
5. Adopting organized methods to prevent excessive deforestation due to
urbanization or clearing of land for agriculture
6. Using less paper to save trees
 7. Reusing old furniture in novel ways to discourage cutting of wood
8. Minimizing the use of disposable wood material such as wooden spoons,
plates, and utensils.
9. Enforcing legislation to prevent the unnecessary expansion of layouts by
businesses or households
10. Making cultivation of trees mandatory in case of urban development work
11. Offering financial incentives to unemployed youth or old people to grow and
preserve trees voluntarily

• Conservation of rivers and lakes: Encroachment of lakes, manmade changes of river

routes or courses, and excessive weather conditions like drought have dried up several
rivers and lakes. The large-scale pollution of water bodies also makes their water unfit
for human consumption. Therefore, to conserve rivers and lakes, strict measures must
be adopted to prevent land encroachment and pollution of water bodies. The sources
of water for most rivers and lakes are the catchment areas. These catchment areas
should be protected by growing vegetation in them so that water can percolate
sufficiently into the deep soil layers. This will keep the groundwater levels adequate.
The concretization of land around rivers and lakes should be discouraged so that
natural vegetation allows groundwater to build up during rains.

• Conservation of oceans: Our oceans are at risk due to overfishing, plastic pollution, and
frequent spillage of oil and other contaminants. The water from polluted rivers also
merges into the oceans making the situation worse. The changes in the water pH are
killing natural ecosystems like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. Hence, urgent actions
must be taken to check the pollution of ocean water to save marine biodiversity. To
prevent oil leaks in the oceans, pipelines should be used to transport them instead of oil
tankers.

• Conservation of fossil fuels: The depletion of oil can be slowed down by using public
transport more than personal vehicles for traveling. Switching over to electric vehicles
is another option.

Overconsumption of coal can deplete its reserves. Hence, other renewable sources of
 power should be encouraged. A by-product of oil refining is Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG). It is the most prevalent source of fuel in households. However, its continued use
may deplete oil reserves. An alternative is the use of biogas, which is produced from
cattle dung. Biogas also causes less air pollution.

• Conservation of minerals: Minerals are a finite resource. They also do not have any
alternatives. Therefore, the only way to conserve them is to use them minimally and
judiciously. The old products containing minerals must be recycled to conserve them.

• Conservation of biodiversity: Reforestation and preventing hunting of animals for

sport or food can help to prevent loss of biodiversity. Unfortunately, despite laws,
poachers continue to kill many animals to sell their teeth, horns, and skin on the black
market. They have become the biggest threat to biodiversity. To resolve this issue the
forest officers must be extra vigilant to catch them. The government of the world
should also act collectively against the black markets for wildlife products.

1.3 SUMMARY

Natural resources on the Earth include land, water, air, plants, animals, coal, minerals,
natural gas, oil, and sunlight. We have built our life around these natural resources. Natural
resources are the real capital of a country, which contribute to its fiscal revenue, income,
and poverty alleviation. They are job-creators and usually the only source of income for
poor communities. To sustain our ecological resources, we need to have a smaller ecological
footprint than the biocapacity of the planet.

Humans are the biggest consumers that have an inexhaustible demand for natural
resources. The IPAT formula states that the environmental impact is the product of
population, average consumption rate, and available technology. Water, oil, natural gas,
phosphorus, and fossil fuels are the topmost resources that are threatened by
overconsumption. The reasons for the exploitation of natural resources include economic
growth, overpopulation, income gains leading to overconsumption, environmental
change, technological advancement, and price pressure. Conservation of natural
resources is essential to prevent socio-economic and political problems caused due to
deforestation, desertification and mass extinction of species, soil depletion, soil erosion,
greenhouse gas emission, pollution, natural disasters, water scarcity, and minerals
depletion. Some popular methods of conservation of natural resources include
reforestation, preventing pollution, rainwater harvesting, recycling and reusing products,
lowering consumption, and managing waste production. Some initiatives taken to
conserve natural resources include UN SDGs, OECD guidelines, ICC Business/Sustainable
Development Declaration, ISO 14001 series, GRI, FSC, MSC, etc.

1.4 KEYWORDS

• Precipitation: A weather condition when rain, snow, or hail fall from the sky.
• Herbivorous: The animal whose main diet is the plant material and, thus, it has
mouth-parts adapted to grinding.
• Carnivorous: The animal that kills and eats other animals.
• Omnivorous: The animal that eats other plants and animals.
• Food chain: A system where different animals are interlinked with their feeding
habits, for example, a plant is the food of an animal, that animal is the food of
another animal, which is again the food of a larger animal.
• Crustaceans: The invertebrate animals that serve as a principal food for a variety of
marine animals. They include crabs, lobster, and shrimps.
• Diurnal variation: Variation that occurs during each day.
UNIT – 2: Pollution Control

Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain the meaning ofpollution

• Elucidate airpollution
• Discuss waterpollution
• Explain soilpollution
• Describe nuclearpollution
• Discuss the major hazards ofpollution
• Outline the causes of pollution and the harmful effects ofpollution
• Describe the methods to controlpollution
• Explain nuclear hazards and meaning and reasons for nuclearhazards

Structure

2.1 Meaning Of Pollution

2.2 Types Of Pollution
2.2.1 Air Pollution
2.2.2 Water Pollution
2.2.3 Soil Pollution
2.2.4 Noise Pollution
2.2.5 Thermal Pollution
2.2.6 Marine Pollution
2.2.7 Nuclear Pollution
2.3 Major Hazards of Pollution
2.3.1 Causes of Pollution
2.3.2 Harmful Effects of Pollution
2.3.3 Overpopulation and Pollution
2.3.4 Rapid Industrialisation and Pollution
2.4 Control of Pollution
2.4.1 Methods to Control Pollution
2.4.2 Steps Were Taken by The Government to Control Pollution
2.4.3 Role Played by Various Organisations to Control Pollution
2.5 Nuclear Hazards
2.5.1 Meaning and Reasons for Nuclear Hazards
2.6 Solid Waste Management
2.6.1 Meaning and Importance of Solid Waste Management
2.6.2 Methods of Solid Waste Management
2.7 Role of an Individual In Prevention of Pollution
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Summary

2.1 MEANING OF POLLUTION

The word pollution originates from the Latin word, pollute-, which means soiled or
contaminated. Pollution is the act of adding soiled, contaminated, or harmful materials into
the environment, which makes the environment dirty, unsafe, and non-suitable for use. The
soiled or contaminated materials are called pollutants. These pollutants need not always be
tangible or physical. Incorporeal things such as light, sound, and temperature can also cause
pollution if these are introduced to the environment artificially.

Overproduction and overconsumption have resulted in a disbalance that continuously

damages the environment. The extent of the damage is so high that the environment is
unable to regenerate at the rate at which we are damaging it. Our dependence and high
usage of vehicles are releasing millions of effluents in the form of toxic gases and particulate
matter into the air. The thermal electricity plants burn thousands of tons of coal to meet our
energy demand. In the process, plants release toxic chemicals into the air. Our households
and industries generate sewage that is directly added to the land and water as garbage. Our
crops are grown by adding toxic pesticides into the soil to kill weeds and insects. These
poisonous chemicals percolate into the waterways and make our rivers toxic.
Today, more than 200 million people around the world are exposed to the ill-effects of this
toxic pollution. In some of the most polluted areas, children are born with congenital
defects due to pollution. Cancers and other diseases have become quite common due to
pollution and its side effects.

Pollution is not a local problem that is limited to one country or population or species. The
planet, its other species, and ecosystems are interconnected because we share the Earth’s
supply of natural resources. Thus, if these resources are polluted, then all the living beings
will be endangered. Besides, pollution is not limited to one area it is the challenge that every
country is facing. For example, harmful chemicals and pesticides have been found even in
the remote, far-off, desolate continent of Antarctica. A large deposit of minuscule plastic
particles has formed a garbage patch in the middle of the Northern Pacific Ocean. Smoke
emanating from factories in one country can easily travel to other countries. Accidental oil
spills in an ocean or the release of radioactive materials in the air are global dangers. This is
because the oil and radioactive materials can be carried by water and wind currents across
the world, creating problems for everyone.

History of Pollution

Pollution is as old as the invention of fire in prehistoric times. When humans learned to
forge metals, air pollution entered the external environment. Humans also used to take
water from freshwater resources such as rivers and oceans for drinking, bathing, livestock,
and agricultural purposes. Of course, the sewage from the households went into rivers and
oceans. However, the natural replenishment purposes must have been adequate to renew
the polluted areas.

The problem started with the Industrial Revolution, when newly formed industries in
London, Berlin, Paris, and Chicago dumped industrial wastage in the rivers, created landfills
full of untreated waste, and released toxic effluents from their fuming mills into the air.
Nowadays, developing cities such as New Delhi, Mexico City, Beijing, and others are
grappling with smog caused due to the mixing of harmful particulate matter into the air
particles. Breathing polluted air in these cities is equivalent to smoking hundreds of
cigarettes, causing problems such as asthma and bronchitis.
The topmost polluting countries are:

• China
• US
• Russia
• India
• Mexico
• Japan

The major causes of pollution in these countries are emissions from fossil fuels, refineries,
petrochemical plants, disposal of nuclear wastes, large livestock farms, plastics factories, etc

2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTION

There are various forms of pollution. The most damaging forms of pollution are:

• Air pollution: It is caused due to the release of toxic chemicals and particulate matter
into the air
• Water pollution: It is caused due to the discharge of sewage, untreated wastes, and
chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides from domestic and industrial areas into rivers,
lakes, and other sources of surface water
• Soil pollution: It is caused due to the overuse or spillage of chemicals into the soil layers
• Noise pollution: It is caused due to high-intensity, harmful noise levels from vehicles,
aircraft, and industries
• Thermal pollution: It is caused due to the artificially induced change in the temperature
of natural water bodies
• Marine pollution: It is caused due to the spillage of oil and the dumping of waste
materials in oceans and seas
• Nuclear pollution: It is caused due to the of disposal chemicals and accidents in nuclear
power reactors, where radioactive materials are released into the environment
Let us discuss each form of pollution in detail.

2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution can be termed as the pollution of air when harmful get mixed in the
atmosphere quantity of gases, particles, and biological molecules. Air pollution is a
combination of natural and man-made substances in the air humans inhale.

A pictorial representation of air pollution is shown in Figure

Air Pollution in New Delhi

Source: https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/delhi-air-pollution-no2-level-rises-
in-the-national- capital-despite-fall-in-dies/306695

The polluted air is toxic to breathe. It causes allergies and even death to living organisms.
It damages crops and other livinghabitats.

Air pollution can happen anywhere, outdoors or indoors as discussed in the following
points:

• Outdoorairpollution:Theairpollutionthatisoutsidetheboundaryofaninbuilt
environmentorestablishmentiscalledoutdoorairpollution.Forexample,the burning of
fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum, introduces fine particles into the atmosphere
causing airpollution.

• Indoorairpollution:Theairpollutionthathappenswithinaninbuiltenvironment is called
indoor air pollution. The indoor air pollution is inside in non-ventilated houses where
people spend most of their time inside. Examples of indoor air pollution include:

o Gases, such as radon ooze from inside the earth in some locations and
sometimes get trapped inside houses. These gases aretoxic.
 o In a building under construction, materials such as carpeting and plywood emit
formaldehyde gas. Although banned, asbestos is still used in building materials.
Its prolonged exposure can cause breathing problems, lung cancer, and a very
rare form of cancer called PeritonealMesothelioma.
o Whenpaintsandsolventsdry,theyemitVolatileOrganicCompounds(VOCs). If the
paint has a lead component, then the lead can decompose into dust, which
mixes into the air making ittoxic.
o The use of air fresheners, incense, and other perfumed items also causes indoor
airpollution.
o Wood fires from stoves and fireplaces add a significant amount of smoke into
theair.
o The use of pesticides and other chemical sprays in houses without proper
ventilation may befatal.
o The burningofcharcoalsinaclosed,non-ventilatedspaceresultsintheaccumulation
of poisonous carbonmonoxide.
o Dustduetodecomposedhair,pets,bedding,carpeting,andfurnitureproduces
enzymes, which emit methane (a greenhousegas)

Air pollutants

These are the solid, liquid, or gaseous substances that can mix with the air and contaminate
it. These can be natural or manmade. These can also be classified as:

• Primary air pollutants: These are caused directly by natural or manmade processes.
For example, ash from volcanic eruptions, carbon monoxide from automobile
exhausts, and sulfur dioxide from industrial emissions are primary pollutantsofthe
air.In2010,theeruptionofavolcanoinIcelandnamedEyjafjallajökull created a huge ash
cloud. This ash cloud spread across Europe and suspended international air travel for
6days.

• Secondary air pollutants: These pollutants are created by the mixing of primary
pollutants. For example, smog is created by the mixing of smoke and sulfur dioxide
from coal-burning, vehicular emission, and industrialemission.
 The tablelists the main pollutants:

Main Pollutants
Main Pollutants Sources
Carbon dioxide Respiratory systems of all aerobic
organisms, the decay of organic
materials, fermentation,
volcanoes, hot springs, geysers,
dissolution of carbonate rocks in
water, combustion of wood and
fossil fuels
Why is it a pollutant?
It is a greenhouse gas whose
atmospheric concentration has
rapidly increased due to the burning
of wood and fossil fuels. Its high
concentration in the atmosphere is
causing global warming.

Main Pollutants Sources Why is it a pollutant?

Sulfur dioxide Produced in volcanic eruptions,
industrial processes, and burning
of fossil fuels
Nitrogen dioxide Produced due to high-temperature
combustion (thunderstorms and
electric discharge), burning of fossil
fuels in motors’ exhausts, cigarette
smoke butane, and kerosene stoves
It damages human health and
destroys the natural habitats of
plants and animals. It can combine
with nitrogen dioxide to form
sulphuric acid (acid rain).
It contributes to acid rain. It
irritatesthe eyes and its prolonged
exposure causes respiratory
problems.

Carbon monoxide A non-irritating but highly toxic gas It creates smog in the air, which is
produced through partial oxidation responsible for several lung ailments.
(when there is not enough oxygen It is the most fatal air poisoning gas, as
to produce carbon dioxide) in it combines with hemoglobin to
cases, such as the burning of stoves produce carboxyhemoglobin, which
in a confined space (indoors) makes it unable to transfer oxygen
in the body.
Volatile Organic Fossil fuels, paints and coatings, VOCs are greenhouse gases
Compounds (VOC), and chlorofluorocarbons in cleaning contributing to global warming. Non-
which can be methane products and refrigerants methane VOCs, such as benzene,
or non-methane toluene, and xylenes can cause cancer
on prolonged exposure.
Particulates (fine Natural causes include volcanic Increased concentrations of
particles of solid/ eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, particulates can lead to heart disease,
liquid suspended in vegetation, and sea spray changed lung function, and lung
gas) Manmade causes include the cancer.
burning of fossil fuels, power
plants, industrial processes, and
burning of agricultural wastes
Chlorofluorocarbons Emitted from air conditioners, These mix with other gases in the
(CFCs) refrigerators, and aerosol sprays stratosphere and damage the
atmospheric ozone layer. The
resulting ozone hole allows harmful
ultraviolet rays from the sun to reach
the earth’s surface, causing skin
cancer, eye diseases, and plant
damage.
Ammonia Emitted from agricultural wastes It can increase the concentration of
particulate matter after reacting
with nitrous and sulfur oxide.
Sources of air pollution

The top five sources of air pollution are:

1 Households: The main source of air pollution is the burning of wood and fossil fuels in
confined, indoor areas for cooking, heating, and lighting purposes. Other biomass-based
fuels used for the same purposes also contribute to indoor pollution. To reduce
household pollution, cleaner and more modern stoves must be used for cooking,
heating, and lighting purposes. In 97 countries (out of 193), 85% of households have
switched to cleaner fuels, but 3 billion people still use solid fuels for domesticpurposes.
2 Industries: The second biggest contributor to air pollution is industries withcoal-
fuelledanddieselgenerators.Toreduceairpollution,industriesmustswitchover to
renewable sources of energy production and increase energyefficiency.

3 Transport: Almost 1/4thof carbon dioxide emissions are due to vehicular emissions.
Vehicles with diesel engines are the main culprits causing 200,000 premature deaths.
People living in close vicinity to traffic zones are 12% more
likelytohavedementia.Toreducevehicleemissions,policiesandprogramsmust be
implemented to switch over to cleaner fuels and advanced emissionstandards.
4 Agriculture: Livestock farming, rice paddies and burning of agricultural waste produce
methane and ammonia. Methane forms ground-level ozone which causes respiratory
problems, such as asthma. It is also a stronger greenhouse gas contributing 34 times
more to global warming than carbon dioxide. An effective mitigation step is to switch to
a plant-based diet and reduce foodwastage. Farmers can reduce the production of
methane from livestock farming by optimizing the digestibility of food and improving
grazingpractices.
5 Waste: 40% of waste is openly burned around the world, more so in the urban areas of
developing countries. This practice releases poisonous gases, such as methane and black
carbon, into the atmosphere. To prevent this, the collection, separation, and disposal of
solid waste must be improved. This will reduce the quantity of waste, which is to be
burned or filled in landfills. Another advantage
ofwasteseparationisthatitcanbeconvertedintocompost,whichisanalternative source of
energy.
Effects of air pollution

9 out of 10 people in the world today are inhaling the polluted air. Its effects are alarming,
which include:

• Respiratory and heart problems: Air pollution is responsible for respiratory problems,
heart diseases, and lung ailments including cancer. Each year, the deaths caused due
to air pollution are 3 times more than those caused bymalaria, tuberculosis, and AIDS
combined. The distribution of the causes of deaths due to air pollution is depicted in
Figure:

Ischemic heart
Lung cancer, disease, 26%
29%

Strokes, 24%
Chronic
obstructive
pulmonary disease,
43%

Causes of Deaths Due to Air Pollution

Air pollution is even more dangerous to children, causing health problems, such as:
o Low birth weight
o Pneumonia
o Asthma
o Childhood cancers
o Obesity
o Poor lung development
o Autism

• Global warming:
Air pollution increases the concentration of greenhouse gasesin the atmosphere, which
leads to global warming. Global warming is the phenomenon in which the surface
temperature of the earth is quickly elevated due to greenhouse gases. Let us understand
this concept.

The temperature of the earth is controlled by the sun. About 30% of the sunlight coming to
the earth is reflected by bright surfaces on the earth, such as ice and clouds. The remaining
70% of sunlight is absorbed by the land, oceans, and atmosphere, which heats the planet. As
the planet warms up, rocks, air, and oceans radiate thermal infrared radiation (or heat
energy). This radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere by water vapor and greenhouse gases,
such as carbon dioxide and methane. The molecules radiate the energy back to the earth,
heating the surface.

Since the industrial revolution (past 250 years), the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation
have increased the levels of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide by 38% and methane by
148%). Consequently, the earth’s atmosphere has more greenhouse gas molecules which
are absorbing more of the released infrared radiation fromthe Earth’s surface.
Consequently, the temperature of the earth is rising. This is the enhanced greenhouse
effect. Due to this effect, the average surface temperature of the earth has increased from
0.6° (1906) to 0.9 degrees celsius (2005). An even more alarming concern is that the rate of
increase in temperature has almost doubled during the last 50 years.

The graphical representation of the rising global average surface temperature is illustrated
in Figure:

Global Mean Surface Temperature

0.6

Annual mean
Temperature Anomaly (°C)

5–year running mean

0.4 uncertainty
0.2

–0.2 1940 1960 1980 2000

Year

–0.4 Rising Global AverageSurfaceTemperature

1880 1900 1920
 Source: https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming/page2.php
Due to the rising surface temperature worldwide, the polar ice caps will melt and the sea
levels will rise. This may destroy the natural habitats of animals and plants and drown many
major cities and islands. The following are consequences of rising surface temperatures:

• Acid rain: Vehicular and industrial emissions release harmful sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide. When it rains, these gases can combine with water drops to make
sulphuric acid. This acid rain destroys plants and animals.

• Eutrophication: Higher concentrated levels of nitrogen above the sea surface will
make algae grow. These harmful algae destroy species of fish, animals, and plants.

• Loss of wildlife: Air pollution may cause wild animals to change their natural
habitats, which in turn may threaten their survival.

• Ozone layer depletion: The ozone hole over Antarctica is increasing due to the
presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.
Consequently, the harmful ultraviolet rays enter the earth’s atmosphere. These UV
rays can cause skin and eye problems, as well as damage crops.

Preventive Measures

97% of cities in developing countries with a population of more than 1 million falls short of
the WHO prescribed air quality levels. On the other hand, 29% of cities in developed
countries also do not meet the minimum air quality levels. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement,
174 countries pledged to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius. The most effective
way to do so is to cut down on air pollution. Not only will this save millions of lives, but it
will also save costs in public health spending. Some preventive measures to control air
pollution include:

• To use more public modes of transportation

• To replace petrol and diesel running vehicles with electric vehicles (however, electric
vehicles also cause air pollution due to rubber tires)
• To generate power using nuclear and renewable sources of energy
• To switch over to cleaner fuels such as natural gas
 • To implementing the 3 Rs – Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
• To use energy-efficient devices
• To ensure houses are well-ventilated
• To clean buildings regularly to avoid build-up of dust and mold
• To remove pollutants, such as aerosols and stringent cleaning supplies
• To use biodigesters to curb the burning of wastes.

2.2.2 WATER POLLUTION

Water is also known as the universal solvent as it dissolves substances in if in comparison to

other liquids. Water pollution happens when pernicious substances such as chemicals or
microorganisms enter streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, aquifer, or other water bodies, and
harm the quality of water.

Water pollution is shown in pictorial representation in Figure :

Water Pollution in Ganga

Source: https://www.businessinsider.in/See-photos-of-the-devastating-pollution-in-Indias-
holy-Ganges-River/ articleshow/62684561.cms

The contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, seas, and groundwater,by
chemicals and microorganisms, is called water pollution. It lowers the qualityof water
making it unfit for human use. In 2015, about 1.8 million people in the world died due to
water pollution-related causes (Lancet). India and China have the highest levels of water
pollution. In India, about 580 people die of waterborne diseases every day.
Types of Water Pollution

There are two types of water pollution:

• Surface water pollution: This includes water pollution of rivers, lakes, and oceans.
The pollution of oceans and seas is called marine pollution (discussed in a later
section). The main causes of surface water pollution are the runoff of waste and
fertilizers from farms, discharge of municipal and industrial wastes, and direct
dumping of wastes into water bodies

• Groundwater pollution: This pollution is caused when pollutants (such as pesticides,

fertilizers, waste leached from landfills and septic systems, arsenic, fluoride,
pathogens, nitrates, pharmaceuticals, etc.) make their way into an aquifer, making
the groundwater unfit for use. An aquifer, once polluted, becomes unfit for human
use for decades. The polluted water from the ground can cause widespread
poisoning or diseases. It is almost impossible and very expensive to remove
contaminants from polluted groundwater. There are various sources of groundwater
pollution, including:

o Landfills
o Onsite sanitation systems
o Waste and wastewater treatment plants
o Leakage from sewers
o Spills in petrol filling stations
o Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural farms

Cause of Water Pollution

The following are some causes of water pollution:

• Agriculture: The agriculture sector is the biggest consumer of freshwater (70%).

However, it is also a major cause of water pollution. During rains, the agricultural
wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal wastes runoff from farms into waterways.
Rains can also runoff nutrients and pathogens from livestock operations into
 freshwater bodies. This type of pollution is called nutrient pollution, as it is caused by
the excess of nutrients and phosphorus in the water. When nutrient water runs off
into waterways, it increases the population of blue-green algae, which can cover the
entire water body. This is called the harmful algae bloom. It depletes dissolved
oxygen and kills aquatic species, making the water body a dead zone.

Algae bloom is depicted in Figure:

Algae Bloom in a Lake

Source: https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know

• Sewage: Overpopulation of the planet has also brought a crisis of dumping of

sewage wastes. About 30% of the world’s population does not have proper
sanitation facilities. Due to inadequate sewage disposal facilities, deteriorated,
resulting in water-borne diseases. About 1 million people die every year due to poor
water and sanitation.

What happens when a toilet is flushed? Most cities have sewage treatment plants,
which reduce the number of pollutants (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
pathogens) in sewage and then discharge the treated waste into the waterways.
However, properly working sewage plants are still rare. Almost 80% of waste from
sewage is dumped untreated into the waterways. Drinking this water causes serious
health diseases, such as hepatitis, typhoid, and cholera.
 • Wastewater: Factories are point sources of water pollution, generating about 5 – 10
billion tons of industrial waste every year. Most of this waste is dumped untreated
into rivers, lakes, and oceans. To combat this pollution, governments around the
world are enforcing rules for factories to treat their wastewater before discharging it
into rivers and lakes. However, there is still the problem of wastewater from
households, such as detergents, pesticides, fuel, chemical fluids, and other chemical
wastes. These wastes runoff from drains into rivers and lakes.

• Radioactive wastes: The release of radioactive substances in the surface water

bodies, groundwater, and oceans is called pollution due to radioactive wastes
(nuclear pollution). These wastes are generated by nuclear power plants, mining of
uranium, production, and testing of military weapons, and research and medical
purposes by hospitals. The problem with radioactive wastes is that they can last for
centuries and thus are difficult to be disposed of. If radioactive wastes are not
properly treated, then their use can cause fatal diseases, gene mutation, cell
mutation, cancer, and congenital diseases.

Effects of Water Pollution

According to WHO, every year about 2 billion people worldwide fall sick due to drinking
water from sources contaminated by sewage.Polluted water gives rise to water-borne
diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, and giardia. Even swimming in polluted waters can cause
skin rashes, respiratory problems, and hepatitis.

Water pollution can cause long-lasting damage to the ecosystem and its inhabitants. The
excess of nutrients in water bodies gives rise to harmful algae blooms, which suffocate fish
and other aquatic life to death due to the lack of oxygen. The algae blooms can also cause
rashes and other ailments for humans.

Discharges from industries and municipalities prove toxic to aquatic life and impact their life
span and breeding seasons.

Preventive Measures
Education is the first step to reduce water pollution. The general public must be made
aware of its harmful effects, sources, and preventive measures. Water pollution is a global
problem as rivers and seas across countries and continents are connected. Thus, the
pollution discharged from one location can easily sweep into another country. Therefore,
there must be an integrated effort by governments to form and implement strict
environmental laws, which make it difficult for anyone to pollute water. Some experts have
suggested the Polluter Pays Principle, i.e., whoever causes pollution must pay for its clean-
up. An example may include:

• Shoppers charge a high price for plastic grocery bags to discourage the use of plastic
bags

The above principle aims to discourage people or industries from polluting by making
environmentally responsible methods more economical.

2.2.3 SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution refers to the presence of chemicals or out-of-place substances in higher than
normal concentrations in soil, which has harmful effects on plants and animals. Most
contaminants are added to the soil due to human activities. The boom in urbanization has
resulted in the soil being used as a dumping ground for solid and liquid wastes. While
dumping contaminants, no one considers the fact that these contaminants would be an
environmental threat and pose health hazards to the life of plants, animals, and humans.

It is difficult and expensive to identify contaminants in the soil. Due to agrochemical and
industrial changes, its contaminants also keep on changing. Some organic contaminants
even convert due to biological activities in soil. The nature of soil pollution also depends on
the properties of the soil which regulates the resistance level of contaminants.

Types of Soil Pollution

These are two types of soil pollution:

 • Point source pollution: This pollution is caused by specific, identifiable event(s) that
release contaminants into the soil in an area. Its examples include previous industrial
sites, insufficient waste, and wastewater treatment, overflowing landfills, overuse of
agrochemicals, spills, mining, and smelting activities using poor environmental
standards. Most point-source polluted areas are located near urban cities, where the
soil has high levels of pollutants near roads.

• Diffuse pollution: This pollution is widespread and accumulates in soil from various
sources. The contaminants are emitted, transformed, and diluted in other mediums
before entering the soil through the air, soil, or waterways. It is difficultto analyses
contaminants. Its examples include uncontrolled disposal of wastes, the release of
contaminated effluents, agricultural use of pesticides and fertilizers, continued
organic pollutants, excess nutrients runoff, floods, soil erosion, etc.

Following are the sources of Soil Pollutants:

• Industrial activities: Industrial effluents can directly enter soil through acid rain or
atmospheric deposition. Former industrial sites can pollute soil through
inappropriate storage of chemicals or direct release of waste into the soil. Industries
also release heavy metals into soils through dust and spills. Industries are also
responsible for the build-up of salts in soils, which are toxic to plants.

• Mining: Since ancient times, metal smelting processes for separating minerals have
introduced various pollutants into the soil. The toxic waste from mining activities can
be widely spread through wind and water erosion and sometimes this waste reaches
the soils of farmlands. For example, high levels of chromium and nickel are found in
agricultural soils located near an abandoned chromite- asbestos mine in India. The
crops grown in these soils are hazardous to the health of humans and livestock.

• Urban and transport infrastructures: The rapid development of housing and

transport infrastructures has resulted in soil sealing and land consumption. These
activities have also introduced various pollutants into the soil. Emissions from
vehicles can reach soil at a distance of more than 100 m through atmospheric
 deposition, petrol spills, and runoff of heavy metals from corrosive parts and tires
during rains. A major contaminant is lead from leaded gasoline, which is usedin
vehicles. Waste disposal by landfills and the release of untreated wastewater
contaminate soils with heavy metals, poorly biodegradable organic compounds, and
other pollutants. Soils are also contaminated when the lead-based paint is mixed
with dust and enters the environment.

• Waste and sewage generation and disposal: The growing population produces
massive amounts of waste and sludge. It is estimated that by 2025, worldwide waste
production will be 2.2 billion tons. The two most common ways to manage waste are
waste burning and waste disposal in landfills. Both methods release many pollutants
in the soil through ash fallout or directly from landfill leaching within the soil and
groundwater. one major concern is the disposal of electronic equipment waste,
which contains several toxic substances and thus cannot be treated. The e-waste
releases high concentrations of heavy metals and rare metalloids in the soil. Most of
the e-waste is recycled in developing countries through primitive methods, such as
the burning of cables to get copper. However, these methods also generate toxic
substances. The recycling of wastewater without proper treatment can add heavy
metals, salts, and pathogens to the soil.

• Military activities and war: Modern wars use non-degradable weapons and
chemicals, which can impact the quality of soils for long periods. Military research
activities, such as test-firing facilities can also degrade soil quality. On several
occasions, mines are put in the soil, adding dangerous metals and other substances
to it for long periods.

• Agricultural and livestock activities: Agrochemicals, such as fertilizers, animal

manure, and pesticides, are introduced into the soil through agricultural and
livestock activities The trace metals contained in these agrochemicals can damage
the metabolism of plants and reduce the crop yield. The water used for irrigation can
cause soil pollution if it consists of sewage and wastewater. Excess of nitrogen and
heavy metals in soil can enter the food chain, harming food security, water quality,
and human health.
Accidental leakages of agrochemicals and hydrocarbons used as fuels in farms can cause
point source soil pollution. If the waste of livestock is not properly managed, then the urine
and faces of animals containing parasites and other medical substances can accumulate in
the soil and persist for long periods. The excessive use of fertilizers and manure can increase
the concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil. An alternative is to use compost
and animal residues as nutrient sources

The main pollutants in the soil are shown in Figure :

INORGANIC ORGANIC

METAL/ NON-METAL CHLORINATED NON-

METALLOID CHLORINATED

ALKENES ALIPHATES

ALKENES ALIPHATES

cadmium cyanides PAHs ethane benzene

lead dioxines
copper ammonium DDT ethyl-benzene
zinc
arsenic sulfur PCBs xylene

toluene

Main Pollutants in Soil

Source: http://www.fao.org/3/i9183en/i9183en.pdf

Effects of Soil Pollution

• Polluted soil affects human health through the following means:
• By direct contact with soil or inhalation of contaminants from soil
• By infiltration of soil contaminants into groundwater
• By consuming food grown in the polluted soil.

Exposure to contaminants from the polluted soil introduces toxicity to the human body as
illustrated in the following Figure:
Exposure to contaminants from the polluted soil introduces toxicity to the human body as
illustrated in Figure :

CONTAMINANT IN
SOIL
Ingestio
n
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT

Intake dose
Bound Released from
to soil
soil Bioaccessiblefr
Absorptio action Local
toxicit
n y
Remai
Enterblood n in
gut
Uptakedose
LIVE Toxicity
R
Metabolis
m
PARENT METABOLITE(S
COMPOUND )
Metabolis SYSTEMIC
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION m CIRCULATION

Bioavailable fraction
Distribution
Systemic dose Systemi Distribution
c
toxicity
ORGAN ORGAN
S Metabolis S
m

Pathway for Exposure

Excretioto Soil Pollutants
n
Source: http://www.fao.org/3/i9183en/i9183en.pdf

Prolonged exposure to soil pollutants through any of the mentioned means can lead to
cancer, congenital disorders, kidney damage, and other chronic health conditions. Direct
contact, inhalation, or ingestion of Pollutants from groundwater can be very harmful. The
pollutants in the soil can change soil chemistry, which can change the metabolism of
microorganisms in the soil. Consequently, some of the producers in the food chain may be
eradicated, which in turn will impact the entire food chain.

Even if the effect is small, the producers may ingest foreign chemicals in the polluted soil.
These foreign chemicals will accumulate as they travel up the food chain.

Preventive Measures
The process of managing soil pollution starts with the identification and evaluation of
substances that are causing or have caused soil pollution. The risk assessment methods help
to determine the level to which soil pollution is damaging the environment or human
health. After soil screening, soil remediation techniques are used to remove and/or control
unacceptable risks of the soil. These remediation techniques include:

• Digging of the polluted soil and transporting it to a disposal site far away from
sensitive ecosystem pathways.
• Heating the polluted soil raises the subsurface temperature so much that volatile
chemical contaminants are evaporated from the soil. The technologies used in this
thermal remediation method include Electrical Resistance Heating (ERH).
• Introducing certain organic chemicals that are digested by microorganisms. This
process is called bioremediation and it uses techniques, such as land farming,
biostimulation, and bioaugmentation of soil biota with microflora.
• Drawing out contaminated groundwater or soil vapor by using an active
electromechanical system and then removing contaminants from the extracted
groundwater.
• Confining soil contaminants by capping or paving over the polluted area.
• Using plants, such as willow to mine heavy metals from polluted soil. This process is
called phytoremediation.
• Using fungus to metabolism contaminants and collect heavy metals. This process is
called microembolization.
• Blowing self-collapsing air microbubbles in oil-contaminated soil to remove oil
• Leaching of surfactants.
• Recovering resources, such as converting waste into biogas and/or compost.

2.2.4 NOISE POLLUTION

Living and traveling in overpopulated urban cities and near industrial areas have in module
another types of pollution i.e. noise pollutions. If an individual daily commutes to the office
in heavy traffic, then the individual is exposed to noise pollution. If a house is in the vicinity
of an airport or a highway road a railway line, then the person living in the house is a victim
of noise pollution. Noise pollution is caused by regular exposure to high sound levels, which
may cause adverse health effects. Unfortunately, noise pollution has become a part of
modern life.

Some common sources of noise pollution are:

• Heavy traffic: Cars, buses, ambulances, patrol vehicles, and pedestrians

• Construction activity: Drilling and other mechanical activities
• Factories: Fans, generators, mills, and compressors
• Workplace: Colleagues, phone calls, other sounds from open-office spaces,
prolonged hearing of loud music through headphones, etc.
• Airports: Air traffic, planes taking off or landing, etc.
• Railways stations: People, announcements, trains blaring, etc.
• Railway lines: Movement of trains
• Commercial venues: People and constant loud music in malls and shops
• Households: Televisions, telephones, music from stereos or computers, vacuum
cleaners, fans, coolers, washing machines, dishwashers, lawn movers, etc.
• Social events: Loudspeakers, firecrackers, people yelling (in sports games), etc.
• Concerts, clubs, and restaurants: Constant loud music
• Conflicts: Explosions, gunfire, etc.

Noise is any sound that is loud and disturbing. Sound is measured in the unit of decibels
(Db). According to WHO, sound levels of less than 70 Db are harmless, despite the
duration or consistency of exposure. However, if an individual (human or animal) is
exposed to sound levels of more than 85 Db for more than 8 hours, then it is hazardous
for health. It increases mental tension and causes irregular breathing. Continued
exposure to high noise levels may result in fatigue, hearing loss, and cardiovascular
diseases as shown in Table:

Physiological and Physical Effects of Noise Levels

Noise Level in decibels Sourc Effect
e s
135 Pneumatic drill Painful
110 Rockband Discomfort
88 Industry/city traffic Hearing impairment
on prolonged
exposure
 80 Alarm clock Annoying
65 Average city traffic Intrusive

Source: http://vikaspedia.in/energy/environment/know-your-
environment/pollution/noise-pollution

Effects of Noise Pollution on Health

Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise has various hazardous effects on our health, such
as:

• Deterioration of mental health: It has been observed that people who live near
airports tend to be anxious and uneasy. Exposure to continuous high levels of sound
can create panic reactions and increase frustration levels. High noise levels prevent
people from concentrating on a task. Children preparing for exams or elderly citizens
are the most vulnerable victims.
• Hearing loss: Human ears are not made to absorb high levels of sound for long
periods. Even on a short-term basis, these high sounds can cause temporary
deafness. Prolonged exposure to noise pollution can make a person permanently
deaf.
• Cardiovascular problems: Prolonged exposure to noise pollution increases one’s
heartbeat and causes the heart to pump more blood. This can result in irregular
breathing, palpitations, seizures, etc.
• Eye problems: Noise pollution can dilate the pupils of the eye, which can affect
optimal health in later stages of life.
• Digestive problems: Noise pollution can increase digestive tremors, which can result
in chronic gastrointestinal problems in the later stages of life.
• Sleeping disorders: Noise pollution can disrupt sleep, or it can prevent people from
sleeping altogether. Sleeping disorders create a feeling of restlessness and fatigue
throughout the day. If sleep is disrupted frequently and for long periods, then it can
result in physical, mental, or emotional illness.

The effects of high-intensity noise on humans are shown in Table:

Effects of High-Intensity Noise on Humans

 Noise (dB) Observed effects on
humans
0 Threshold of audibility
90 A significant change in pulse rate
110 Stimulation of sound reception in skin
120 Threshold of pain
130 – 135 Nausea, vomiting, dizziness, interference with touch and muscle
sense
140 Pain in ears (extreme limit of ear tolerance)
150 Burning of skin, if prolonged exposure
160 Minor permanent damage, if prolonged exposure
190 Major permanent damage in a short time

Source: sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/noise-pollution

Noise hazards can be grouped into various stages depending on the health issues they cause,
as shown in Table 4:

Table: Health Issues Related to Noise Pollution

A. Noise Hazards
Stage: I Stage: II
Threat to survival Causing injury
1. Communication interference 1. Neural-humoral stress response
2. Permanent hearing loss 2. Temporary hearing loss
B. Noise Nuisances
Stage: III Stage: IV
Curbing efficient performance Diluting comfort and enjoyment
1. Mental stress 1. Invasion of privacy
2. Task interference 2. Disruption of social interaction
3. Sleep interference 3. Hearing loss

Source: sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/noise-polluti

Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life

Wildlife and marine life are more threatened by noise pollution than humans because they
need sound to feed, communicate, breed, and migrate. Animals have a high sense of
hearing than humans and they react more sensitively to noise pollution. Prolonged exposure
to noise pollution can make animals aggressive. Noise pollution, in the form of traffic and
firecrackers, can cause hearing loss among animals. This can make small animals easy prey
to predators. Birds are particularly vulnerable to air traffic noise.

Marine wildlife, such as whales and dolphins use sound to breed and migrate. Noise
pollution in oceans, in the form of oil drills, seismic survey devices, recreational seaplanes,
and shipping vessels can decrease their presence by, causing hemorrhage which may result
in their death.

Preventive Measures

So far there is no method to reduce noise pollution. However, some preventive measures
include:

• Lower the volume of television and music systems

• Remove public loudspeakers
• Control the sound levels in concerts, bars, clubs, and malls.
• Have better urban planning; creation of ‘No-Noise’ zones
• Create more green belt zones, which absorb noise
• Construct a 20-feet wide plantation inside the compound of homes to prevent noise
from vehicles
• Wear earplugs in high noise areas
• Refrain from jobs with regular high noise levels, if possible

2.2.5 THERMAL POLLUTION

Our aquatic ecosystems are highly vulnerable to temperature deviations. Even a minor
temperature change of 1-2 degrees Celsius can be lethal to some species. However, human
activities can suddenly change the surface temperatures of water bodies, resulting in
hazardous repercussions. This type of pollution is called thermal pollution. A source of
thermal pollution is shown in the following Figure:
 ThermalPollution

Source: https://www.geographyandyou.com/thermal-pollution-unseen-water-pollution/

Some of the sources of Thermal Pollution are:

• Use of water for cooling in industrial and nuclear plants: The biggest sources of
thermal pollution are thermal power plants, coal power plants, nuclear power
plants, and other manufacturing industries. These industries draw water from rivers,
lakes, and oceans to cool their machines. After using water as a coolant, they release
the heated water back to the water bodies. This sharply elevates the temperature of
water bodies, lowering their water quality threatening aquatic habitats. It can also
remove streamside vegetation, which depends on the constant levels of oxygen and
temperature.

• Soil erosion: Prolonged and consistent soil erosion can also cause thermal pollution.
This is because continuous soil erosion causes water bodies to rise. These water
bodies will then be more exposed to sunlight and become more heated. This can be
disastrous for aquatic life, as the oxygen level in the water will be lowered.

• Deforestation: Trees and plants provide natural cover for water bodies against
sunlight. Large-scale deforestation will expose the water bodies to sunlight. These
water bodies will absorb more heat and have higher surface water temperatures.

• Runoff from paved surfaces: Thermal pollution is also caused when warm water
from sewer systems and paved surfaces runs off to rivers and lakes, raising their
temperature.

• Natural causes: Volcanic eruptions and geothermal activity within the oceans and
seas can cause hot lava to flow in rivers and oceans, raising their temperature.
Lightning can also raise the temperature of the oceans by introducing a huge amount
of heat into them.

Following are the effects of Thermal Pollution:

 • The decrease in dissolved oxygen levels: Thermal pollution can lower the levels of
dissolved oxygen in the water. This will suffocate aquatic plants and animals. These
organisms will be replaced by anaerobic organisms, such as algae which will further
lower the oxygen levels in the water and eventually create a dead zone.

• Increase in toxins: The constant discharge of heated water from industries will
increase the level of toxins in the water bodies. These toxins may contain harmful
chemicals or radioactive substances, which are hazardous to local ecosystems.

• Loss of biodiversity: When dissolved oxygen levels decrease in water, certain species
may be forced to change their habitat. For example, cold-water fish may be replaced
by warm-water fish.

• Impact on ecology: Sudden elevation of water temperature can eliminate a massive

population of fish, insects, plants, or amphibians, which are very sensitive to
temperature changes. In such organisms, even a minor temperature change can alter
their metabolism, breeding patterns, feeding habits, and cellular biology. Some
species reproduce within a specific range of temperature only. If the temperature of
the water is high, then they may lay weak eggs, or their eggs maynot develop
normally. This may severely deplete their population, threatening mass extinction of
species. Thermal pollution can also increase the metabolism of organisms because of
increased enzyme activity. Due to this activity, these organisms will consume more
food than normal situations. This will destabilize the food chain.

Preventive Measures

Thermal pollution can be prevented or controlled through the following measures:

• By treating hot water from industries before release into the water bodies
• By treating hot water from nuclear and thermal plants by the installation of coolants,
cooling ponds, and cooling towers
• By recycling industrial water for domestic use or industrial heating purposes
• By building artificial lakes near industries, Here, industries can withdraw water from
one end and release heated water at the other end. The heat will be finally released
through evaporation.

2.2.6 MARINE POLLUTION

Marine pollution is caused by the deliberate man-made or accidental infiltration of

substances and energy into the oceans and seas, which harm aquatic life, ecosystems, and
other organisms. Marine pollution degrades the quality of seawater for the survival of
marine ecosystems and their inhabitants.
A pictorial représentation of marine pollution is shown in Figure :

Marine Pollution
Source: http://diplomacybeyond.com/articles/india-norway-to-combat-marine-pollution-
together/

Reasons for Marine Pollution

More than 80% of marine pollution is caused by terrestrial human activities, such as direct
dumping of plastics or overuse of fertilizers. These land-based activities introduce
pollutants, which runoff from land to rivers and streams and from there into seas and
oceans. The major reasons for marine pollution are as follows:
 • Direct discharge: Pollutants are directly discharged into seas and oceans through
sewers and industrial discharges.

• Runoff from land: Runoff from urban areas, farming areas, and paved surfaces can
carry nutrient-rich water into seas and oceans. This nutrient-rich water will play a
catalyst role in the growth of harmful algae blooms.

• Pollution from ships: Oil spills are not only toxic to marine life, but they are also
difficult to clean up and they last for years. However, these are rare accidents. Most
of the oil in the oceans is discharged from oil tankers, pipeline leakages, etc.

• Atmospheric pollution: Plastic debris and dust can blow in from the wind and
pollute seas and oceans.

• Deep-sea mining: This is a relatively new process to extract minerals from the ocean
bed. Therefore, its environmental impacts are unknown. However, there are
concerns that this process may disturb the ocean layers, increase the toxicity of
water and disturb marine habitats.

The different types of Marine Pollution are:

• Chemical pollution and eutrophication: Harmful chemicals, such as pesticides,

herbicides, fertilizers, detergents, oil, industrial chemicals, sewage, etc., are
introduced to the environment on farms and urban areas. From there, these
chemicals runoff through streams and rivers into bays and coastal bodies, and finally
to seas or oceans. When fertilizers enter the marine waters, they add nutrients to
the water, which causes harmful algae blooms. These algae blooms remove the
dissolved oxygen from water, resulting in the suffocation of marine organisms. For
example, a dead zone of roughly the size of New Jersey is formed every summer in
the Gulf of Mexico due to harmful algae blooms.

• Some chemicals, such as DDT, can be consumed by organisms and reach the top of
the food chain. At each level, these chemicals tend to accumulate and deposit in
body tissues, from where they impact the metabolism and breeding of organisms.
 For instance, compound perfluorooctanoic acid (PFAS) is a chemical used in many
household products. It tends to accumulate in the blood of marine animals and even
humans.

• Light pollution: Artificial light at night can penetrate under the seawater in coastal
areas and disrupt the circadian rhythms of fish. All marine species use the timing of
circadian rhythms for migration, breeding, and feeding. Artificial lights also make it
easier for predators to hunt small organisms. This can cause large-scale depletion of
smaller reef fish.

• Underwater noise pollution: The increased and consistent sound levels from ships,
sonar devices, and oil rigs can disrupt the underwater communication of marine
animals, such as whales and dolphins. These marine animals have low visibility and
thus use sound echo to estimate large distances and communicate.

• If unnatural noises interrupt their communication, then their migration, hunting,

communication, and breeding patterns will be seriously hampered.

• Plastic debris: Marine debris in the form of plastic bags, bottles, and soda cans
suffocates and starves aquatic animals. Most of the solid debris is swept into oceans
through sewers and storm drains. Consequently, the oceans have started to look
such as trash soups. Right now, there is a garbage patch of plastics, about twice the
size of Texas, floating in the North Pacific Ocean. A majority of plastic pollution is
caused by single-use plastics. These plastics look such as jellyfish. Sea turtles and
seabirds commonly mistake it for food. As a result, these species are dying. The
discarded fishing nets have damaged more than 200 marine species.

• Oil pollution: Any accident causing an oil spill in a sea or an ocean is ‘Breaking News’
all over the world. However, these accidents represent only a fraction of the
problem. Only 12% of oil enters oceans through oil tankers. More than 70% of oil
seeps into oceans through regular ships and from the oil runoff from land.

• Acidification: Oceans are natural absorbers of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Although

they absorb about 1/4th of the carbon pollution created by the burning of fossil
 fuels, they are becoming more acidic in the process. The acidification of oceans may
dissolve structures made of calcium carbonates, such as corals and shellfish, and may
even impair the nervous systems of clownfish and sharks.

Preventive Measures

Various laws have been set up to protect oceans. Some of these laws are:

• Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act: It was implemented by the

Council on Environmental Quality in 1972 to control the dumping of harmful
substances in oceans.
• MARPOL 73/78: It is an international treaty enforced by the International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships in 1983 to control vessel
pollution, particularly oil pollution.
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): It was established in
1982 to control marine pollution and protect the marine environment. This law
restricts the number of toxins and pollutants from international ships.
In addition to the mentioned laws, each country also has its local laws to protect its seas
and ocean areas. However, enforcement of these laws is still a challenge.

The main problem with marine pollutants is their long lifespans. Moreover, chemicals
accumulate as they travel up the food chain. Plastic takes centuries to decompose.
Therefore, the threat of plastic will last for centuries.

Some preventive measures to mitigate marine pollution include:

• To reduce and reuse plastic

• To reduce unnecessary light
• To encourage the responsible use of chemicals in households and industries.

2.2.7 NUCLEAR POLLUTION

Nuclear energy is a renewable source of energy, but it causes pollution. In a nuclear reactor,
the radioactive uranium (U-235) is split into high-energy particles in a controlled fission
reaction. The fission reaction generates intense energy, which is used to heat water to make
steam. The steam is then used to spin the turbines, which in turn drive the generators that
produce electricity.

However, as the accidents of Chernobyl, Ukraine and the more recent Fukushima nuclear
reaction in Japan have demonstrated, these radioactive substances can potentially cause a
lot of damage to the environment. The type of pollution caused due to the harmful effects
of radioactive substances is called nuclear pollution.

A source of nuclear pollution is shown in Figure:

Nuclear Pollution

Source: https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/More-Nuclear-Energy-Will-Reduce-Pollution-
Deaths-Says- Watchdog 20160628-0028.html

The causes of Nuclear Pollution are:

• Nuclear power plants: These are the major sources of nuclear pollution. These
plants are used to produce electricity from controlled nuclear fission reactions.
However, traces of radiation are released into the water to be used for producing
steam for turbines. Indiscriminate disposal of this radioactive water causes nuclear
pollution.

• Testing of nuclear weapons: When nuclear weapons are tested, then some radiation
is released into the atmosphere, whereas some reach the ground. This process is
 called fallout. When this radioactive debris settles on the ground, it enters the food
chain.

• Disposal of nuclear fuel: The consumed nuclear fuel is highly radioactive and can last
for at least 600 years. Therefore, it is critical to dispose of these spent fuels very
carefully. However, often the spent nuclear fuel is indiscriminately dumped in far-off
areas. The most used dumping ground is the Pacific Ocean. Some activist
organizations, such as Greenpeace, are vehemently opposing this practice and have
brought the issue of appropriate dumping of nuclear fuels to the mainstream.

• Accidents or damage to nuclear plants: The most famous example of a nuclear

accident is the Chernobyl nuclear plant in 1986. The fallout from this explosion has
lasted for years and over a wide area spanning three countries: Ukraine, Russia, and
Belarus. After the earthquake and tsunami in 2011, the main reactors and
supplementary generators in Fukushima, Daiichi, and Japan suffered considerable
damage.

Following are the Effects of Nuclear Pollution:

• Radiation sickness: Radiation causes the mutation of cells and gene structures.

Following are the effects of radiation:

o 75 – 200 rems: Vomiting, fatigue, loss of appetite, etc.

o 300 rems: Change in blood cells and bleeding
o Above 600 rems: Loss of hair, loss of immunity, and death in a few days or
weeks

• Cancers: People who are exposed to radiation from a distance may not show
immediate radiation sickness but they will develop various forms of cancers. These
people will have a short life span. Even worse, cell mutations will be genetically
transferred to the next generation.

• Birth defects: The fetuses that are exposed to radiation will have birth defects,
cancer, and short life spans.
 • Effects on plants and animals: Most plants will die when exposed to radiation. The
surviving plants will show genetic changes and stunted growth. Radiation is also fatal
to wildlife

• Effect on ecosystems: Atmospheric radiation will last for centuries and affect every
exposed habitat and organism.

Preventive Measures

If you think that since you do not work in a nuclear plant, then you are safe from nuclear
pollution, then you are wrong. An average person is exposed to at least 180 millirems of
radiation every year due to:

• Natural radiation
• X rays for medical testing
• Colour televisions
• X rays in airport baggage and other screening areas

Therefore, it is important to understand preventive measures against nuclear pollution.

Some preventive measures are as follows:

• Wear correct protection gear, such as lead aprons when undergoing X-ray
procedures or radiation therapy. The imaging facilities must have led sheathed walls.
• If a nuclear plant is coming up near your area of residence, then be extra vigilant to
ensure that appropriate measures are taken for the building, implementation, and
disposal of waste. The authorities must be prepared to handle any disaster.
• Workers in a nuclear plant must always be screened for the amount of radiation
exposure
• Proper procedures must be followed to recycle radioactive waste.
• The radioactive fuel and waste must be transported and disposed of in safe, long-
lasting, and unbreakable measures.
• Proper security measures must be taken to ensure that radioactive substances do
not fall into wrong hands.
• Proper procedures must be followed to recycle radioactive waste.
 • The radioactive fuel and waste must be transported and disposed of in safe, long-
lasting, and unbreakable measures.
• Proper security measures must be taken to ensure that radioactive substances do
not fall into wrong hands.

2.3 MAJOR HAZARDS OF POLLUTION

Environmental pollution is the discharge of substances or energy into the atmosphere,

water, or land that can be detrimental to the ecological balance of the earth. The pollutants
could be in the form of naturally occurring substances or energy that contaminates our
planet. The outcome of the industrial and urban technological revolution along with speedy
exploitation of natural resources has increased the level of substances and energy being
released in the environment, leading to harmful and adverse effects.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 2.4 million people are dying each
year because of problems related to pollution. It is observed that the countries which have a
high rate of poverty and overpopulation, such as Indonesia, Sudan, Egypt, and more have
bad air quality and have various adverse health effects. Pollution can be put into the
following categories:

• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution
• Radioactive pollution
• Noise pollution
• Thermal pollution

The contamination of the ecosystem has led to climatic changes and variations in normal
weather patterns. Apart from this, there is a growth in industrialization, economic activities,
and more dependency on vehicles led to an increase in the burning of fuel due to
automobiles and the burning of gases. There are other forms of pesticides and fertilizers
that are used in agriculture that contribute to soil pollution. Environmental pollution affects
the physical and biological forms of the environment. It also leads to many problems due to
the changes in water, air, soil, and other forms of pollutions. Various forms of health
hazards can be put into the following categories:

• Physical hazards: These are substances that harm our bodies. These could be in
terms of some materials, radiation, fires, explosives, liquid spill, etc.
• Biological hazards: These could be in the form of organisms or byproducts which
could be harmful. These could be in terms of some bacteria, viruses, parasites, or
toxins.
• Chemical hazards: These could be in the form of liquids, gases, or solids. Exposure to
chemicals can be harmful to health when it is taken in the form of vapor, gas, or
dust.
• Cultural practice-related hazards: These could be in the form of some ritual or
customs or habits that are formed by the people.
• Social hazards: The cases of illiteracy, poverty, and overpopulation add to the social
hazards. People from the habit of smoking, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, etc., are
examples of having social hazards.

2.3.1 CAUSES OF POLLUTION

There can be many causes of pollution and each of these affects the environment and
society. Pollution is not limited to only the discharge of material or energy into water, land,
or air. There are different sources of pollution and each one has its effect on the
environment and living beings. Pollution may cause damage with a direct impact on the
environment and not just limited to fossil fuels or carbon emissions. There are many kinds
of pollution which include improper disposable practices, chemical pollution, agricultural
activities, etc. Various types of pollution are discussed as follows:

• Air pollution: Air pollution can emanate from the fumes of cars and vehicles that
emit dangerous gases which include nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon
monoxide. When these react with the gases in the atmosphere, they create even
more toxic gases. Air pollutants are of two kinds, namely primary pollutants and
secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere
from the source, whereas secondary pollutants are those which are created due to
 the primary pollutants reacting with the atmosphere. The process of generating
electricity and transportation leads to the burning of fossil fuels that are both the
primary and the secondary pollutants. Fertilizers and chemicals used in agricultural
activities generate ammonia which enters the atmosphere in the form of gas, waste
of livestock, and the fertilization of the fields. These react with the gases in the
atmosphere that lead to the creation of aerosols which are harmful to the heart and
for respiration.
• Water pollution: Other agricultural activities of pesticides, fungicides, and fertilizers
add to the problems of water pollution. The wastewater from sewage and pesticides
contains nutrients that mix with the water bodies and lead to the growth of weed,
algae, and fungus. This process makes the water unfit for drinking and depletes the
oxygen which is harmful to aquatic organisms. Rainwater carries the pesticides which
are used for the crops and are concentrated in the soil. Another major water
pollutant is industrial waste that includes oil spills, nitrates, phosphates, mercury,
etc.
Pesticides and herbicides are used in crops and concentrate in the soil that is carried
to the groundwater by rainwater and runoff water. Therefore, it is important to
check for pollutants when a well is dug for water. In many countries, solid waste is
normally dumped into the sea which ends up killing the creatures in the sea and also
affects human beings.
• Land and soil pollution: Land and soil pollution take place due to the discharge of
waste by the industrial units and the destruction of land for urbanization. The
pesticides which are added to the soil flow through water into the soil and
exploitation of mineral occurs, playing an important role to pollute the land. Mining
is also a reason that adds to the pollution of land and soil. Rain and floods carry
pollutants from one place to another which add to land and soil pollution.
• Noise and light pollution: The number of social events, industrial activities,
transportation, festivals create noise and light pollution. Light pollution happens
when one goes through unrestrained and extended use of sharp lights, whether it is
at public places, parks, residential places, streets, or car lights. These tend to affect
the eyes of the people and animals
2.3.2 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF POLLUTION

Pollution causes several environmental effects along with affecting the humans being and
the animals. The temperature of the earth is affected by the climate changes due to the
greenhouse gases, which are released by automobiles and factories in terms of burning the
fossil fuels and gases released by livestock like methane that add to the air pollution. The
burning of fossil fuel gives out emissions that react with ozone in the atmosphere and the
sunlight combine to create ground-level fog which makes it difficult to breathe. Pollution in
the air can affect human beings and can lead to many problems of wheezing, coughing,
irritation in the eyes, breathing problems, and can even lead to heart attacks. Air pollution is
the cause of asthma and allergies.

Air pollution can have a serious health impact on humans. If individuals are exposed to very
high levels of air pollutants, they may experience irritation of the eyes, nose, throat,
wheezing, coughing, and breathing problems. Air pollution can also exacerbate existing lung
and heart conditions such as asthma. Air pollution creates smog in the atmosphere which
can have harmful effects on the person’s health in terms of their eyes and throat and lungs.
it greatly affects the people who spend a lot of time outside the house.

People suffering from asthma or allergies are more exposed because pollutants can make
their symptoms worse and trigger asthma attacks along with affecting the wild animals and
destroying their natural habitat. The climatic changes in the world lead to conditions of
rising sea levels, heatwaves, drought, warming of the oceans, and leading to cyclonic
storms.

The land and soil are polluted due to deforestation, industrial sources, wrong methods of
waste disposal which affect the animals and human beings. Soil polluted by chemicals
degrades the land which makes it lose its fertility and makes it infertile which cannot
support the plants and the crops. Contamination of soil affects the production of food and
can lead to serious illness.

Water is something that is used by every human and without the availability of potable
water life cannot be sustained. Drinking water gets contaminated due to drainage and
sewage overflow that can lead to many digestion problems, diseases, and affect well being
of human beings. Pollutants in water can affect the fish and other aquatic animals in the
rivers and seas.

2.3.3 OVERPOPULATION AND POLLUTION

The population across the globe has been growing rapidly which is aggravating the
environmental problems for Earth. Overpopulation leads to environmental pollution, global
warming, loss of habitat, and other forms of negative environmental impacts. There have
been several steps that have been taken to ensure a better life for human beings but
overpopulation makes the task more complex and challenging. Overpopulation has resulted
in:

• Food Shortage
• High levels of pollution
• Increase in health problems and Diseases
• Price hike
• High unemployment

With the rise in population, there needs to be an increase in food production, the
population far exceeds the number of people to be fed. If the food production is not able to
match the rising population, then it will lead to a shortage of food, increase hunger and
deprivation. This would invariably lead to several problems with an increase in
unemployment, health care issues, and overcrowding. The large population forces farmers
to increase agricultural yield. Growing crops in a short time are associated with a slew of
issues and challenges. It requires the process of intensive farming and, for that, new areas
are created through deforestation which again creates varied problems. People depend on
using chemical fertilizers, mechanization, pesticides for the process of farming which can
lead to depletion and soil erosion.

The rise in population can have the following effects:

• Loss of freshwater: It is said that 75% of our planet is covered with water out of
which 97.5% of that water is in the ocean. We have only 2.5% freshwater. Most of
 the freshwater is divided into glaciers and is frozen as ice caps and the remaining
30% of the water on land is from the rivers, lakes, ponds, and ground. There is only
less than 1% of freshwater on the Earth’s resources thatare available for
consumption. At present, we are using freshwater faster than what it can replenish.,
In some developing regions in the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%
and slowly people will be moving into areas of acute water shortage.
• The lower expectancy of life: In countries where there are good medical facilities,
people would be living a healthy life. But, in underdeveloped countries,
overpopulation leads to a higher mortality rate and lesser life expectancy due to the
shortage of goods, medical facilities, and poverty. Many African and Asian countries
will soon over the year experience a degradation in their quality of life due to the
growing population. There would be difficulty in supplying food, health care, housing
facilities, and more to the population. It would indirectly affect the economic growth
of the country.
• Extinction of plants and animals:Rapid urbanization is hampering the flora and
fauna throughout the globe. The animals are deprived of their natural habitat and
native plants are being wiped off. A lot of animal species are slowly becoming extinct
due to changes in the climate. The animal species, especially in cold regions are
facing the brunt. According to some scientists in a few years to come there would be
more than half of the plant and animal species on our planet will become extinct.
• Depletion of natural resources and soil depletion: As the population is increasing
there is an increase in the consumption of freshwater, fossil fuels, forests, and other
natural resources. There are more intensive farming practices that are on the rise.
Increasing the planting of crops and trees in large numbers can lead to soil depletion
and loss of soil nutrition. Depletion of the soil’s natural resources and growth of the
human population would make it difficult to continue farming in those areas. The
creation of new farmlands would result in deforestation of the forest areas for
growing populations in the area.
• Climate Change: Due to climatic changes, there would be a massive threat to the
ecology and biodiversity of our planet. The climatic changes may happen owing to
the generation of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere. Overpopulation is
 altering the environment, which is changing weather patterns, leading to hurricanes,
wildfires, floods, landslides, and many more disasters which threaten life and
property over the years.

2.3.4 RAPID INDUSTRIALISATION AND POLLUTION

The rise in economic development in a country leads to better opportunities in terms of jobs
and employment for people with improved living conditions. Industrial development has
been creating more jobs, but it has also negative effects on the environment in terms of
industrial pollution. It is necessary to have effective and adequate control measures to
ensure that the effect of pollution is reduced on the environment. On the other hand, it is
important to ensure that industrial units do not cause much pollution.

There is important know-how of technology and other kinds of support that are available
keeping these issues in mind to take care of the fumes, smoke, and other toxic gases that
pollute the environment. These gases act as hazards and, at the same time, they spoil the
ecology and the environment by emitting these gases. Even though a lot of industrial units
have adopted the latest technologies to control the level of pollution, even then there is a
need to relook at strategies that can bring down the level of pollutants in the air.

Water pollution is also a major problem in these areas where the rivers and lakes near the
factories have high levels of pollution. The plants and factories which are close to the water
supply have toxins that enter the water supply in the form of solid, liquid, or gas, and these
gases contaminate the water. In several countries, industrial waste is dumped into various
waterways Soil contamination is another major problem of industrialization which is due to
manufacturing plants, mining, and other forms of wastes from the factories. Lots of metal
and toxic chemicals combine with the soil and can harm the crops and farming that takes
place there.

The process of industrialization has led to a reduction of biodiversity, the ecosystem being
destroyed by rapid industrialization. It has led to the destruction of habitat when the forests
are cut down for their wood and roads are made, pits and other structures have led to the
destruction of the ecosystems. This destruction of the ecosystem has led to the extinction of
animals and plants from their natural habitat.

2.4 CONTROL OF POLLUTION

It is necessary to control pollution by the process of reducing or eliminating the release of

pollutants into the environment, such as water, air, and land. It is important to plan on what
and how much controls are needed and how much control should be adopted. The methods
of pollution control are monitored by different regulated agencies that monitor the
pollution in the environment and establish a set of metrics for the discharging of pollutants
within the environment.

Several systems and processes have been developed and adopted to control air and water
pollution, and solid wastes. Several strategies need to be adopted with certain regulations
laid out by the government for allocating pollution reduction responsibilities efficiently
among industries and firms. Applying various methods of pollution control has shown a
good amount of effectiveness in controlling pollution problems. By using effective
technologies and systematically analyzing the sources and the nature of emission and its
effect on the ecosystem needs to have appropriate methods of mitigating and monitoring
the impact of the emission.

Pollution control has become an important part of the process of industrialization and
companies today are aware of the need for controlling pollution. Some appropriate laws
and regulations have been passed by the government for restricting and regulating pollution
for the industries. It has been made mandatory for the industrial units to adopt these
measures for controlling the level of pollution control and waste reduction. Waste reduction
also entails various pollution control regulations for environmental protection.

2.4.1 METHODS TO CONTROL POLLUTION

Pollution is a major global concern for the countries and it is necessary to control because
pollution has negative effects on a person’s health and the environment. The causes of
environmental pollution are air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, etc. Every
individual should be responsible for implementing different environmental protection
programs and accordingly cooperate and participate actively in making the atmosphere
pollution-free. There are various methods and equipment that are used to monitor air
quality for assessing the potential pollution problems so that effective methods of control
and prevention can be evaluated.

According to Wangari Maathai, if we heal the earth, we heal ourselves.

Controlling air pollution can be done with the help of two methods where it is possible to
control the emission of particulate and by controlling the gaseous emissions. The use of
filtrates, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, cyclone collectors, and many kinds of
equipment are used for bringing down the emissions of particulate matter utilizing
separating them physically from the air.

The gaseous emissions can also be controlled by using the tools for controlling the
particulate matter which includes scrubbers, incinerators, adsorption systems, and
condensers.Water pollution control methods involve methods of physical treatment for the
processes which depend on physical forces for helping in the removal of pollutants. The
process can be divided into biological, physical, and chemical methods of treatment. Many
water treatment methods make use of a combination of any three methods for reducing
pollution from the water. The methods of filtration, sedimentation, screening, and
floatation are used to remove the water pollutants by separating the solid particles from
water. There are methods of chemical treatment which are done for controlling water
pollution, by adding chemicals and which enable chemical reactions to remove the water
pollutants of toxic substances and compounds. This process removes metals and
phosphorus from the flow of water.

There are other methods of eliminating solid waste by the process of incineration,
landfilling, and by the method of composting. Methods of sanitary landfills are done by
spreading the waste into layers which are separated by a thin layer of soil. Various aerobic
and anaerobic microorganisms help break down the biodegradable substances in the landfill
which eventually produce methane and carbon monoxide gas. In the incineration process,
the waste is put into large furnaces and burned up. These methods help in controlling
pollution from the environment.
2.4.2 STEPS WERE TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT TO CONTROL POLLUTION

Pollution is a major concern for cities and towns. The polluted environment is the major
cause of health problems due to the introduction of contaminants into the environment
through air, water, and soil.

Several initiatives have been taken by the government to address the problems related to
vehicular, water, industrial, and air pollution.

The important steps that have been initiated by the government for controlling pollution
include the following:

• The government introduced the notification of National Ambient Air Quality

Standards with the formulation of different regulations and statutes for taking care
of the environment.
• The government introduced alternative fuels which are cleaner and better like
gaseous fuel of CHG, LPG blend of ethanol for assessing and monitoring the quality
of air.
• The government launched the National Air Quality Index for promoting better and
cleaner production processes.
• The government introduced various methods of taxing polluting vehicles and
incentivizing hybrid and electric vehicles.
• The government implemented rules and regulations for monitoring the management
of waste. It would include the managing of hazardous substances, municipal waste,
plastic waste, bio-medical waste, and more.
• The government bannedthe burning of leaves, biomass, municipal solid waste and
issued notification of the Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules.
• The government promoted the public transport network of buses, metro, e-
rickshaws, carpooling, lane discipline, vehicle maintenance, etc.
• The government introduced new standards for the prevention and control of
pollution from factories and industries.
• The government held regular coordination meetings at the government level and
with other State Governments and issued the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,
 and under Section 18(1)(b) of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• The government prepared an action plan for sewage management and restoration of
water quality in aquatic resources by State Governments and installation of online
monitoring devices by major industries.
• The government implemented National River Conservation Plan for taking care of
pollution in identified stretches of various rivers.
• The government built better facilities of drainage systems with low-cost sanitation
facilities plants for sewage treatment plants.
• The government held awareness and education programs for people with equal
community participation.

2.4.3 ROLE PLAYED BY VARIOUS ORGANISATIONS TO CONTROL POLLUTION

There are several campaigns run by many people and organizations to spread awareness
about hygiene and sanitation. Many NGOs are supporting the government in the endeavor
of creating the Swachh Bharat Mission. With the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, there has been
covering many waste management programs, air pollution, ban on plastics, Clean Ganga
Project, and marine pollution projects across the country.

The various NGOs formed to control pollution are as follows:

• Green Yatra, the Dream of Planting Trees: Green Yatra is an NGO that was started in
2010 and is based in Mumbai. Its main objective is to have a good environment and a
better world. One of its initiatives is to plant as many trees as possible under
• the slogan of ‘Penh Lagao’ (Plant Trees). All over India, it planted a number of trees
on behalf of individuals and corporations. It aims at planting about 10 crore trees by
2025.
• Swechha, an NGO, in Delhi: Swechha is one of the oldest NGO organizations that is
working for the cause of increasing the green cover in New Delhi. In 2000, it had
started with its campaign of ‘We for Yamuna’ which was an initiative by Vimlendu
Jha. It plants around 5,000-7,000 trees every year which has a survival rate of 90%.
 • IAmGurgaon: This was an initiative started by a resident of Gurugram LatikaThukral
in 2009. IAmGurgaon is an initiative for the citizens, where citizens have taken
responsibility for making Gurugram a better place to live in. The office corporates,
citizens, and municipal corporations have gathered a team of volunteers to clean up
the waste-dumping grounds and give it a green makeover. The Aravalli Biodiversity
Park that was barren land used for mining has been changed into a beautiful park
with over 1.2 lakh trees by the IAmGurgaon’s initiative.

Various other initiatives taken by organizations are:

• The use of suitable gadgets for automobile exhaust system which will reduce
pollution along with reducing the consumption of fuel.
• The industry-generated pollutants must be reduced before they move into the
environment. This can be done by using the proper equipment for treating waste
and bringing down pollutants.
• There are many industries that are using high technology equipment to collect the
dust and convert the same into saleable goods. There are some which produce the
waste which could be converted into useful byproducts; for example, the process of
converting ‘gobar gas’ into energy.
• There are certain metal oxides and metals which can be absorbed by the bark of
certain trees and this helps keep the environment clean.
• There are further treatments for odorous and polluted air, reducing noise pollution
for providing cleaner fuels for the manufacture of smokeless coal.

2.5 NUCLEAR HAZARDS

When the environment is exposed to radioactive pollution, there is a risk or danger to

human health due to radiation exposure. Radioactive pollution is released in the
environment and, in some cases, radioactive pollution gets dispersed or enters the living
organisms through the food chain. Apart from many naturally occurring radioisotopes, a lot
of radioactive pollutants are generated by the activities of nuclear power plants for the
manufacture of nuclear weapons and testing of the atomic bomb.
Uranium mineworkers, the staff at nuclear power plants, and other occupants get exposed
to radioactive substances. These exposures can result in mutation, cancer, and
teratogenesis. The nuclear hazard effects can last for days or years and cause death. In case
there is a nuclear blast or leak in radiation, it causes damage to the eardrums, lungs, and
other forms of causes which can result in injury or death.

Various sources of radioactivity are both natural and manmade. The natural sources and
manmade sources of radioactivity are:

• By cosmic rays of the outer space

• By emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth’s crust
• By mining and processing radioactive ores
• By use of radioactive materials in power plants
• By medical technology, there is the use of X-ray machines with radioactive isotopes
• By the process of research when there are radioactive fallouts during nuclear
weapons’ testing
• By any kinds of leaks or accidents taking place in the nuclear power plants
• By radiation during the conduction of nuclear tests under the ground or oceans

2.5.1 MEANING AND REASONS FOR NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Many radioactive substances are present in nature. Radioactive pollution is the release of
radioactive substances or high-energy particles into the air-water, or earth due to human
activities or by accident. There are times when the natural sources of radioactivity and gas
are emitted from beneath the earth. These are considered pollutants when they become a
threat to human health. The different sources of radioactive wastes are:

• Through natural sources: Solar radiation, radionuclide in the earth’s crust, internal
radiation, and environmental radiation.
• Human activities: The sources of human activities include testing of a nuclear
weapon, the nuclear fuel cycle of mining and separation, producing of nuclear
materials for use in nuclear power plants, and accidental release of radioactive
material from nuclear plants.
Even a small amount of radiation exposure can lead to serious biological problems. There
are many forms of radioactive wastes that remain toxic for a long time. Radioactive
pollution is a serious environmental concern. The faster this pollution decays, the more
radioactive it will be. The radioactive substance gives out radiation that causes genetic
damage. This induces mutations by affecting genes and chromosomes. The damage is often
seen in children and can be transmitted to many generations. There are other forms of
damage which include burns, miscarriages, eye cataracts, cancer of the bone, thyroid, etc.

The effect of radiation is felt when the radioisotopes enter the environment during the
mining of uranium. These radioactive pollutants can enter the earth’s crust as the crops
grow on the farm and ultimately affect human beings. The radionuclides enter the water
bodies or the groundwater coming in contact with the contaminated soil or rock. A good
example of this is the case of human mercury poisoning which happened forty years ago in
the Minamata Bay in Japan. When leftover mercury was dumped into the Minamata Bay, it
harmed millions of people and the aquatic animals in Japan. Mercury had entered into the
tissues of the fish and other sea animals. The contaminated fish and other aquatic animals
affected millions of people in Japan. This taught the entire world an important lesson about
the dangers of mercury poisoning.

2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is a method of collecting and handling solid waste by treating it
through processes. Waste management deals with the processes of waste and using it as a
valuable resource. Certain solid waste can also be processed, recycled, and used again as a
solution. The solid waste can come from households, industries, factories, biomedical units,
agriculture, municipal services, and manufacturing units which are either recycled or
disposed of into landfill sites. These sites treat the waste properly so that it does not pollute
the environment and its surroundings. Improper disposal of waste can lead to many
problems which can affect the community and the environment. If the waste is not handled
properly, then the waste starts to rot and becomes decomposed due to improper and
unhygienic conditions. In a few days, it starts to smell and invariably becomes a breeding
ground for germs, insects, and bacteria which lead to a lot of infections and diseases.
When other hazardous wastes, like batteries, pesticides, and other radioactive substances
are mixed with other scrap and burned up, they produce many kinds of toxins and gases
since that can lead to cancer and other kinds of diseases.

2.6.1 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is the method of control, storage, collection, transporting,

processing, and disposing of solid wastes in a manner that helps in taking care of the
environment, public health, conservation, economics, and the aesthetics of the
surroundings. Solid waste refers to the material and content coming from human and
animal activities that are discarded and not required and are considered useless. It is the
waste that is generated from industries, residential areas, biomedical hospitals, and more
places. Waste can be categorized based on it being hazardous as being radioactive,
inflammable, infectious, toxic, or non-toxic content. It could also contain plastic, paper,
glass, and normal organic matter. Whatever may be the content of waste, it should be
collected and managed in a manner that ensures a clean and hygienic environment.
Management of solid waste is an important aspect that needs to be incorporated
systematically in the planning of environmental situations. Solid waste can be classified as:

• Municipal waste
• Hospital waste
• Hazardous waste

Solid waste management is an important aspect of urban area management that includes
planning, administrative and legal functions. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste that
management practices can differ for residential and industrial producers, for urban and
rural areas, and it can lead to unsanitary conditions, which can lead to environmental
pollution and the rising of vector-borne diseases. In the urban and metropolitan cities, the
job of taking care of waste is handled by the local government authorities. On the other
hand, the management of hazardous waste materials is put into generators, depending on
the local or the national authorities.
Below are a few methods of functional components which are used for the waste
management system:

• Generation of waste
• Onsite processing, handling, and storage of waste
• Collection of waste
• Waste transfer and its transportation
• Waste processing and its recovery
• Effective disposal of waste

2.6.2 METHODS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

There are many different kinds of methods used for solid waste management. Some of
these methods are given below:

• Sanitary landfill: This is the most common solid waste disposal method used these
days where the waste is spread out in thin layers. It is well compressed and covered
with soil or thick plastic foam and sand. The landfills are designed in such a manner
that the bottom of the landfill is covered with a liner which is normally made of
many layers of thick plastic and sand so that it protects the groundwater to percolate
down and become contaminated because of leaching. When the landfill is full, it is
covered with layers of sand, clay, topsoil, and gravel so that there is no seepage of
water. Once it is burnt, then the methane which is produced due to decomposition is
collected and burnt for producing heat or electricity. While selecting the landfill site,
it should be above the water table so that there is no interaction with groundwater.
It should be in an area located with clay and silt.
• Incineration: The method of incineration involves burning solid wastes at high
temperatures until the wastes are turned into ashes. Incinerators are units that are
created in a manner with well-insulated material that they do not give off many
amounts of heat when burning solid wastes. A high level of heat is kept in the
furnace for burning the waste. This method of solid waste management can be
handled by individuals, municipalities, and even institutions and it helps in disposing
of the residue of the waste and reduces the volume of waste up to 20% or 30% of its
 volume. Incinerators help convert waste materials into ash, heat, gas, and steam The
converted waste can be used for disposing of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste along
with certain kinds of hazardous waste.
• Recovery and recycling: In some places, waste is recovered and recycled from the
resources and it helps in being used for other purposes. The waste items are
processed and cleaned before they are recycled. This process helps reduce the loss
of energy, and helps with the consumption of new material, and reduces the process
of landfills.
• Composting: There are times when due to a shortage of space in the landfills, the
biodegradable waste which is separated is allowed to decompose and degrade in a
medium made for the purpose. Once the waste is decomposed, then it forms good
quality nutrient-rich and environment-friendly manure from the compost that can be
used for agricultural purposes. It improves the fertility of the soil and is a natural
process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which is
very rich in nutrients. While decomposing the micro-organisms, fungi and bacteria
help convert degradable organic waste into a humus-like substance that is rich in
carbon and nitrogen and is excellent for growing plants. This process helps the soil
cultivate, and it keeps the soil cool in summer and warm in winter. It helps in
controlling the growth of weeds and prevents soil erosion by keeping the soil
covered.
• Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is a method that is used to burn the waste by the method of
chemically decomposing it in excess heat. The solid waste is burnt up under an
excess temperature of 430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gases,
solid residue, and small quantities of liquid along with the solid residue which
contains ash and carbon. This method requires the drying of the soil before the
treatment and when the gases are cooled and the liquid condenses, it produces a
residue and contaminated water. This residue may be hazardous which requires
effective treatment and disposal.

2.7 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

Protecting environmental pollution is an important issue in the modern context. It is

necessary to take proper steps at the national level and also at an individual level. In every
community and society, the role of individuals is required for preventingpollution.
Individuals go through the problem of pollution at their levels. People need to be involved
and put in their efforts that can help bring down the levels of pollution. Therefore, it is
necessary to educate and encourage individuals to prevent pollution by modifying their
lifestyle and living habits which should be healthy for the environment.

There are different ways in which individuals can help in the prevention of pollution. These
are as follows:

• To minimize the usage of resources and prevent the wastage of electricity, since it
helps save the fuel that could be used to produce that electricity, and also help to
prevent pollution.
• To walk or use cycles for small distances instead of motorized vehicles.
• To make use of public transport instead of using personal vehicles
• To connect with friends or colleagues and use pool vehicles for going to the
workplace instead of using personal vehicles
• To get pollution checked regularly for personal vehicles at centers approved
byauthorities
• To prefer products that can be reused and recycled
• To stop using plastic bags and use bags made of jute
• To take part in drives for planting trees for environmental conservation
• To use water resources efficiently and make use of renewable resources by installing
equipment, such as solar heaters and using solar cookers
• To dispose of harmful substances, like batteries, pesticides, cells, etc.
• To make minimum use of refrigerators whenever possible
• To promote and follow family planning for controlling of population
• To avoid listening to loud music
• To be a part of various drives for cleaning of streets and drains
• To inspire and encourage people to help with pollution control by
spreadingawareness
• To participate in various pollution control programs
2.8 KEYWORDS

• Environmental pollution: It refers to the discharge of substances or

energy into the atmosphere, water, or land that can be detrimental to
the ecological balance of the earth.
• Soil contamination: It refers to the degradation of the soil when it loses
its vitality and fertility.
• Incineration: It helps convert waste materials into ash, heat, gas, and
steam. It involves the burning of solid wastes at high temperatures.
• Composting: It is used when the waste is separated and is allowed to
decompose and degrade in a medium. It forms good quality nutrient-rich
manure for plants.
• Pyrolysis: It is another form of chemically decomposing the waste
material by burning it in excess heat.
• Nuclear pollution: It is caused due to the disposal and accidents in
nuclear power reactors, where radioactive materials are released into
the environment.

• Marine pollution:It is caused due to the spillage of oil and the dumping
of waste materials in oceans and seas.
• Onsite sanitation;refers to a sanitation system that collects and treats
excreta and wastewater on the same plot where they are generated.
Examples of onsite sanitation systems are pit latrines and septic tanks.
• Storm drain: It is an infrastructure designed to wash off excess
groundwater and rain from paved streets, footpaths, car parks, roofs,
etc.
 • Circadian rhythm: It is a natural internal process of physical, mental, and
behavioral changes, which controls the sleep-wake cycle and repeats
about every 24 hours.

2.9SUMMARY

Pollution is the act of adding soiled, contaminated,or harmful materials into the
environment, which makes the environment dirty, unsafe,and non-suitable for use.
Today,morethan200millionpeoplearoundtheworldareexposedtotheill-effectof this toxic
pollution. Air, water, soil, noise, etc. are the various types of pollution. Air pollution is
mainly caused due to the release of toxic chemicals and particulate matter into the air.
Water pollution is caused due to the discharge of sewage, untreated wastes, and
chemicals from fertilizersand pesticides from domestic and industrial areas into rivers,
lakes,and other sources of surface water. Soil pollution is caused due to the overuse or
spillage of chemicals into the soil layers. Deforestation is also responsible for the higher
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which isresponsible for global
warming. Nuclear pollution is
causedduetothedisposalandaccidentsinnuclearpowerreactors,whereradioactive materials
are released into theenvironment.

The effects of human activity on the environment are a cause of major concern, and there
are policy frameworks that have been developed and implemented for controlling and
mitigating this impact. Nowadays, society is facing a fast global environmental change on a
large scale that human activities must make an effort for reducing the change and also to
respond to the effects of that change. Environmental pollution is the discharge of
substances or energy into the atmosphere, water, or land that can be detrimental to the
ecological balance of the earth.

There are different sources of pollution and each one has its effect on the environment and
living beings. Pollution may cause damage with a direct impact on the environment and is
not just limited to fossil fuels and carbon emissions. The temperature of the earth is
affected by climate changes due to the greenhouse gases which are released by
automobiles and factories in terms of fossil fuels, and gases released by livestock like
methane, which add to the air pollution. The climatic changes lead to dangerous conditions
due to the air pollutants which affect the environmental conditions and make the condition
of the atmosphere worse with air pollution.

The population across the globe has been growing rapidly which is aggravating the
environmental problems for our planet. Overpopulation leads to environmental pollution,
global warming, loss of habitat, and other forms of negative environmental impacts and
economic issues due to over-farming, deforestation, and water pollution. Industrial
development has been creating more jobs, but it has also negative effects on the
environment in terms of industrial pollution. It is necessary to have effective and adequate
controls to ensure that the effect of pollution is lessened on the environment.

Solid waste management is a method of collecting and handling solid waste by treating it
through processes. Waste management deals with the processes involved in changing it and
using it as a valuable resource. The solid waste can come from households, industries,
factories, biomedical units, agriculture, municipal services, and manufacturing units which
are either recycled or disposed of into landfill sites.
UNIT – 3: URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Discuss the urban problems related to energy

• Describe global warming as a threat to our environment
• Elucidate acid rain and the reasons for acid rain
• Explain the ozone layer depletion as a threat to life
• Explain the methods of rainwater harvesting
• Describe the meaning and the process of rainwater harvesting
• Discuss the importance of rainwater harvesting
• Examine the techniques of rainwater harvesting
• Define watershed management and its methods

Structure

3.1 Urban Problems Related To Energy

3.2 Scarcity of Water
3.2.1 Reasons for The Scarcity of Water
3.2.2 Need for Water Conservation
3.3 Rainwater Harvesting
3.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting Method
3.3.2 Importance of Rainwater Harvesting
3.3.3 Techniques of Rainwater Harvesting
3.4 Watershed Management
3.4.1 Meaning of Watershed Management
3.4.2 Objective & Importance of Watershed Management
3.5 Global Warming
3.5.1 Meaning of Global Warming
3.5.2 Reasons for Global Warming
3.5.3 Global Warming As A Threat To our Environment
3.6 Acid Rain
3.6.1 Meaning of Acid Rain
3.6.2 Reasons for Acid Rain
3.6.3 Acid Rain As A Threat To Life
3.7 Ozone Layer Depletion
3.7.1 Meaning of Ozone Layer Depletion
3.7.2 Reasons For Ozone Layer Depletion
3.7.3 Ozone Layer Depletion As A Threat To Life
3.8 Other Challenges To Our Environment
3.8.1 Nuclear Accidents
3.8.2 Nuclear Holocaust
3.8.3 Resettlement And Rehabilitation of People
3.8.4 Wasteland Reclamation
3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Words

3.1 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

The phenomenon of urbanisation is a global issue. Today, 50 per cent of the world
population living in urban areas are taking a steady stride in most of the developing
countries. The population from the rural areas is slowly shifting to the urban sprawls in
quest of employment and jobs. The increase in urbanisation has led to an increase in the
density of the population living in the cities. The increase in population has occurred due to
the process of urbanisation and the people from rural areas migrate into the urban areas.
The rural population is getting attracted to the cities and town because these places are the
hub of industrialisation and other commercial activities. Therefore, the main reasons behind
urbanisation are:

• Industrialisation
• Socio-economic changes
• Transportation
This rapid increase of population in the urban areas has induced the necessity of managing
the various problems that arise due to various socio-economic factors. This rapid growth of
population within the limited municipal boundary of the urban cities makes it challenging to
make room for residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. Most of the rural population
which lived in the rural areas concentrated on activities that were mainly into agriculture,
development of cottage industries rearing cattle, hunting, fishing, and other activities. It is
the economic growth in the metropolitan cities that increased the commercial activities of
trading, education, industries and many other activities. This has further created major
employment opportunities.

Due to urbanisation, it is a matter of global concern regarding the changes in the

environment as increasing pollution and the exploitation of renewable and other forms of
natural resources. Energy is derived from the various physical and chemical resources
required for running the machine and for making heat and light available.

The energy is produced from fuelwood, cow-dung and other forms of agricultural wastes
have aggravated the situation. For a cohesive management system, there should be
effective methods of energy conservation with the optimum usage of renewable and non-
renewable energy sources. People should conserve energy and look at the methods of using
the solar cooker, solar photovoltaic cells and solar water heaters. The high population and
other problems related to fast-developing urbanisation have several issues that inhibit the
problems in the conservation of energy, which are as follows:

• Lack of awareness
• Careless attitude
• Lack of technical knowledge
• Distortion of market
• Shortage of capital

3.2 SCARCITY OF WATER

Scarcity of water is one of the biggest challenges faced by people since nothing can survive
without water. The amount of safe drinking water is reducing every year because of the
problems in the environment due to global warming, change in climate, droughts and many
other forms of human activities. The continuous growth of population, increasing demand
for agriculture and industrialization have created a demand for more water which is the
major cause of the shortage of water. People are making efforts to collect water by building
reservoirs, dams, creating wells, water harvesting and other groundwater structures. The
scarcity of water affects every economic level and is a threat to the sustainability of natural
resources in the country.

There is more demand for drinking water than its supply. Water scarcity is due to an
increase in the use of freshwater and, secondly, due to the depletion of usable freshwater
resources. The reason for the scarcity of water is the less amount of physical water
resources that can meet the need for water within an area. The other aspect is the
economic water level scarcity which is due to the poor management of the water resources.
This is generally the main cause for a country to experience the scarcity of water. There is a
lack of effective means and methods for providing water in a manner that is accessible and
attainable.

3.2.1 REASONS FOR THE SCARCITY OF WATER

Water scarcity is due to human activities, excess population growth and mismanagement of
water resources. Some of the major reasons for water scarcity are:

• Over usage of water: Water overuse is a major problem that the countries are
dealing with, due to water being overused by humans, animals, industries,
construction, etc.
• Due to pollution and global warming: Due to excessive pollution, the Earth is
getting warmer. There is a rise in the sea levels which is slowly leading towards
natural disasters.
• Lack of efficient water management: There is a lack of effective water management
and distribution of water among human beings, the agriculture sector and
industries. The government needs to work for an effective plan for ensuring the
optimisation of the existing resources of water.
 • Contamination of water: Pollution of water is a major issue for places that do not
have a good drainage system. Pollution can be due to many reasons and it makes it
difficult for people to get a proper supply of freshwater. The release of chemicals
and effluents into rivers, streams and ponds makes them polluted. Sewage and
water drainage into traditional water bodies lead to water contamination and make
it inaccessible for being used.
• Conflict of land and location of water supply: Conflict over an area of land makes it
difficult for people to access the water that is located there. Inaccessible source of
water makes it difficult for people to have a smooth water supply. Especially the
desert areas or places that are secluded may have a scarcity of water.
• Inefficient use of water for agriculture: Agriculture is the main occupation of the
people living in rural areas. They require water for agricultural and irrigation
purposes. The loss of water due to percolation, drainage, evaporation and the
conventional methods which are used for irrigation has led to the major loss of
water.
• Due to drought: A place not getting enough rainfall cannot sustain life without the
supply of fresh water. Places that are under perpetual drought have a major
scarcity of water.
• Lack of water conservation methods: The states must work on conserving water
through the methods of water harvesting and by undertaking operations in large
water bodies that can enhance water storage capacity during monsoon.

3.2.2 NEED FOR WATER CONSERVATION

Water is the most important resource and is needed in our life since our bodies need water
to survive and to function in a normal way. Water is in houses, in the industries and the
generation of electricity. According to the analysis of the World Water Council, the human
population will be growing in the coming years from around 45% to 55% which will put
additional pressure on demand for freshwater. It is said that slowly the world is going to
face a crisis and the demand will outpace the supply of water in the coming years.

Every individual, government, society and industry must find ways to reduce water
consumption. Citizens need to look into the excessive consumption of water seriously and
find ways or methods to use it more wisely. It is important to control the levels of pollution
in freshwater by controlling the excessive usage of pesticides and chemicals. One must look
for alternative methods for using chemical solutions and conserve freshwater.

Lack of water conservation and methods can lead to the following problems:

• Lack of adequate water for drinking water

• Inadequate supply of water will result in hunger
• Water shortage makes it difficult to grow crops
• Shortage of water will lead to diseases and infections
• Lack of water will result in sanitation and hygiene problems

For conserving water, it is important to follow the following methods and implement the
same everywhere:

• People should be educated on the benefits of conserving water.

• Laws and regulations with fines should be determined for preventing water
pollution.
• People should be given information regarding the recycling of rainwater.
• Farmers should adopt farming practices that use less water.
• Preservation of the water catchment areas should be promoted.
• People should take initiatives and contribute funds to the supply of clean water.
especially in areas that face water shortage.

3.3 RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater is one of the purest forms of water since it does not meet soil and rocks. A lot of
pollutants are very often discharged into various water bodies, such as rivers, lakes and
seas, which contaminate the water. The quality of rainwater is influenced by the local
industrial emissions which affect its purity in the area that it falls. The rainwater which is
available in the non-industrial areas is much cleaner and pure. Rainwater is also a
requirement for certain industries that require clean water for manufacturing their
products.
The fast pace of urbanization and the increase in population has increased the gap of supply
and demand for water which has put a lot of pressure on the groundwater and the quality
of surface water. It has become difficult for people to get clean and fresh water. Therefore,
people should be educated and encouraged regarding storing, reusing and recycling water.
It is said that at least 83% of water is used for irrigation purposes in India. Therefore, it is
necessary to find the methods of conserving water from rainfall. This concept can be best
explained by an example of the methods of water conservation that are adopted at
Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. Even though it is a desert region and experiences a little amount of
rainfall, the place is self-sufficient in terms of water. On the other hand, places like
Cherrapunji, receive the highest rainfall in the country and still go through water shortage
due to the lack of methods for water conservation.

People across various places in India have experienced either excess or scarcity of water due
to the geographical location of places or due to varied rainfall. They have managed to
survive and irrigate agricultural fields using conventional methods of water conservation.
The conventional methods are very efficient and help to conserve water. However, they are
not very popular. Some of these conventional methods of water conservation are as follows:

• To conserve water by preventing the process of evaporation

• To use sprinklers and other effective measures for reducing water loss
• To grow hybrid crops that help in conserving water
• To reuse and recycle water for irrigation, gardening and washing cars
• To close the taps on time and prevent the wastage of water
• To focus on contour cultivation and terrace farming to prevent runoff of water
• To avoid the discharge of sewage disposal into natural water resources
• To use the methods of water conservation of rainwater harvesting and
watershed management.

3.3.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING METHOD

The method of rainwater harvesting is becoming very popular especially in urban areas. Due
to the construction of houses and roads in the urban areas, there is very little land left for
the water to collect and soak. In the rural areas, most of the excess water flows into the
rivers and eventually dry up over a period. One must look for ways to hold back the water
where it can be stored and work for rejuvenating the supply of groundwater. The method of
rainwater harvesting is collecting the rainwater on the roofs of the buildings and thereafter
storing it under the ground for later use. This process helps recharge the supply of
groundwater and helps in increasing the water table. Thus, rainwater harvesting can help
conserve water and prevent wastage of running water.

The process of rainwater harvesting is depicted in Figure:

Process of Recycling in Rainwater Harvesting

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/pin/557953841308923554/?lp=true

In several cities, the municipal corporation and the local government are making efforts for
introducing the methods of rainwater harvesting. Several houses are developing structures
for collecting excess water and recycling water. Implementing these methods helps increase
the level of groundwater. The rainwater collected on the rooftops and other places is stored
for later use. The method of rainwater harvesting can be done in the following ways:

• By collecting rainwater on the rooftops

• By collecting the water run-off from local catchments
• By garnering seasonal floodwater from local streams and rivers
• By using materials, like catchments, coarse mesh, conduits and gutters to capture
the running water
The advantages of rainwater harvesting are as follows:

• It helps increase the availability of water.

• It increases the level of the declining water table.
• It is an environment-friendly method of collecting water.
• It improves the quality of groundwater.
• It prevents soil erosion and flooding of water

Rain is the first form of water that is pure. The method of collecting rainwater through
rainwater harvesting helps in the indirect collection of rainwater. The collection of rainwater
revives groundwater which is one of the primary sources of water. The secondary sources of
water include rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans and other forms of groundwater.

Thus, rainwater harvesting helps in the optimum use of water and effectively storing it for
later usage.

Some of the objectives of rainwater harvesting are shown in Figure:

Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting

(Source: https://www.slideshare.net/reddevil04/rainwater-harvesting-and-watershed-
management)

Rainwater harvesting is a method of collecting and storing water for later usage. It refers to
making the optimum use of the water where it falls by conserving it and using it when
required. It a method of collecting rainwater from the surface before it flows onto the
ground. Due to overpopulation and excess usage of water in the urban areas, the supply of
water is unable to meet the excess demand. People have started to dig up tube wells to
obtain groundwater. But this has led to the depletion of the groundwater levels. Therefore,
it is necessary to find ways through the methods to replenish the groundwater by collecting
rainwater through different techniques.

MEANING OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

The term ‘harvesting’ can be defined as collecting things from natural sources. Rainwater
harvesting is a process of collecting clean and pure water as it falls on the roof and is
directed into a suitable point of storage. The scarcity of fresh and clean water is a major
cause of concern, and it is important to store water wisely before it flows or runs off into
the ground. There are many new and better techniques for collecting rainwater, eliminating
its impurities and directing it to the places where it is needed.

The process of rainwater harvesting is required in the following places and situations:

• There is a scarcity of groundwater

• The groundwater is contaminated
• In mountains or rugged terrains
• Places where flooding is common
• There is a risk of intrusion of saltwater
• Places where the population is high
• Places where the prices of electricity and water are rising
• The water is too harsh or polluted

Rainwater harvesting is one of the most effective methods for supplying water during the
time of water scarcity and its demand is increasing with the increase in population.
Rainwater harvesting helps ease and meet the demand for water from normal conventional
sources. Rainwater harvesting helps in the collection and storage of water, which further
helps in meeting the supply requirements of water.

Rainwater harvesting varies with the methods of collection and the purpose it is used for.
The basic usage of rainwater is as follows:
 • For drinking, cooking and for personal use
• For irrigation purposes
• For taking care of the livestock
• For industrial purpose

Rainwater harvesting, according to Wikipedia, is the accumulation and deposition of

rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to run off.

3.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

The fast-changing global climate and population have led to a scarcity of water and gradual
falling of water levels, which is a major concern since it leads to the shortage of usable
water and causes an imbalance in the salinity of the area in the coastal areas. The increase
in industrialization and the dumping of chemical waste into the water bodies have led to
pollution in streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. This problem of water scarcity is a global issue
and needs to be treated with a viable solution since the supply of fresh water cannot be
increased on the planet. Therefore, rainwater harvesting is the best alternative method for
the conservation of water. Rainwater harvesting is an easy and economical method that is
environment-friendly and is becoming popular for eco-conservation and the positive usage
of natural resources.

The quality of rainwater is very important for domestic uses since it is used for drinking and
cooking purposes. Rainwater, when mixed with pollutants, becomes difficult to consume
unless it is treated through various processes for meeting the standards for drinking. The
process of rainwater harvesting in urban and rural areas is of great importance since it helps
in providing sources for supplementing the groundwater levels, increasing the level of
moisture in the soil, mitigating the flood situations and also improving the quality of
groundwater. In homes and residences, the rainwater can be used with proper filtration and
treatment. The importance of rainwater harvesting is given below.

• It is a relatively clean and free source of water.

• It provides a source of water at a place where there is a requirement.
• It can be managed independently.
• It is environment friendly.
 • It helps people become self-sufficient and self-reliant in conserving water resources.
• It helps in cost savings as compared to rising water costs.
• It provides clean and pure water for human consumption after proper treatment.

• It requires low running costs, low operation, maintenance and it is not labour-
intensive.

3.3.3 TECHNIQUES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING:

Rainwater harvesting is an innovative method that is used for channelizing rainwater that
falls on rooftops and is put into a storage system with the help of pipes and storage tanks.
The rainwater falling on the roof of buildings is collected in tanks after assessing the
condition of the site and the pattern of the rainfall. Rooftops should have enough incline for
the water to fall and they should be strong enough to carry the flow of water. Once the
water is stored in the storage tanks, it should be covered to prevent any form of pollution or
breeding of mosquito, and to avoid loss of water due to evaporation and contamination. It is
necessary to regularly maintain and clean the system for rainwater which is collected for
maintaining hygiene. The rainwater harvesting uses the following techniques for collecting
the rainwater:

• Catchment on the roof surface for collecting rainwater

• Storing water with the help of pipes and channels from the rooftops and other
catchment areas
• Washing of roof for cleaning and filtering the system to remove pollutants and
contaminants
• Storage systems for collection and storage of water
• Purification of water through various processes of ozone or UV light
• Method of distribution of rainwater, through small pumps and pressure tanks A
representation of rainwater harvesting is shown in Figure:
 The technique of Rainwater Harvesting
(Source: https://worldwaterreserve.com/rainwater-harvesting/introduction-to-rainwater-
harvesting/)

There are the following two methods which are used for collecting rainwater for the houses:

• Surface runoff rainwater harvesting

• Rooftop rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting in the urban areas is done by collecting rainwater from the rooftops
and other methods to prevent run-off water. It can be prevented through the following
methods:

• Digging a recharge pit

• Making a recharge trench
• Building a tube well
• Creating a recharge well

Rainwater harvesting in rural areas is done by the following methods:

• By adding gully plugs

• By making contour bund
• By creating a gabion structure
• By building a percolation tank
• By constructing a check dam
• By making Nala bunds and cement plugs
 • By creating a recharge shaft
• By building recharge dug wells
• By constructing dykes on the surface and building groundwater dams

3.4 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The term watershed refers to the geographical area through which water flows across the
land and drains into a common source of water, whether a stream, river, lake, or ocean.
Watershed management is an integrated process of implementing the practices of land use
and water management methods for improving the quality of water along with natural
resources. It is a management system that consists of physical and hydrological natural
resources along with human resources which imply the rational use of land and water
resources for optimal production without harming the resources. It involves the managing
of the ground and surface water comprehensively without harming the soil productivity and
water resources. It helps in identifying the various forms of pollution that can affect the
quality of water in the watershed and help in implementing ways to reduce or remove those
pollution sources. These activities have an impact on the quality and quantity of natural
resources. The quality of the resources within the watershed gets affected by various
household activities, agricultural activities and the run-off from the areas of development.
Watershed management helps in controlling the level of pollution in the water and other
natural resources in the watershed.

The watersheds can be classified based on their sizes:

• Micro watersheds: These are small watersheds that can be made between fields and
their size is around a few hectares to about hundreds of hectares of land.
• Small watersheds: These watersheds have a drainage area that consists of a few
thousand hectares of land.
• Large watersheds: These watersheds are normally large watersheds consisting of
river basins.

Watershed management entails the relationship between the use of land, water and soil. It
forms a link between the upstream and the downstream areas. An important aspect of
watershed management is the need for environmental protection while implementing the
process of storing water. Watershed management helps in planning and organizing the use
of land depending upon human needs in an area. It helps in rehabilitating the land which is
degraded by protecting soil and the water resources that help in producing several
products. It helps in enhancing the water quality by protecting the health of the watershed’s
resources. The activities involved with watershed management are as follows:

• To conserve soil and moisture with the help of trenching, creating vegetative
barriers, terracing, etc.
• To plant and sow multiple kinds of shrubs, legumes, grass, trees and other forms of
land development measures
• To encourage natural regeneration
• To promote horticulture and agro-forestry
• To conserve fuelwood and look for its substitution
• To create and encourage awareness amongst the people and increase their
participation

3.4.1 MEANING OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management is the method of utilizing the land that is based on its capability by
taking care of the other resources in the watershed to effectively provide the desired goods
and services by conserving the soil and water resources. It is a method of planning and
organizing techniques for achieving the objective of managing the unproductive land and
working on activities for the benefit of the people. Different stakeholders and the
government are involved in various programs for adopting strategies made for the multi-
resource project of managing the watershed and identifying various resources and the
issues involving the watershed. They coordinate and work on integrated activities for
developing and implementing the plans for the watershed with solutions that are social,
economic, environmentally friendly and sustainable.

A Watershed is an area where there is a flow of water into a storage system or other forms
of water bodies, such as streams, rivers, lakes or oceans. The place, from where the surface
water flows into the water body, is referred to as a watershed or drainage basin. It is a
method of conserving water through the process of watershed management since the
quality and quantity of water are affected by the changes inland due to the process of
agriculture, construction, mining and other forms of activities of human beings. It is a
process of conserving water in a watershed, where the water is collected from rainfall and
other methods of runoff system through the soil. The process of watershed management
helps in maintaining ecological balance by developing the appropriate use of the land with
effective planning, managing the irrigated lands which are fed by rain and preventing soil
erosion. It helps in controlling the use of natural resources by providing sustainable
methods to make optimum use of land.

A representation of watershed management is shown in Figure:

Watershed Management

Soil Preservation/Enhancement
• Erosion
• Structural Status
• Biological

Vegetation
Watershed Preservation/Enhancement
• Bio mass Quantity
Management
• Bio mass Quantity

Water Preservation/Enhancement
• Food Peaks/River flows
• Groundwater Recharge
• Sediment loads
• Pollutants

Watershed Management
(Source: https://www.isprs.org/caravan/documents/Watershed_Lao.pdf)

The forests act as filters and the water is very clean and pure. Mountains play an important
role in preventing soil erosion, but various changes in the forests speed up the flow of water
from the system and reduce the process of filtering. Forests act as a cover and prevent the
erosion of soil. Increasing forest cover is the most effective method for conserving water
through the process of watershed management.

The advantages of planned watershed management include the following:

• It provides a clean quality of water.

• It ensures the beneficial use of water resources.
• It helps in promoting social and economic development.
 • It reduces the risks of natural disasters.
• It gives out higher yields.
• It improves the quality of the soil.
• It helps improve and maintain the biodiversity of flora and fauna.
• It conserves and minimizes the degradation of land.
A pictorial representation of the watershed process is shown in Figure:

Factors

Time Land Cover

Substrate Climate
Topography

Erosion Landforms Base Level

Transportation

Processes

Deposition

Watershed Process
(Source: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=410)

The selection of a watershed for a place depends upon its necessity for selecting the
watershed and the terrain of the slope. The watershed can be managed better in the areas
where there are no undulating mountains or plains and in a simple valley with forest areas.

In hilly areas, the watershed is smaller because of intensive agriculture. Watershed

management with the planned management of natural resources leads to several benefits
in terms of improving livelihood, increase in food production, taking care of the
environment and other issues concerning biodiversity.

Various steps used in watershed planning are as follows:

• To work out base maps for carrying out surveys

• To explore and identify the need of the watershed for the overall development
• To analyses the rainfall characteristics of a place
 • To determine the soil maps and classification of lands according to their capability
for different uses, such as forestry, agriculture and horticulture
• To prepare the inventory needed for the existing land uses
• To assess the pattern of agricultural production patterns and potential markets
• To work on the topographic and hydrologic surveys of the place
• To work on methods for identifying the suitable areas for groundwater development
• To determine a cohesive time-bound plan for the conservation of land and soil,
groundwater recharge, production of agriculture and horticulture, and productive
methods of aforestation
• To work on priorities for implementing the project with an assessment of cost and
social benefits

3.4.2 OBJECTIVE & IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management is a method that is used for protecting the degeneration of land. It
is an interlinked process for getting maximum production out of the land. Watershed
management helps in organizing the utilization of land and water resources for sustained
production while keeping the environment and the natural resources intact. Using the right
technology and effective planning reduces soil erosion. The rainwater can be controlled to
move down the slopes slowly, ensuring optimum infiltration and percolation. The process
starts from the highest point on the watershed and goes down into the lower parts while
taking care of the impact of rain on the soil, creating the contours to remove the excess
pressure and checking the speed at different intervals. Watersheds make good use of the
soil and water resources by supplying clean and fresh water along with controlling any form
of damage due to overflow. Watershed management takes care of the resources which are
interdependent by focusing on the problems of land and water.

The different objectives of watershed management program are:

• To conserve soil and water by controlling runoff of water

• To effectively use the run-off water for a useful purpose
• To conserve and plan the watershed management for increased and sustained
production
 • To enhance the water resources in the watershed
• To check soil erosion and to reduce organic, inorganic and soil pollution
• To help in restoring the deteriorating land
• To control the floods in the downstream areas
• To increase the infiltration of rainwater
• To increase fodder for the livestock
• To recharge the groundwater level, wherever possible.

3.5 GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming refers to the average rise in the temperature of the atmosphere of the
Earth’s surface due to an increase in the heat from the sun. The increased levels of energy
are trapped in the atmosphere which affects the Earth and does not disperse into space.
The trapping of the Earth’s energy by the atmosphere results in the greenhouse effect. This
greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the Earth that leads to climate changes. The
result of global warming has had its impact on the Earth and led to the melting of glaciers,
droughts, rising of sea-levels and heavy rainstorms. The changes in the environment due to
human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels have led to an increase in temperature.
To predict the outcome of global warming is not an easy task. There are so many different
reasons and various natural process that are faced by the researchers. Global warming, in
turn, results in the rise of sea level, heavy rainfall, snow, hailstorms, droughts, etc. Heavy
rains cause to rise river waters which lead to floods in many regions. Global warming has
created an imbalance in the seasonal cycle, some areas witness perennial drought while
some face unseasonable heavy rainfall. Due to global warming, the glaciers and ice on the
mountains are melting at a rapid rate.

These issues have arisen due to increasing the number of industries and the generation of
power that emit harmful gases. The harmful gases have resulted in the heating up of the
Earth. It is observed that the process of global warming is not the same these days as
earlier. At present, an increase in global average temperature is moving at a rapid pace with
an increase in population and economic and agricultural activities compared to the past
10,000 years.
The figure shows the graphical representation of global temperatures of the last 1,700
years:

Global Temperatures in the Last 1,700 Years

Source: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-difference-between-
global-warming-and- climate-change

3.5.1 MEANING OF GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is defined as increasing the average temperature of the Earth that has
resulted in several weather phenomena, such as leading to precipitation and storms. Global
warming is an outcome of human activities that gave rise to greenhouse gases and changes
in the global environment. The changes in temperature of the Earth have led to various
climatic conditions of heavy or inadequate rainfall, drought, winds, snow, rise in sea levels
and more situations across the globe. During the last 100 years, it is seen that the Earth’s
temperature has gone up by a degree. The process of warming takes place maximum at the
poles, Antarctic and the Arctic, and this process will continue.

According to various researchers, the cause of global warming and its effect leads to
changes in the climate. Global warming takes place because of climate change that has
increased the temperature on the surface of the Earth. It also altered the balance of
weather and the ecosystem over a period. The extreme weather conditions lead to an
increase in intensity, frequency and duration of heatwaves, floods, drought, hurricanes,
tornados and more because of changes in temperature and different forms of
precipitations. Global warming is affecting several unfavourable circumstances across the
globe which cause health problems among people all over the globe.

People are planting trees in the surrounding areas of the industries for absorbing the
poisonous gases and other forms of residue materials that are released by the industries.
These trees also can bring down the level of pollution to a certain level. Trees have a
saturation point after which they not able to absorb any more of the polluted matter,
therefore, planting trees is not the permanent solution. Hence, it is important to look at a
possible solution for a long-term basis with proper analysis a study of the various kinds of
technologies and instruments which are used for controlling the pollution levels and
homogeneous global climate.

From the Encyclopaedia of Earth, the phrase ‘global warming’ refers to the documented
historical warming of the Earth’s surface based upon worldwide temperature records that
have been maintained by humans since the 1880s.

3.5.2 REASONS FOR GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is indirectly linked to climate change which modifies the weather
balance and it is directly linked to the increase of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
When the sunlight warms the surface of the Earth, some part of the heat is absorbed by the
earth and the rest is radiated back into the atmosphere. Some of these radiations are
absorbed by the greenhouse gases which warm up the atmosphere. Some of this heat
energy is reflected in the earth which leads to the greenhouse effect. The burning of fossil
fuel, burning of forests, emission from vehicles, agricultural practices add to the carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. It also traps the heat and acts as a
blanket on the Earth’s surface which leads to global warming. The impact of the greenhouse
effect is a natural condition but the increase in the level of greenhouse gases are linked to
various kinds of human activities.

The figure shows the data representing the global greenhouse gas emission:
 Chart Depicting the Greenhouse-gas Emissions
(Source: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data)

The greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere are:

• Water vapour
• Carbon dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Nitrogen oxide
• Chlorofluorocarbons
• Sulphur fluoride
• Methane
• Hydrocarbons
• Water vapour

It has been said that in the last 50 years the increase in the atmosphere of greenhouse gas
concentrations such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and ozone have increased
temperature on the surface of the Earth. The major source that contributes to the
greenhouse effect is the burning of fossil fuels which emit carbon dioxide has the capability
of trapping a lot of heat in the atmosphere in comparison to the other gases.

The chlorofluorocarbons are synthetic compounds which are due to the presence of
industries where it is used for several processes. These have been controlled by the
different regulatory organizations and the international agreements since they have the
capability to destroy the ozone layer.

Therefore, scientists across the world have concluded that the average temperature on the
earth is rising at twice the rate that it was doing about 50 years back. Greenhouse gases play
an important role and are one of the main reasons for global warming.

Global greenhouse gas emission by economic sector is shown in Figure:

Data for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Source: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data

3.5.3 GLOBAL WARMING AS A THREAT TO OUR ENVIRONMENT

The last century has seen the major effect of global warming with an increase in average
temperatures globally. The sea levels are on the rise, the oceans are becoming warm. The
prolonged droughts pose a threat to the crops, the wildlife and the human population. It is
affecting the polar bears in the arctic along with the various other animals across the world
because of the changing climates. The days are getting warmer and warmer with a decrease
in the colder days and nights. Global warming is majorly affecting some parts of the world
which are getting warmer faster than the other parts and this continuing trend makes the
situation worse. The rising temperatures are altering the trend of snowfall and rainfall with
severe storms melting mountain ice and glaciers affect various countries across the world.
Countries should move forward and implement methods of reducing the emission of heat-
trapping gases within the atmosphere which can help to slow down the warming rate
leading to changes in the environment.

At the Earth Summit which was held in Janeiro, there were around 153 nations participated
and all of them signed the convention on climate change to reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. Several summits are being held globally which
are being attended by the president and prime ministers of most of the countries to control
global warming.

According to the United Nations, “Climate change is a global challenge and requires a global
solution. Greenhouse gas emissions have the same impact on the atmosphere whether they
originate in Washington, London or Beijing. Consequently, action by one country to reduce
emissions will do little to slow global warming unless other countries act together.
Ultimately, an effective strategy will require commitments and action by all the major
emitting countries.

The Paris agreement was signed by around 200 countries in 2015 which was to focus on
limiting the global temperature to below 1.5°C. Across the world, the major bio-diversity is
at risk and facing extinction by 2100 because natural habitats are getting destroyed. The salt
balance in the North Atlantic Ocean is getting unbalanced due to the melting of Greenland
ice and polar icecaps. Most of the living organisms on the surface of the Earth are
dependent on the ecosystem and these can be sustained only if the temperatures are
controlled. Humans high dependency on fuel has surged global temperature and it is high
time to look for an alternate environmentally friendly source of energy.

3.6 ACID RAIN

Acid rain is a form of precipitation that is an environmental problem that affects many
countries around the world. Human activities involve the burning of fossil fuels for
electricity to run various appliances such as computers and televisions. Human beings make
use of natural resources and the trees in the forests are cut on a large scale to obtain wood
for building homes. The gases are burnt for running cars, buses, aeroplanes and heating
homes during the cold condition. This burning of fossil fuels and gases results in causing
pollution that releases the harmful substances of pollutants within the environment. The
pollutants in the air generate travels to a certain distance and fall on the ground in the form
of rain or dust which is also called deposition.

Acid rain is formed when the rain comes into contact with pollutants in the air, like carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Acid rain is a form of precipitation that
contains acidic content of nitric acid or sulphuric acid and they fall on the surface of the
earth in a wet form. The presence of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere
is due to the burning of fossil fuels. The pollutants which are released into the atmosphere
mix and react with water, oxygen and other chemicals which form acid rain. When acid rain
falls on the Earth’s surface, it damages plants, soil, pollute the water and affect the animals.
Though acid rain does not burn, it but indirectly harm people. When pollutants react with
other substances, they create ground-level ozone, which affects the health of the people
and make them sick.

3.6.1 MEANING OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain is a form of precipitation that occurs on the surface of the Earth as a result of air
pollution. The burning of fossil fuels, wastes from industries, factories, vehicular emission
and burning of forests add to the pollution in the air. Some of these gases in the
atmosphere react with water vapour in the air and clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids.
The rain that falls on the ground from these clouds is termed acid rain.

Several scientists from various countries started studying the concept of acid rain, and soon
it was recognised as an environmental problem. Acid rain is affecting many countries across
the globe. For example, due to acid rain, there are dead lakes in Scandinavia. In Britain,
freshwater fish are dying. All over the world, aquatic creatures and forests are bearing the
brunt of acid rain. A lot of research is being conducted by scientists on how acid rain affects
birds, animals and human beings.

The important sources of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide in the air are:
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Electric power generators
• Gases from heavy equipment and vehicles
 • Process of manufacturing, oil refineries, and many other industries

Acid rain can be blown by winds to great distances in the atmosphere. They can blow across
the borders between various countries and from one continent to another. The acid rain can
also take the form of snow, mists and dry specks of dust. At times, it may fall large distances
away from the source of pollution. The falling of acid rain can, at times, have a serious
impact on the water, soil, forests and buildings.

Sometimes acidic particles and gases from the air settle on the surface of the earth when
there is a paucity of water vapour or moisture. This phenomenon is referred to as dry
deposition. When these particles are deposited on the Earth’s surface they are transported
by air and wind to form larger particles that can be harmful to human health. When acidic
water flows on the ground, it can even harm the animals and plants.

3.6.2 REASONS FOR ACID RAIN

Human activities and natural resources have a hand in the formation of acid rain. The
burning of fossil fuels results in pollutants that are released into the air. Such pollutants can
reach a higher level of the atmosphere, where they mix with various substances and react
with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form acidic pollutants. When the sulphur and
nitrogen oxides react with water, this causes precipitation in the form of acid rain. Even the
sunlight increases the speed of these reactions. It leads to creating acid in the atmosphere.
The nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide dissolve very fast in the water, and these two can
be carried very far with the help of winds. Normally, there are two kinds of acid depositions
which take place:

• Wet deposition: When the pollutants are blown by the wind to the areas where the
weather is wet, it combines with sulphur and nitrogen oxides. It becomes acidic and
falls to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, mist or sleet. The acidic water flows
on the ground which affects the animals and plants. When acidic water flows into
the rivers, canals or the seas, it affects the aquatic and marine habitats.

• Dry deposition: In certain areas, where the weather is withered, the wind fans the
acidic pollutants in the air. Once the acidic pollutants blend with smoke or dust, they
 settle down in the form of dry particles. When these particles fall on the ground they
land on the trees, houses, vehicles and buildings. These pollutants are then, at times,
washed away from the surface by the rainstorms, winds and the flow of water.

Acid rain is caused by the following sources:

• Natural sources: Wildfires, decaying vegetation and volcanoes are some of the
natural sources which act as agent for acid rain. The volcanoes are a source of major
acidic gases which cause acid rain compared to the other forms of precipitation of
snow, fog, mist and more. Acid rain also affects the health of the people within the
surrounding areas.

• Human activities: Economic activities like factories, industries, power generators,

automobiles, burning of fossil fuels, etc., are the major contributors to chemical gas,
such as sulphur and nitrogen emissions that cause acid rain. The factories and
running of vehicles regularly produce a high level of gaseous emissions daily into the
air. These gases eventually react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen and other
chemicals to form various acidic compounds which result in high amounts of acid
rain.

3.6.3 ACID RAIN AS A THREAT TO LIFE

Acid rain is very harmful to plants, animals and human beings. Acid rain is harmful to plants,
trees and forests since it degrades the nutrients of soil (calcium and magnesium) which are
needed by the plants to survive. Without these nutrients, the plants and trees are exposed
to infections and damaged by insects, snow and rain. Due to acid rain, aluminium goes into
the soil which limits the capacity of retaining water. The plants and trees are damaged
because acid rain prevents the photosynthesis process.

Acidic rain causes health problems in human beings. Polluted air has several harmful
particles, which makes it difficult for people to breathe, and these particles harm the lungs
of the people.
The acidic precipitation flows into lakes, streams, rivers and oceans. The water bodies
become acidic that eventually affect the aquatic animals, plants, phytoplankton and other
creatures.

Many buildings, monuments and statues get damaged due to acidic rain. The chemicals in
the acidic rain react with the materials and make them worn out. Marble structures are
badly affected by acidic precipitation because the presence of sulphur dioxide increases the
rate of corrosion of limestone, sandstone and marble. The Taj Mahal in India is a good
example of the effect of acidic rain.

3.7 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The pollution in the atmosphere is due to the release of gases containing harmful
substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, methyl bromide and nitrogen oxides. These substances led to
the depletion of ozone and resulted in unbalancing the stratospheric ozone layer. The ozone
layer acts as a protection for blocking the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from reaching the
surface of the Earth. Due to various human activities, the ozone layer is slowly getting
destroyed by chemicals and other ozone-depleting substances.

The ozone layer across the globe is getting depleted across various continents and this is
resulting in overexposure to the UV radiation from the sun’s rays. Australia has been
witnessing five to nine percent depletion of the ozone layer which has increased the risk of
overexposure to UV radiations. Longer exposure to UV radiations can lead to cancer of the
skin and damaging the immune system among living beings. It also affects the crops by
reducing their productivity levels which indirectly affects the food chain on the ecosystem.

3.7.1 MEANING OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The ozone layer is a part of the earth’s stratosphere that contains high concentrations of
ozone. It acts as a shield and helps protect the earth from ultraviolet radiations from the
sun’s rays. In chemical terms, it is explained that each ozone molecule contains 3 atoms of
oxygen and is denoted chemically as O3. Around 90% of the ozone is found in the
stratosphere and the remaining 10% is in the troposphere which is the region that happens
to be the closest to the earth. Sometimes, a high concentration of ozone can lead to
irritation in the eye and the mucous membrane.

Ozone is formed through a chemical process that requires sunlight. The formation of ozone
in the stratosphere happens with the breaking down of the oxygen molecule by the process
of ultraviolet radiations from the sun. On the other hand, the ozone in the troposphere is
formed by various chemical reactions due to the gases that come in from various sources of
pollution. The depletion of the ozone layer is leading to the thinning down of the layer of
ozone in the atmosphere due to pollution from industries and other forms of human
activities.

The depletion in the ozone layer is happening due to the release of different chemicals
containing chlorofluorocarbons and other forms of gases that enter the stratosphere after
being emitted and destroy the ozone layer. Due to the number of human activities and
industrial pollution, there is an increase in the amount of ozone in the troposphere and the
amount of ozone in the stratosphere is decreasing where it is needed. The main reason for
the breakdown of the ozone layer is due to chlorofluorocarbons. The polar regions of the
earth are experiencing a much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone.

3.7.2 REASONS FOR OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the atmosphere, which is
due to the presence of chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere. When these atoms
connect with the ozone layer, they destroy the ozone molecules. It is said that one chlorine
can destroy 1,00,000 molecules of ozone which logically means that it is being destroyed
faster than it is being made. On exposure to high ultraviolet rays, some of the compounds
release chlorine and bromine, which leads to depletion of the ozone layer. These
compounds are called Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) which are effective in the
depletion of the ozone layer. The various substances which contribute to the depletion of
ozone layers are chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons and
methyl chloroform. The substances which contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide and
hydro Bromo fluorocarbons. The substance which is present in large quantities is
chlorofluorocarbon which plays the role of a major element in the depletion of the ozone
layer.

The depletion of the ozone layer is a major concern for all the countries globally and it is
connected with many factors. The main reasons responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer are as follows:

• Chlorofluorocarbons: These are released by refrigerators, air-conditioners, soaps,

solvents, spray aerosols and more which are the main cause of ozone depletion. The
ultraviolet radiations break down the molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the
stratosphere. These eventually release chlorine atoms which react with ozone and
destroy it.
• Rocket launching: Releasing of rockets in space, results in a faster depletion of the
ozone layer, than what is happening due to chlorofluorocarbons. This should be
controlled or else there will be a major loss to the ozone layer in the coming years.
• Nitrogenous compounds: Nitrogenous compounds are used in farming and
industrial activities. Nitrogenous compounds, such as urea, amine and guanidine are
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
• Due to natural causes: The stratospheric winds and the sunspots are some of the
natural causes which lead to the depletion of the ozone layer. Even volcanic
eruptions are one of the natural causes of the depletion of the ozone layer.

3.7.3 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION AS A THREAT TO LIFE

In 1987, the countries globally met at the Montreal Protocol on “substances that deplete
the ozone layer”, where a decision was taken to ease out the substances which result in
depleting the ozone layer by the UN member countries. This decision has led the Antarctic
region to recover from the ozone depletion, which is a positive sign that this will also work
in the Northern and the Southern hemispheres in the coming years. Reduction in ozone
layers would mean less protection from the rays of the sun and more exposure to the UV
radiations of the sun on the surface of the earth.

The ozone depletion is the maximum at the South Pole which happens mainly during late
winters and the peak period is in October when the ozone is destroyed in a lot of areas. This
results in the creation of the ozone hole’ which can be seen in the pictures of satellites that
show the Antarctic ozone images. Sometimes, the size of this hole is even bigger than the
continent of Antarctica.

The ozone layer depletion in Antarctica is depicted in Figure:

(Chart Showing the Development of the Size of the Ozone Hole in Antarctica)

(Source: European Environment Agency)

Depletion of the ozone layer leads to the radiation of ultraviolet rays of the sun which are
responsible for several health and environmental problems as mentioned below:

• It leads to skin cancer as exposure to ultraviolet rays can cause this in human beings.
• It damages the eyes and causes major problems of photokeratitis which is referred
to as snow blindness and cataracts.
• It damages the immune system and impairment of immune system.
• It causes faster ageing of the skin, develops rashes and other skin problems.
• It affects the lungs and genetic changes to both humans and animals. People
experience problems such as breathing, asthma and other issues.
• It affects the growth of larvae in the animal kingdom.
• It changes the behaviour and habits of animals.
• It also leads to blindness and retinal damage.
• It stuns plant growth as the UV radiation affects photosynthetic.
 • It changes the flower-bearing capacity of the plant and also the time of flowering.
• It causes damage to marine life as UV ray penetrates the sea through many
kilometres.
• It affects the entire food chain as UV radiation can influence the survival rates of
these microscopic organisms and disturb the total ecosystem.

3.8 OTHER CHALLENGES TO OUR ENVIRONMENT

The climatic changes due to human activities of industrialisation and population growth
have polluted the atmosphere causing more heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere.
The loss of biodiversity is linked to rapid economic growth. To build more space for human
activities, the forests are being trampled and green cover is diminishing. The destruction of
habitat could be due to agriculture, mining, resettlements, forestation and more other
reasons.

There are other conditions of earthquakes, tsunami, nuclear disasters, etc., which have
affected the environment in a major way. The aftermath of radioactive disaster causes
radioactivity over larger areas. In certain local ecosystems, the power plant radiation is
lethally high in areas within a 6-mile radius of the power plant which affects animals and
plants, such as mice and coniferous trees. It affects the health of people and results in
cancer, genetic disorders and even leads to death.

Nuclear accidents result in harming the ozone layer. Due to the explosions, there is a
creation of nitrogen oxides from oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere which depletes the
ozone layer.

3.8.1 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS

Nuclear energy was supposed to be the alternative to fossil fuels, but the benefits of nuclear
energy resulted in several downfalls. Nuclear accidents have caused major loss of life, large-
scale destruction of property, long-term illness for a long period, etc. Various radioactive
fallouts lead to major health problems of genetic disorders, cancer and lead to death.
Nuclear accidents have harmed all forms of life and future generations in the affected areas.
One of the worst nuclear disasters of the world took place in Chernobyl on 26th April 1986.
Chernobyl is situated in the north of the capital city of Ukraine, Kyiv. The disaster happened
when a sudden rush of power during the testing of reactor systems resulted in a massive
explosion and the fire destroyed unit 4. A huge amount of radiation got leaked, which
eventually spread over Europe and the Soviet Union. Due to these radiations, approximately
35 people lost their lives immediately and more than 2,40,000 people had to be relocated.

Some of the major nuclear power plant accidents across the world are as follows:

• Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011)

• Chernobyl disaster (1986)
• Three Mile Island accident (1979)
• SL-1 accident (1961)

Nuclear accidents result in thyroid cancer. It is caused by radioactive iodine which is a

common radioactive material used in reactors. It leads to the loss of white blood cells and
platelets which results in damaging the immune system and can lead to haemorrhaging. It
also causes leukaemia, a type of skin cancer that is caused due to exposure of gamma rays.
Apart from affecting human beings, nuclear accidents result in a major loss of infrastructure
with the destruction of buildings, roads, bridges and more.

3.8.2 NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST

Nuclear holocaust refers to the near destruction of human civilization by nuclear warfare.
The use of nuclear energy in war has had disastrous effects on human beings and the
environment. Hiroshima and Nagasaki incidents are the only examples of using nuclear
power in a war. It led to one of the worst disasters in history in 1945 when the United States
dropped atomic bombs over the towns of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. These two
atomic bombs led to the killing of thousands of people and many thousands were left
injured. It also destroyed everything that was around a long distance. In Hiroshima, around
90,000 people lost their lives and in Nagasaki, around 60,000 to 80,000 people lost their
lives. The effects of the radiation that was emitted from the nuclear bombs are seen even
today in the form of cancer and genetic mutations which affected many other people who
survived the bombing including children.
The use of nuclear weapons leads to the nuclear holocaust and major accidents that destroy
mankind and affect the animals in their habitat. If countries started using these nuclear
weapons, then all humanity would be wiped out from the surface of the Earth. This will lead
the world to the situation of ‘nuclear winter’ which will result in a major drop in the
temperature of the planet and the amount of sunlight received by the Earth would also
reduce. This combination of the lowering of global temperature, lack of food, and the
process of radioactivity leads to a situation of nuclear holocaust, where it is very difficult for
living beings to survive.

Apart from this, another recent nuclear incident was the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
that occurred due to a series of equipment failures. This resulted in nuclear meltdowns and
the release of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. It is the largest
nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster. It was due to a large tsunami following the
Tohuku Earthquake of magnitude 9 that hit the Pacific Ocean on the east of the Japanese
main island.

3.8.3 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE

The growing industrialization and economic growth have resulted in people moving out of
their areas and resettling in different places. There are several natural and man-made
disasters that forced people to move out of their land. Some of the natural disasters are
cyclones, earthquakes, tsunami and floods. These situations lead to the destruction of the
houses of people and render them homeless. It forces them to move out of their homes and
resettle in other places.

Manmade disasters are the industrial incidents that took place in Bhopal due to the leakage
of gas, oil spills, nuclear accidents, leakage of toxic substances and many other reasons.

Some of the reasons for the people to resettle and rehabilitate in other places are as
follows:

• Due to manmade disasters, such as industrial incidents and nuclear accidents

• Searching for better employment opportunities
• Construction of dams, irrigation canals, bridges, flyovers and more
 • Working in energy-related projects, power plants, mining activities, oil refineries, etc.
• Working on agricultural projects
• Conservation of wildlife projects, such as wildlife sanctuaries, parks and wildlife
reserves
• Development of ports and harbours

Problems faced by people during the time of resettlement and rehabilitation are as follows:

• Loss of agricultural lands

• Extinction of certain indigenous populations
• Loss of forests and other ecological plants and shrubs
• Poor quality of land
• Water facilities
• Loss of means of livelihood
• Other forms of multiple displacements.

3.8.4 WASTELAND RECLAMATION

Wastelands are created due to the loss of vegetation cover which leads to the loss of soil
through erosion. Soil degradation and loss of fertility of soil are the major problems faced by
the country today. Due to the loss of soil fertility, there is a major portion of cultivable land
has gone to waste. It is necessary to safeguard the land because if it is not checked on time,
it will also affect the remaining areas of land. If the problem continues, then it will lead to a
major shortage of food grains, fruits, vegetables, fodder for animals and wood. Therefore, it
is necessary to conserve soil and protect the existing land by reclaiming the depleted
wastelands for a better future. The reclamation and development of wasteland have the
following important objectives:

• For improving the quality and physical structure of the soil.

• For improving the quality of water
• For preventing landslides, flooding and the shifting of soil
• For working on methods for sustaining the land and conserving the biological
resources of the land.
It is necessary to manage the wasteland reclamation programs effectively so that the land
does not revert to its original poor condition. One needs to do a proper study of the
environmental aspects before deciding on a method for the development and reclamation
of wastelands.

The wasteland can be classified into the following three categories:

• Reclaimed easily
• Reclaimed with little difficulty
• Reclaimable with a lot of difficulties

The wastelands which are easily reclaimable can be used for agriculture. The land which can
be reclaimed with little difficulty can be used for agroforestry. The wastelands that are
reclaimed with a lot of difficulties can be used for creating natural ecosystems or can also be
used for forestry.

The agricultural wastelands can be reclaimed, and their fertility can be restored by reducing
the salt content. It can be done with the help of flushing and by the process of leaching. In
these areas, the crops are grown, and compost, urea, gypsum and potash are added to
them. In agroforestry, the land is put through several uses by the planting of crops and
trees. It is an integration of the agricultural system by planting the trees with the crops and
also by managing the livestock. For the forest, the seedlings for the trees are planted in the
soil that contains the original soil with manure and gypsum for the better growth of those
trees. It is seen that the Earth is covered with more than 30% of forests and these forests
act as reserves for biodiversity. They also help in bringing down the level of pollution from
the environment.

3.9 SUMMARY

Water is a valuable and expensive resource. Its availability is limited on the Earth and it is
distributed unevenly. Water resources are used by human beings for many purposes, such
as drinking, cooking, agriculture, and power generation. The continuous growth of
population, increasing demand for agriculture, and industrialization have created a demand
for more water which is the major cause of the shortage of water. People are making efforts
to collect water by building reservoirs and dams and creating wells, water harvesting, and
other groundwater structures. It is necessary for individuals, governments, society and
industries to find ways to reduce water consumption. We need to seriously look into the
excessive consumption of water and find ways and methods to use it more wisely. It is
important to control the level of pollution in freshwater by controlling the excessive usage
of pesticides and chemicals being dumped into freshwater

Getting fresh and clean water has become difficult, which is why, people should be
educated and encouraged concerning storing, reusing, and recycling water. It is said that at
least 83% of water is used for irrigation purposes in India. Therefore, it is necessary to find
methods of conserving water from rainfall which is a source of fresh water so that it is
possible to harvest it. The method of rain harvesting is becoming very popular, especially in
urban areas. Due to the construction of houses and roads in the urban areas, very little land
is left for the water to collect and soak. In the rural areas, most of the excess water flows
into the rivers and eventually dry up over some time. One must look for ways to hold back
the water when the rain stops where it can be stored in the ground and work at recharging
the supply of groundwater.

A Watershed is an area where there is a flow of water into a storage system or other forms
of water bodies, such as streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. The place, from where the
surface water flows into the water body, is referred to as a watershed or drainage basin.
The quality and quantity of water are affected by the changes inland due to the process of
agriculture, construction, mining, and other forms of activities. Using the right technology
and effective planning while taking care of soil erosion, the rainwater can be controlled to
move down the slopes slowly by ensuring optimum infiltration and percolation along with
solving the issue of the pollutants. The process starts from the highest point on the
watershed and goes down into the lower parts while taking care of the impact of rain on the
soil, creating the contours to remove the excess pressure and checking the speed at
different intervals. Watersheds make good use of the soil and water resources by supplying
fresh and clean water along with controlling any form of damage due to overflow

It is an accepted fact that for the last fifty years, the process of global warming is mainly due
to human activities which have resulted in releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
One of the most important features of the changing environment is the process of
degradation that is affecting human beings and the animal kingdom globally. People are
trying to find answers and raising issues on what should be done for combating the problem
of environmental degradation. The urban areas today can boast of having fifty per cent of
the world population living in urban towns, which are taking a steady stride in most of the
developing countries.

The increased levels of energy are trapped in the atmosphere which affects the earth and is
not dispersed into space. The trapping of the Earth’s energy by the atmosphere results in
the greenhouse effect with an increase in the temperature leading to climatic changes. The
result of global warming has had its impact on the earth which has led to the melting of
glaciers, droughts, rising sea levels, and heavy rainstorms. The changes in the environment
due to human activities have led to the trapping of atmospheric gases of burning fossil fuels
which have led to an increase in the temperatures.

Acid rain is formed when the rain comes into contact with pollutants in the air, like carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Acid rain or acid deposition is a form of
precipitation that contains acidic content of nitric acid or sulphuric acid and they fall on the
surface of the earth in a wet form. The presence of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide is
there in the atmosphere due to the burning of burning fossil fuels, which adds more of
these chemicals to the air.

The depletion in the ozone layer is happening due to the release of different chemicals
containing chlorofluorocarbons and other forms of gases that enter the stratosphere after
being emitted and destroy the ozone layer. Due to the number of human activities and
industrial pollution, there is an increase in the amount of ozone in the troposphere, and the
amount of ozone in the stratosphere is decreasing where it is needed. The main reason for
the breakdown of the ozone layer is due to chlorofluorocarbons. There are other conditions
of earthquakes, tsunami, nuclear disasters and more which have affected the environment
in a major way.
3.10 KEYWORDS

• Scarcity of water: It is a situation where the availability of drinking water is less

compared to its demand.
• Water conservation: It is a method used for saving and recycling water for later use.
• Rainwater harvesting: It refers to collecting the rainwater on the roofs of the
buildings and thereafter, storing it under the ground for being used later.
• Watershed management: It is a method that is used for protecting the degeneration
of land. It is also an interlinked process for getting the maximum production out of
the land.
• Gully plugs: It refers to a small water body structure in the form of dams for
reducing the speed of water flow and collecting the water.
• Deposition: It refers to the pollutants in the air that generate due to the burning of
fossil fuels. When the pollutants travel to a certain distance and fall on the ground in
the form of rain or dust is called deposition.
• Acid Rain: It is a form of precipitation that contains acidic content of nitric acid or
sulphuric acid.
• Holocaust: It is a form of destructive nuclear energy in the form of bombs or gas that
wipes out the cities by killing people.
• Ozone: It is a form of gas in the stratosphere that protects the earth from ultraviolet
radiation.
• Wasteland: They are created due to the degradation of land and loss of fertility of
the soil.
Unit 4: Environmental Legislation & Environment Protection Acts

Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain the meaning of environmental legislation

• Discuss the Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1981
• Describe the major highlights of the Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act
• Describe the Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974
• Describe the Environment Protection Act, 1986
• Discuss the objectives of the Environment Protection Act and major highlights of the
Environment Protection Act
• Discuss the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Forest Conservation Act, 1980
• Elucidate the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

Structure

4.1 Meaning of Environmental Legislation

4.1.1 Importance of Environmental Legislation.
4.1.2 Objectives of Environmental Legislation
4.2 Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act,1981
4.2.1 Objectives of Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act
4.2.2 Major Highlights of Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act
4.3 Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act,1974
4.3.1 Objectives of Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act
4.3.2 Major Highlights of Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act
4.4 Environment Protection Act,1986
4.4.1 Objectives of Environment Protection Act
4.4.2 Major Highlights of Environment Protection Act
4.5 Wildlife Protection Act,1972
4.5.1 Objectives of Wildlife Protection Act
4.6 Forest Protection Act,1980
4.6.1 Objectives of Forest Conservation Act
4.6.2 Major Highlights of Forest Conservation Act
4.7 National Green Tribunal Act,2010
4.7.1 Objectives of The National Green Tribunal Act
4.7.2 Major Highlights of National Green Tribunal Act
4.8 Understanding Environmental Ethics
4.8.1 Meaning of Environmental Ethics
4.8.2 Need And Importance of Environmental Ethics
4.8.3 Environmental Ethics In India
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Words

4.1 MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Environmental legislation is a set of laws that are needed for protecting the environment
and creating a healthy place for the people to live in. Environmental legislation is needed for
taking care of the environment and preventing its misuse. Also, it protects the environment
from harmful pollutants. It helps in preventing over-exploitation of natural resources,
destructive methods of pollution, use of chemicals and hazardous substances,
deforestation, poaching, and so many other issues which impact the environment and
creates unhealthy situations. To protect the environment from illegal practices, urbanization
and the growing population require environmental laws and regulations for safeguarding
the environment.

Environmental legislation is needed for addressing and protecting the natural environment,
wildlife, forests, lakes, and rivers. Even the constitution of India has emphasized the need
for conserving the environment and protecting natural resources.

Environmental legislation is needed for protecting the environment in the following

manner:
 • Improving the quality of water: Environmental laws are needed to handle problems
like treating surface water run-off and wastewater along with laws for determining
the pollution of water and water management.

• Proper waste management: All kinds of wastes, such as bio-medical waste,

municipal waste is hazardous. Therefore, it is important to manage waste.

• Cleaning of contaminant: Effective measures and policies for handling levels of

pollution and cleaning of contaminants are needed. Also, regulations and effective
penalties and punishment should be determined for protecting the environment
from pollution.

• Regulation for managing chemicals: Effective methods and safety regulations are
needed regarding hazardous substances and chemicals, such as pesticides, oil spills,
or other kinds of substances.

• Prohibition on poaching, hunting, and fishing: Environmental laws may regulate and
protect the wildlife population. The government regulates poaching and hunting
through the licensing policy.

4.1.1 Importance of environmental legislation.

The importance of environmental legislation is needed for protecting the environment from
being exploited and for ensuring that it is well conserved for all living beings. The laws for
the environment provide a guideline for creating environmental awareness and policies and
ensure that humans do not degrade the environment. Environmental legislation requires
safeguarding the environment and conserve it for the future. Various public organizations
take care of the environment and facilities to implement the rules that ensure the
conservation of the environment. Environmental laws ensure the rules related to the
environment are obeyed and fix punishment for those who disobey the laws and harm the
environment.

Many countries have formed their laws and regulations to address the environmental issues
and protect the environment along with balance human development with environmental
conservation. There are several environmental issues and concerns regarding the protection
of forests, animals, and wildlife, prevent global climate changes, and provide aid for various
environmental development programs

The importance of environmental laws are as follows:

• Protecting the environment and human health: Environmental pollution hurts the
health of people. The important function of environmental legislation is taking care
of the environment and the protection of human health. There should be strict
penalties and punishments for polluting the environment with harmful pesticides
and chemicals.

• Effective waste management: It is necessary to establish effective and environment-

friendly waste management methods. Waste management helps in protecting the
environment. Environmental legislation is needed to ensure that waste is managed
effectively, and does not harm the environment. A set of methods and procedures
are required for the disposal of wastes.

• Regulations for manufacturing industries: The environmental laws set the

regulations and standards that monitor industries and factories so that they meet all
the regulations that are needed for conserving the environment. Industrial pollution
and waste from factories should be checked and controlled through the effective
implementation of laws for protecting the environment and ensure that the
industries obey these laws.

• Protection of the environmental officers: The countries must protect the

environmental officers so that they can execute their work effectively. They should
have the power and authority to work without any interference from the people and
implement certain regulations whenever required.

4.1.2 Objectives of environmental legislation

The objective of environmental legislation is to protect the environment from pollution and
preserve it for the future. Environmental legislation consists of various regulations and laws
that are needed to regulate the environment with the interaction of human beings in their
natural and clean surroundings. Environmental legislations are required for controlling the
level of pollution and degradation of land. There are several national and international
policies and laws that are part of the conventions, treaties, and regulations. The
manufacturing and production companies need to comply with the environmental
regulations for meeting the legal obligations which need to be followed for protecting the
environment.

The objectives of environmental legislation and laws are as follows:

• To protect and improve the conditions of the environment

• To ensure the decisions are followed which were taken at the United Nations
conference in Stockholm

• To work with different organizations and agencies for implementing the

environmental regulations

• To determine the laws and regulations in various categories of pollution and

hazardous substances

• To define penalties and punishment for all who are responsible for endangering the
environment in terms of health and safety

• To provide an effective legislative procedure for protecting coastal areas,

ecologically sensitive places and regulating the hazardous substances

• To monitor the compliance of laws

• To ensure that the Government has the total power and authority for protecting and
improving the quality of the environment

• To determine the methods of working with local, national, and international

agencies and organizations for various environment-related issues

• To establish and formulate new regulations and standards for preventing and
controlling pollution

• To facilitate the protection and special powers to the officers and the authority for
defining the laws and policies for the protection of the environment.
4.2 Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act,1981

Industries and factories have added a lot to the pollution in the atmosphere, and it has led
to the deterioration of the quality of air. Many people are losing their health and life due to
heavy air pollution especially in cities.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the capital city of New Delhi is one of
the top ten most polluted cities in the world. Surveys indicate that in New Delhi the
incidence of respiratory diseases due to air pollution is about 12 times the national average.

In 1972, India participated in the conference at the United Nations held in Stockholm, which
was on the Human Environment, where important decisions were taken regarding adopting
appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth. The decisions
were determining the methods for controlling air pollution and the preservation of the
quality of air. In India, the Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1981 was introduced
thereafter. The main objective of the Act was preventing, controlling, and reducing the
levels of air pollution. A pollution control board was appointed with the idea of carrying out
the responsibilities and work for implementing the Act. The main sources of air pollution,
such as industry, vehicles, factories, power plants, and more are not permitted to release
certain levels of pollution. These sources of air pollution contain particulates of sulfur
dioxide, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds, or other forms
of hazardous and toxic substances, which are beyond a certain standard or prescribed level.

4.2.1 Objectives of air prevention & control of pollution Act

The Central Pollution Control Board is the main working authority for the Air Prevention &
Control of Pollution Act, 1981. The important functions of the Central Board are to
implement the policies, legislation, and laws for improving the quality of air and protecting
the environment by controlling the level of air pollution in the country. The responsibility of
the board is to advise the Central Government on situations related to the quality of air. The
Central Board also provides technical help and assistance to the State Board. It
communicates and distributes all the required information concerning the pollution of air
and performs the responsibility as is mentioned in the Act.
States have the State Board which has the authority and power to provide advice to the
State Government regarding any concerns related to environment protection. They have the
power to give orders regarding monitoring and controlling pollution. They have the power
to check and inspect the companies for their manufacturing process, pollution control
equipment, and the industrial plant at any time. The board has strict regulations and
standards for the different industries and plants as per their levels, compositions, and
quality of emissions of pollutants in the atmosphere.

The important provisions under the Act are as follows:

• The State Board establisher a combined approach for countering problems of the
environment. The Air Pollution Act has defined the power and authority of the
Central and State Board. According to the Act, various industries that are operating
within certain areas of air pollution control need to obtain a permit from the State
Board

• The State Government after consulting with the State Board prescribes emission
standards for the automobiles and industry along with making a note of its required
standards of air quality

• The State Board has the power for ensuring compliance with the Act which includes
the power of entry to the premises and for checking and testing of equipment

• The State Board has the power to take the samples to check in the laboratory the
pollution of air or emission from any chimney. It could be any form of dust or fly ash
or any form of pollutant to be checked in a manner that has been prescribed

• In the earlier Acts, the Air Act was enforced and the penalties on violations were
handled through small courts. The amendment of the Act in 1987 has given it more
strength and brought in stiffer penalties for the enforcement machinery

• The State Board has the power to shut down a defaulting industrial plant and they
can also stop its supply of electricity or water

• The amendment of the Act in 1987 has brought in the provision for the citizens in
the Air Act and Act also includes noise pollution
 • The State Board can also apply to the court to restrain industries from emissions that
exceed the prescribed limits

4.2.2 Major highlights of air prevention & control of pollution Act

The Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1981 is comprehensive legislation with more
than fifty sections. It has been included for establishing the provisions for the Central and
State Board and given them the power to declare pollution control areas. The Board has the
power to check the industrial units at any time for controlling the levels of pollution. They
can take samples from industrial units and in case any industrial unit has violated the norms,
then penalties are imposed on that unit.

The State Governments are empowered by the Act to emphasize the areas of air pollution
and to advise the type of fuel to be used in these designated places. According to this Act,
there are some industries, such as petroleum, cement, fertilizers, asbestos, etc., that cannot
be established without the permission of the State Board. The State Government has set up
the Pollution Control Board to measure the level of pollution in the atmosphere and
determine certain methods for testing the quality of air. The main objective of the Pollution
Control Board is to:

• Effectively control and prevent air pollution

• Guide State Government for implementing the Act rightfully

• Confer the power to the member of the Board for effectively implementing the
provisions of the Act and assign the responsibility to Board members to check the
level of pollution.

The quality of air is more affected in areas that have a greater number of industries and a
large population. The Pollution Control Board monitors the levels of pollution and sets
standards that check the pollutants and industrial discharge in every state. If the emission is
beyond a certain limit of the standards laid down by the State Board, then industries are
penalized. The Board has the power to write to the court from restraining persons causing
air pollution. The penalty of ten thousand rupees or imprisonment for three months is the
punishment for not adhering to the Act. Sometimes, it can be both which depends on the
kind of offense. If the offense is not stopped, then the fine gets extended by 5,000 for each
day.

4.3 Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act,1974

The Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 is a comprehensive set of legislation
that manages the Board for checking on various aspects of water pollution. The Boards for
pollution control are at the Centre and the respective States. The Government initiated the
Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 for preventing and controlling water
pollution in India.

The Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 defines the function of the respective
State Board for taking care of and preventing water pollution. Each State Board is
empowered to formulate plans and programs for the prevention, control of pollution of
streams, rivers, and wells. The State Board has the authority to collect and communicate
information relating to water pollution and conduct investigations and research regarding
problems of water pollution and finding methods for preventing them.

The State Water Board has the power and authority to check and inspect the industries and
factories, works, and plants regarding the sewage or industrial wastes for the treatment of
wastes and various treatments of wastes and trade effluents and to monitor different water
purification plants. The Board can determine the laboratory or laboratories for checking the
sample anytime and for enabling the Board to perform its functions under this section
effectively. The Board can collect the samples of water from any stream or well or of
samples of any sewage or trade effluents and end them to the laboratory for being checked
for the levels of pollution.

4.3.1 Objectives of Water prevention & control of pollution act

The Central Board advises the Central Government and State Governments on various
matters that are needed for the prevention and control of water pollution.

It helps in providing technical assistance and guides various activities with various Boards
and agencies. The Board can restrict any industry or company and take samples of the
effluents at any time and these samples checked in the State or Centre’s laboratories. If they
fail to meet the set standards, then they are liable for punishment and penalties. The Act
sets the standards and penalties for non-compliance for polluting bodies.

The water is distinguished under various classes depending on the level of water pollution
following the Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 which are mentioned
below:

• Class A: Drinking water without any kind of treatment found at source after
disinfection

• Class B: Water which can be used for outdoor bathing

• Class C: Any source of drinking water that has been treated conventionally

• Class D: Water which is designated and used for propagation of wildlife and fisheries

• Class E: Water which is used for industrial and irrigation purposes along with waste
disposal

The main objectives of the Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 are:

• To establish Pollution Control Board under the Act which has the responsibility of
implementing various provisions.

• To regulate the Central Board to advise the Government on matters concerning the
prevention and control of water pollution

• To help the Central Board to coordinate the State Boards and to resolve any form of
disputes between them

• To determine strict penalties for the discharge of sewage or pollutants into water
bodies which include various, streams, lakes, rivers, or wells

• To maintain and restore aquatic resources

 • To ensure that the companies or industries who fail to abide by the laws as
mentioned in the Act are liable for imprisonment which could be for more than a
year, going up to six years along with monetary fines

• To facilitate the Central Board for acting like a guide for the State Board and give
them technical advice on various researches regarding the problems concerned with
pollution of water

• To encourage the prevention and control of water pollution by organizing various

forms of training programs for the people

• To collect and communicate information based on technical and statistical data

• To help Board in preparing the guides, manuals, and codes relating to treatment and
disposal of sewage and trade effluents and communicate information connected
with the process

• To facilitate Board to specify, modify or annul standards required for the rivers,
streams, or wells in consultation with the State Government.

• To do planning for executing programs nationally for the prevention and control of
water pollution

• To help Board to perform other functions as mentioned in the Water Act, 1974.

4.3.2 Major highlights of Water prevention & control of pollution Act

The Water Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1974 has been formulated by the
Government of India for preventing and controlling water pollution by the households,
industries, and agriculture that can contaminate our water sources. The high level of
pollutants and the wastewater which flows into the lakes, rivers, streams, and wells can
result in major health hazards. There are various methods of controlling the levels of
pollution by monitoring and controlling the point sources of different pollutants and by
punishing the polluter.
People must take different steps in reducing the level of water pollution by reducing the use
of pesticides, by using biodegradable chemicals for use in households, and by effectively
identifying the sources of pollution at workplaces and in industrial units.

The Central Governments and State Governments have set up methods for monitoring
water pollution, and to assess pollution levels, and punish offensive polluters.

The Board is empowered in the following manner to take action:

• Government organizations or non-Government organizations to take the permission

of the State Board for the discharge of sewage.

• Board is empowered to take emergency measures regarding discharging any

poisonous or hazardous substance for polluting the water.

• Board has the power to penalize the offenders and issue fines for preventing and
controlling pollution.

4.4 Environment Protection Act,1986

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 is a complete set of legislation which is made for
providing a framework by the Government for coordinating different activities of various
Central and State Boards and agencies defined in the previous Acts, such as the Water Act
and the Air Act for taking care of the environment. One of the worst disasters in history was
the Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India. It was an eye-opener for the Government to formulate
stronger policies, laws, norms, and acts for ensuring that these terrible incidents do not
happen again in India. The Government of India formulated the Environment Protection Act,
1986 for the protection and conservation of the environment.

The Act was mainly formulated after the impact of the Bhopal gas tragedy and for the
decisions made by India at the United Nations Conference in Stockholm in 1972 on Human
Environment. 122 nations took part in the conference that passed the Stockholm
Declaration. The declaration consisted of 26 principles that focused on the development of
the environment, and the importance of human activities in the environment. The main
objective of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 is to improve and protect the human
environment. The Act lays down the important activities that are needed to prevent hazards
from happening and causing damage to ecology and biodiversity.

In this Act, the focus has been given to the environment which includes water, air, and land.
It emphasizes the inter-relationship which is there between water, air and land, and all the
living beings. Environmental pollution relates to the presence of pollutants in water or air in
the form of solid, liquid, or gas which could be present in them leading further to harming
the environment. The hazardous and toxic substances can include any substance which may
cause harm to human beings, animals, plants, property, or the environment. In India, the
Environment Protection Act has defined certain areas which are considered restricted areas
due to the ecological sensitivity, such as Doon Valley in Uttarakhand, the Aravalli Regions in
Rajasthan, and various coastal zones.

4.4.1 Objectives of environment protection act

The Environment Protection Act provides the power to the Central Government for taking
reasonable and valid steps for the protection and improvement of the quality of the
environment. It defines the standards for the quality as per the standards of the
environment, which are taken for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental
pollution. There are restrictions to be applied in any of the industries, processes for the
prevention, controlling, and abatement of environmental pollution. The Government has
the responsibility of defining the procedures for safeguarding the environment and the
prevention of inevitable accidents which may result in more environmental pollution.

Both the Central and State Boards have the power and authority to inspect different
premises, equipment, material, and substances for the prevention and control of
environmental pollution. The Central Government has the powers designated by the Act by
which they can issue the directions in writing to any of the persons or any officer and they
are bound to comply with these given directions. The direction could be in terms of closure,
prohibition, or the regulation of any industry due to its operational process or it could be
the stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity and many other forms of services.

The main objectives of the Environment Protection Act are as follows:

 • To protect and improve the quality of air, water, and the environment

• To establish the procedures for preventing and controlling environmental pollution

to prevent hazards to all living beings.

• To empower the Government to safeguard the environment and to define

procedures for the prevention of accidents that cause pollution and other remedial
measures

• To plan and implement programs nationally for the prevention, control, and
abatement of environmental pollution

• To empower the Government with the authority to stop, close, and regulate the
operations of any industry for acts of violation of the standards

• To define various standards needed for improving the quality of the environment

• To empower the Central and State Board officials to inspect the site and collect
samples of air, water, soil, or other material for testing at any time

• To establish procedures for the handling of hazardous substances which are likely to
cause environmental pollution

• To define the restriction of areas in which industry, operations, or processes shall

not be carried out for safeguarding the environment

• To ensure the preparation of manuals, codes or guides, concerning the prevention,

control, and abatement of environmental pollution.

4.4.2 Major highlights of environment protection Act

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 came into force and was extended to the whole
country. The Act consists of four Chapters with 26 Sections that pertain to the roles and
responsibilities of different Governments, Boards, and agencies. The first chapter pertains to
the title of the Act, the definition of the terms that pertain to the Act, jurisdiction, and
extends when the Act has been enacted.
The second chapter emphasizes the power that resides with the Central Government about
the Act. The other chapters refer to the activities and various preventive measures that the
Central Government can take to protect the environment. The Central Government has the
power and authority to appoint officials for ensuring that various tasks of the Environment
Protection Act, 1986 are carried out in the right manner

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 defines the power of the Central Government to act
or give direction for the process of closure of an establishment that violates the rules and
guidelines of the Act. The Act emphasizes the prohibition and regulation industries and
many other activities that need to be followed for ensuring that it protects the environment.
The Central Government has the power and authority to formulate rules and regulations for
administering environmental pollution. The Environment Protection Act, 1986 includes
penalties if there is a violation of any aspect of the Act. The people or industries that fail to
comply with the provision of the act would be punished with imprisonment for a term of
five years or a fine up to one lakh rupees or both. Apart from this, there can be an additional
fine of five thousand rupees per day imposed for the entire period of rule violation.

4.5 Wildlife Protection Act,1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was passed on August 21, 1972, but it got implemented on
9th September 1972. After the Stockholm convention on Environment, the Government of
India responded by formulating an Act for the protection of wildlife which referred to the
terrestrial and aquatic animals and their habitats. Earlier, there was a law for animals called
the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1935. Under this law, there were different
policies for every state and each State Government had a different policy in dealing with the
Act. There was no proper regulation and, as a result, there was major exploitation of forests
and wild animals. As a result, the number of wildlife species started to go down along with a
lot of deforestation.

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was passed by the Government for the protection of wild
animals, birds, and plants and matters connected to the ecological and environmental
security of the country. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and
Kashmir*. The Act constitutes a National Board for Wildlife whose chairperson is the Prime
Minister.

The National Board has the responsibility of promoting the conservation and development
of wildlife and forests. The Act includes the formation of a State Board for the protection of
Wildlife along with advising the State Government in matters concerned with the protection
of wildlife. The Act prohibits and regulates the hunting of wild animals and defines the
protection of specified plants. It also empowers the State Government with extra
responsibilities of handling and taking care of the Sanctuaries, National Parks, and Game
Reserves. The Board has set up a National Tiger Conservation Authority which is concerned
with prohibition and laws for regulating the trading in wild animals, parts of the animals,
and using them as trophies.

4.5.1 Objectives of Wildlife protection Act

Various National Parks and Tiger Reserves are areas prohibited by law which is strictly
protected, and no human activity is allowed for the interest of wildlife conservation. The
Wildlife Protect Act does not allow any form of exploitation of the animals and the forest
produce in both national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The decline of wild animals and
birds in India has been a cause of major concern. There needs to be an improvement in the
protected areas of sanctuaries and national parks for the wild animals to live peacefully.
There are many wild animals and birds which have already become extinct in the country
and many others are also in danger of losing their habitats.

The main objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act are as follows:

• The Act protects wild animals, birds, and plants and ensures the ecological and
environmental security of India

• The Act consists of laws that prohibit the hunting of wild animals, and the use of
animal traps except under certain circumstances

• The Act provides for the protection of hunting rights of the Scheduled Tribes in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• The Act has regulations for the security of animals that are in danger of becoming
extinct

• The Act provides for the license to people for the animals which can be hunted like
the deer and the ducks

• The Act provides for the license to hunters who can shoot during a specific season in
restricted areas. If there are any infringements, these can lead to the cancellation of
their license

• The Act provides for setting up more animal-protected parks and helps for the
cultivation of plants

• The Act provides for the Convention on International Trade in endangered species of
Wild Fauna and Flora

• The Act empowers the officials for enforcing the regulations and laws and to punish
people if found guilty

• It gives power to the Central and State Boards to create areas for sanctuaries and
national park

• The Act defines the terminology of wildlife and provides for the appointment of the
Wildlife Advisory Board

• The Board provides guidelines for framing policies and advising Central and State
Governments on the promotion of wildlife and suggesting measures for
improvement of wildlife conservation

• The Act includes laws for restricting illegal trading and poaching of wild animals

• The Board has the responsibilities of setting up and managing national parks,
sanctuaries, and other protected areas

• The Act provides for regulations and constitution needed for the Central Zoo
Authority

• The Act also provides for the setting up of the National Tiger Conservation Authority
 • The Act establishes different provisions related to trade and penalties for hunting
the animals in the wild

The fast decline of wild animals and birds in India has been a cause of major concern where
some of the wild animals and birds have started to become extinct. Due to heavy poaching
and hunting of animals, certain areas which were once the habitat for the wildlife have
slowly become sparse and devoid and even the wildlife sanctuaries and National Parks have
not been managed well. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

contains many regulations, laws, and procedures for dealing with legal rights in these
protected areas. There are provisions for procedures for the appointment of the Central and
State wildlife authorities and Wildlife Board for managing and protecting animals, plants,
and wildlife. The Act provides laws for the regulation of the trade of wildlife products and
ensures the prevention, detection, and punishment in case of violations of the Wildlife
Protection Act. The legal offenders would be thoroughly investigated and prosecuted
according to the laws of offenses in the court of law by the authorized officers of the forest
department and the legal systems.

The community reserves and conservation reserves are the types of protected areas
mentioned in the Wildlife Protection Act.

These two categories provide an important role for the local communities, and the
opportunity to protect different areas of conservation. The Act prohibits the destruction or
diversion of wildlife from its habitat by any method unless it is for improvement or its
betterment. These decisions are taken by the State Government in consultation with the
National and State Boards for wildlife.

The important points related to Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 are as follows:

• This Act helps prohibit injuring the animals and destroying any part of a wild animal’s
body for selling purposes.

• This Act forbids damaging and disturbing of wild birds and reptiles, and their eggs.
 • This Act prohibits the preservation of dead animals in the form of trophies or making
rugs from their skin and hair, preserving their skins, nails, teeth, horns, eggs, and
more, which is referred to as taxidermy.

• This Act does not allow anyone to hunt birds, reptiles, fish, insects, or any other
animals from their habitat without a legal license or from within the protected areas.

• This Act imposes penalties for the offenders on conviction. The violations of the
regulation entail imprisonment for a period of three to seven years with a fine of
10,000 rupees.

4.6 Forest Protection Act,1980

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 is comprehensive legislation that was needed in the country,
and it helps improve the previous laws regarding forests that existed during the earlier
years. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was established which authorized the Central and
State Boards for identifying the areas for Reserved Forests and the protected areas.

There were certain areas of forests that were put under the control of the village
community, and these were referred to as the village forests. The Forest Conservation Act
extends to the whole of India except for Jammu and Kashmir.

The Act emphasized the laws and regulations needed for protecting the forests from
deforestation and formulate policies for cutting down trees and their utilization in a limited
manner. The main objective was to protect forests along with their ecological conditions by
preserving them for their biological diversity and other forms of genetic resources. The Act
regulates the use of forest products for commercial use and encourages forests’
developmental activities, like social forestry, agroforestry, and more for its conservation.

4.6.1 Objectives of forest conservation Act

The decline of the forests in India has been a cause of major concern since the forest cover
is disappearing at a very rapid pace. There need to be improvements in the protected areas
by restricting the use of forest land for commercial purposes without a proper regulation
process. The forests help in maintaining the ecological balance of the environment and also
serve as a habitat for many wild animals and birds which have already become extinct in the
country and many others are also in danger of losing their habitats. The Forest Conservation
Act, 1980 is comprehensive legislation with laws for the protection of the forests and the
conservation of natural wealth and resources of the forests which are beneficial to both the
ecosystems and human beings. It specifies uniform legislation across the country for the
planning and maintaining of forest areas and protects forest land and by categorizing the
protected land with proper usage of the forest areas.

The objectives of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 are as follows:

• The Act has certain restrictions on the power of the State Government regarding the
preservation of forests or using the forest land for other purposes

• The Act defines the roles of the Central Government and the State Government. The
State Government cannot make amendments on the provisions of the Act without
the prior approval of the Central Government

• The Act has laid regulations on assigning the forest land or any portion for lease to
any private person or private organization.

• The Act contains strict laws and regulations that emphasize on cutting down of trees
or clearing the land of forests that have grown naturally in that land to use them for
reforestation

• The Act emphasizes providing for the constitution of the advisory committee to
advise the Government about the conservation of the forests

• The Act has strict regulation for any kind of ongoing activities in the forest which do
not benefit the forest in any state within the country without the prior approval of
the Centre

• The Act has defined that the violation of any Act is punishable, and the offender can
be imprisoned for a period extending to 15 days.

• The Act also has laws for the Government departments or any agency which is guilty
of any offense and shall be liable to be punished accordingly
 • A forest consists of renewable natural sources and should be looked upon as a
source of revenue

4.6.2 Major highlights of forest conservation Act

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was formulated for controlling the process of
deforestation. The forests and trees cannot be cut without the prior approval of the Central
Government. The regulation for this was included in the Act since some states had begun
cutting down the forests and clearing the land from the forests for non-forest use. There
were regular encroachments in the forest areas in these states where there were projects
made for resettlement of affected people because of the construction of dams and bridges
in the forest areas. Therefore, there was an urgent need for laws and regulations, and the
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 provides the laws for prohibiting the clearing of the forest
areas and to retain greater control over the process of deforestation in the country with
specified punishments for the offenders.

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 also determines the needs of the people in terms of
fodder, fuel-wood, and other forms of forest produce, and by maintaining environmental
stability and ecological balance. It clearly emphasizes the strengthening of the protected
areas and if a person commits the offense of cutting down the trees, setting fire to the
forests, or overgrazing his cattle in the forest areas he is liable to punishment with
imprisonment of three to six months and a fine of 500 or both. The Act provides authority
and power to the forest officials who can arrest any person against whom a reasonable
suspicion arises even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant.

4.7 National Green Tribunal Act,2010

The environment needs effective laws and regulations to protect it from degradation. To
take care of the judicial administration, the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was created
to help in reducing the burden of cases from the higher levels of the judiciary and effectively
handling the issues about the environment. It handles the case for the protection of the
environment, basic rights of the individuals, and protecting the flora and fauna of the
forests, and more. There has been a rise in the complaints related to the environment
because of the causes of deforestation, rehabilitation, overgrazing of cattle, cutting down of
trees for commercial use and other reasons.

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was formulated for effectively handling cases about
conservation of forests, protection of wildlife, environmental protection, and compensation
for damages to the property due to violating of the environmental laws and regulations. The
members of the tribunal are appointed by the Central Government. It has jurisdiction over
all the civil cases related to the environment in terms of pollution of water, forest
conservation, environment protection, and taking care of ecological biodiversity. India
happens to be the third country in the world after New Zealand and Australia set up a
national tribunal for the environment. The Act specifies that the tribunal should dispose of
the application and the cases within six months of their filing. The tribunal consists of
Chairperson, the Judicial Members, and Expert Members and they are eligible to hold the
office term for five years. The Chairperson is appointed by the Central Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of India.

4.7.1 Objectives of the national green tribunal Act

India needed a special court for its environmental issues and this need was amicably
highlighted by the Supreme Court of India in many judgments. One of these was during the
Oleum Gas Leak case. They ruled that environmental issues need to be well monitored and
they need expert and technical knowledge, and they should have fast disposal of their cases.
These cases need to have special courts with the required expertise and knowledge.
Thereafter, the Government passed the National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995, which
did not get implemented. Then came the National Environment Appellate Authority Act,
1997, which initiated the setting of the National Environment Appellate Authority. This
authority functioned for some time after which it was replaced by the National Green
Tribunal. There were several problems in the functioning of the Authority, including its
limited mandate and key vacancies that the Government did not fill. The Authority was
thereafter replaced by the National Green Tribunal.

The objectives of the National Green Tribunal Act are as follows:

 • The National Green Tribunal Act provides effective and fast disposal of cases that are
concerned with the protection and conservation of the environment.

• The National Green Tribunal Act helps in providing relief and compensation for
damages of property and to the people.

• The National Green Tribunal Act emphasizes a method for a penalty for non-
compliance to the environmental issues with imprisonment for a year to three years
and a fine which can go up to ten crore rupees or both.

• The National Green Tribunal takes care of civil cases consisting of the following seven
laws which are related to the environment:

o The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974

o The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Cess Act, 1977
o The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
o The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1981
o The Environment Protection Act, 1986
o The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, and
o The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The violation of these laws can be taken care of by the National Green Tribunal courts.

4.7.2 Major highlights of national green tribunal act

Environmental pollution is a major concern for the country and the National Green Tribunal
has proved to be beneficial, and it has effectively achieved its objectives. The functions of
the National Green Tribunal Act are to formulate laws and regulations for disposing of cases
based on the environment, natural resources, and conservation of the forests. The National
Green Tribunal does not include any formal structures, but it is bound by a certain
procedure and regulation. It has been created to fulfill certain objectives of which
environmental protection is a significant concern, and the steps of the tribunal have been
effectively used at the right time. It has been a success because of its mechanism for
handling disputes and providing adequate measures with its accuracy in the decisions
regarding the resolution of the disputes.
The National Green Tribunal has played a significant role in environmental regulation, with
the management of waste and passing strict regulations and orders on the issues of
pollution and deforestation. The National Green Tribunal is an effective method for
alternative dispute resolution and offers solutions for the path for environmental
jurisdiction, and it helps in reducing the burden of legal cases in the higher courts on
environmental matters. The National Green Tribunal does not have a formal structure and is
not expensive and has a faster mechanism for solving environmental disputes. It plays an
important role in protecting the environment and prohibiting environment-damaging
activities. The Members and the Chairperson of the National Green Tribunal independently
deliver their judgments and do not come under pressure from any end.

The National Green Tribunal Act has perfect regulations for ensuring that the process of
Environment Impact Assessment is followed strictly.

4.8 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

The term environmental ethics covers the geographical place where the environment
consists of everything which exists to around us in terms of people and non-human entities.
Ethics has been taken from the Greek word ‘ethos’ which means ‘custom’. Ethics is divided
into three theories which are as follows:

• Deontology ethics: This deals with the righteousness of action whether the action or
behavior is right and appropriate.
• Theology ethics: This is based on the purpose and need of the action and the effect
of the action.
• Ethics of virtue: This deals with the moral character of the person or the human
being.

Environmental ethics is a reflection of the moral values and norms which have an impact on
environmental conditions. Therefore, environmental ethics requires fundamental changes in
the manner people view various aspects of the environment. It is necessary to develop
awareness and educate the youth in today’s world to respect the existence of all living
beings and to conserve the environment.
In the later part of the twentieth-century environmentalist had come up with the modern
philosophy on environmental ethics. The environmental concerns of environmental
degradation, population explosion, the depletion of resources and cutting down of forests
are the major issue that draws the attention towards the environmental problems.
However, many challenges are raised while designing environmental ethics which includes
the inequality in the region, society, and the nations. The challenges further extend to
having access to the resources and procuring the resources for the livelihood of the people.
There are several varied opinions among environmentalists regarding environmental ethics.
Owing to varied opinions various approaches to environmental ethics have evolved. Three
approaches to environmental ethics are based on the following views:

• Libertarian view: This view talks of equal rights to all living in the environment which
includes human beings and non-human entities.
• Ecological view: This view emphasizes the interdependence of the biological and the
non-biological entities within their diversities.
• Conservation view: This view only emphasizes the use of the environment and its
utility that serves the purpose of human beings. It concerns human beings and their
future generations.

As per the British Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal Nature.com, Environmental ethics is a

branch of applied philosophy that studies the conceptual foundations of environmental
values as well as more concrete issues surrounding societal attitudes, actions, and policies
to protect and sustain biodiversity and ecological systems.

4.8.1 Meaning of Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics defines human beings and other non-human entities, such as animals,
plants, and others as part of the environment. Environmental ethics plays an important role
in establishing moral grounds for social policies aimed at protecting the earth’s environment
and mitigating environmental degradation. Environmental ethics assists in maintaining an
ecological balance between the environment and human beings along with the non-human
entities of plants and animals. It is necessary to follow environmental ethics voluntarily and
use moral values while dealing with important functional aspects of the environment.
The environment can be sustained by positive human behavior while negative human
behavior can damage the environmental conditions. Every living being needs an
environment to live in and it is the responsibility of human beings to protect and respect the
environment. Environmental legislations are required to guide the people with moral
principles needed for guiding, adding value, and preserving the environmental conditions.

Environmental ethics is divided into three branches:

• Anthropocentrism: According to this philosophical theory, human beings have total

control over the environment. They are considered an important entity in the
environment.

• Biocentrism: This theory emphasizes human beings, and also non-human beings are
important aspects of the environment.

• Ecocentrism: This philosophy theory is based on the environment which gives

importance to nature and its values are not human-centered.

According to the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Environmental ethics is the

discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the
value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human contents.

The increase in population has increased the consumption of natural resources. Therefore,
this has resulted in the degradation of the environment which is affecting all living beings.

Environmental ethics acts as the guiding light that is formed on scientific understanding of
bringing human values, moral principles, and improved decision making.

4.8.2 Need and Importance of Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics can be inferred as the philosophical discipline required to protect the
environment taking into consideration the moral and ethical relations human beings have
with the environment. Environmental ethics refers to the ethical process of conserving the
environment. They became a necessity because of the fast-growing population and how the
environment was impacted. Nowadays, environmental awareness is important because of
the negative consequences on the environment that surface with the increase in
urbanization, industrialization, use of pesticides, and growing technology. They aim at
protecting the environment by providing moral motivation and ethical legislation for the
cause of global environmental protection. Environmental ethics is the obligation that human
beings have taken towards the environment to determine their moral and ethical duties.
They involve the decisions that people need to make in regards to the environment and take
into the account ethical relationship between people and the environmental conditions
accompanied by its ecological biodiversity.

Environmental ethics is the most important tool for the conservation of the environment
and sustainable development. Environmental ethics teaches us to be friendly with the
environment for developing a healthy lifestyle. It deals with imparting moral education,
environmental rights, conservation and protection of the environment, and the traditional
knowledge that has been passed to us from our ancestors. Environmental ethics emphasizes
a range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, eco-theology,
ecological economics, ecology, and environmental geography. Environmental ethics is
required because the changes in the environment have led to several natural disasters that
have been happening in different countries across the globe with severe consequences. The
activities of human beings have resulted in adding to the pollution, desertification, the
extinction of certain animals and birds, deforestation, and more number of the reasons
which add to the impact on the environment.

The global environmental problems are predominantly related to human activities.

Theirperspectivesaffecttheenvironmentandtheothernon-entities of the environment. It is
necessary for human beings and non-human entities to develop a sustainable and clean
environment to sustain their living. Environmental ethics is concerned with moral
obligations that the people need to behave towards the environment wisely and in a more
ecocentric manner. It underscores positive values based on environmental ethics and
people’s perspectives towards the environment. Thus, environmental ethics is also termed
moral philosophy because human actions are concerned with what is morally right and
morally wrong as their actions affect the environment. The important principles of
environmental ethics are as follows:
 • To respect life in all its diversity where every form of life has its intrinsic value
• To show compassion towards the community, protect the rights of the people, and
prevent the environment from the harmful activities
• To form a democratic, sustainable and peaceful society and respect the fundamental
and human rights
• To secure the earth’s elegance and beauty for current and future generations
• To come with imparting values and traditions that support the sustainable
flourishing of humans and the Earth’s ecological diversities.

4.8.3 Environmental Ethics in India

At present, India has several environmental policies and legislations. Framing policies and
legislations require studying and analyzing methods of enhancing and recommending
solutions for their practical realization. The rising concern for ethical norms in all facets of
human activities is not just limited to India, but also all over the globe. The government of
India is quite concerned about environmental pollution and degradation. The government of
India is also playing an important role in environmental conservation and development
issues. The government has brought out environmental laws and legislations for protecting
the environment and protecting nature from all kinds of harmful interventions. The
government is involved in creating awareness among the people of India through various
reforms, policies, conventions, seminars, and many other ways.

It is necessary to maintain environmental ethics by the following norms:

• To limit utilization of natural resources

• To conserve resources for future generations
• To determine the environmental rights of animals
• To create environmental awareness and education
• To conserve traditional value systems
• To circumvent the sacrifice of animals for religious beliefs
• To prevent ecoterrorism
• To utilize eco-friendly products
• To keep the environment clean and healthy
 • To avoid the use of plastics carry bags and plastic items
• To avoid cutting down of trees as much as possible

4.9 Summary

Environmental legislation is a necessity for providing restrictions for protecting the

environment and creating a healthy place for people to live and breathe. Environmental
legislation is a set of laws that are needed for protecting the environment and creating a
healthy place for the people to live in. It helps in preventing over-exploitation of natural
resources, destructive methods of pollution, use of chemicals and hazardous substances,
deforestation, poaching and so many other issues which impact the environment and create
unhealthy situations. The importance of environmental legislation is to ensure that people
take care of the environment for human existence. In 1972, India participated in the
conference at the United Nations, held in Stockholm, which was on the Human
Environment. There were important decisions taken in regards to adopting appropriate
steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth. Thereafter, in India, the Air
Prevention & Control of Pollution Act, 1981 was introduced. The Water Prevention &
Control of Pollution Act, 1974 is a comprehensive set of legislation that manages the
agencies and the Board for checking on various aspects of water pollution. The Environment
Protection Act, 1986 is a complete set of legislation which is made for providing a
framework by the Government for coordinating the different activities of various Central
and State Boards and agencies defined in the previous Acts, such as the Water Act and the
Air Act for taking care of the environment. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was passed on
August 21, 1972, but it got implemented on 9th September 1972. Earlier, there was a law
for animals called the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1935. Under this law, there
were different policies for every state and each State Government had a different policy in
dealing with the Act. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 is comprehensive legislation that was
needed in the country, and it helps improve the previous laws regarding forests which were
during the earlier years. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was created to help in
reducing the burden of cases from the higher levels of the judiciary and effectively handling
the issues about the environment.
The effect of environmental awareness started in the 1960s because of the process of
economic expansion, newer technologies, industrialization, and the growth of population.
These changes result in impacting the environment and leading to changes in the living
conditions of the people. This brought in the meaning of ethics when people decide on the
conditions of how they want to live in society and their environment. The degradation of
ecosystems and the changes in the global climate have resulted in bringing moral
obligations with the initiation of environmental ethics into the system. Environmental ethics
outlines the moral responsibilities of human beings and their respect for the environment.
Human activities are the major cause of environmental pollution along with an increase in
population that results in demand for food and shelter, which leads to the utilization of
resources.

Environmental ethics is the philosophy that defines what is right and wrong for maintaining
the ecological balance. All the living things on the planet earth are bound together through
the food web that includes the animals, human beings, plants, aquatic creatures, and other
forms of resources that are interlinked with each other for their survival in the environment.
In the later part of the twentieth century, environmentalists had come up with the modern
philosophy on environmental ethics. The environmental concerns of environmental
degradation, population explosion, the depletion of resources, cutting down of forests are
some major issues that draw attention towards the environmental problems.

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that includes the philosophy that studies the
moral relationship of human beings and the environment and its non-human entities. The
philosophy defines human beings as part of the society along with the other non-human
entities of animals and plants. The increase in population has increased the consumption of
natural resources. Moreover, rapid economic growth and industrialization have resulted in
the degradation of the environment which is affecting all living beings. Environmental ethics
acts as the guiding light that is formed on scientific understanding of bringing human values,
moral principles, and improved decision making.

Environmental ethics aims at protecting the environment by providing moral motivation and
ethical legislation for the cause of global environmental protection. In India, it has been
prevalent from the Vedic times and it has been a part of the religion and the Vedic tradition.
The main objective of the Vedic tradition was to live harmoniously within the environment
and nature. The twenty-first century, on the other hand, is growing rapidly with advanced
technology and the dynamic system

of the economy which leads to threats to the environment from its activities. The effect of
global warming, depletion of ozone, cause of acid rain, deforestation, and the major loss to
diversity are some of the issues and problems which are hampering the economic growth of
the nation.

4.10 Key Words

• Environmental legislation: It is a set of laws that are needed for protecting the
environment.
• Wild protection and conservation: These are the methods about protect various
animals and birds living in their habitats in the forest.
• Taxidermy: The process of preserving the body of an animal or its body parts.
• Green Tribunal Act: This is a special court for handling cases related to the
environment.
• Non-compliance: It refers to not following the process or the procedure.
• Ethics of virtue: This deals with the moral character of the person or the human
being,
• Theology ethics: This is based on the purpose, need, and effect of the action.
• Anthropocentrism: This theory states that human beings have total control over the
environment. They are considered an important entity in the environment.
• Biocentrism: This theory emphasizes human beings along with plants and animals as
they are important elements of the environment.
• Ecocentrism: This philosophy theory is based on an environment that gives
importance to nature and its values are not human-centered.
UNIT – 5: INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Discuss the important concepts related to disaster management
• Describe the reasons for disaster, hazard, vulnerability, resilience, and risks
• Explain the types of disasters
• Analyze the impacts of disaster management
• Discuss the social, economic, and political impact of disaster

Structure

5.1 Important Concepts Related To Disaster Management

5.1.1 Disaster
5.1.2 Hazards
5.1.3 Vulnerability
5.1.4 Resilience
5.1.5 Risk
5.2 Types of Disasters
5.2.1 Natural Disasters
5.2.2 Man-Made Disasters
5.3 Impacts of Disaster Management
5.3.1 Social Impact
5.3.2 Economic Impact
5.3.3 Political Impact
5.3.4 Environmental Impact
5.3.5 Health Impact
5.3.6 Psycho-Social Impact
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.1 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATED TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster management is a systematic planned approach for taking care of the before,
during, and after-effects of a disaster that takes place in a particular place or a region.
Disaster management is the process of management and organization of resources for
dealing with every aspect of disaster and for protecting the life and property of living beings
from expected or anticipated hazards. The process of disaster management is to provide
emergency and immediate relief facilities and rescue operations for the people affected by
the disaster and also to facilitate their programs for rehabilitation and recovery.

The process for disaster management can be put into the following categories:

• Pre-disaster management: This is taking care of the situation before the disaster
takes place. It could mean rescuing people, rehabilitation of people, mobilization of
resources, and more activities required for safeguarding the people and the
situation. It is a process of mitigating the effect of the disaster on human beings and
property.

• Management during a disaster: This is an important phase that requires effective

management and the utilization of resources for saving human lives from the
disaster-hit areas by taking them to safe places and giving them medical treatment
as required. People are provided with food, clothing, medical facilities, and a roof
over their heads.

• Post-disaster management: This phase is involved with the rehabilitation of the

people and development of the disaster-hit areas. The government, administration,
and private agencies are involved in helping the people by providing them all kinds
of facilities in terms of compensation and medical help.

There are many other forms of disaster management that include various phases of
development of disaster recovery plans. There are some other forms of disaster
management, which are as follows:

• Emergency Management
 • Civil Protection
• Crisis Management
• Disaster Risk Reduction

The process of disaster management has evolved into an integrated and systematic
technique with setting priorities and decisively addressing the problems. It is a systematic
process aimed at reducing the negative impact and consequences of adverse events and
minimizing the loss through effective response and planning. The different phases of the
disaster management program are as follows:

• Prevention of Disaster
• Preparedness for Disaster
• Response to Disaster
• Mitigation of Disaster Mitigation
• Process of Rehabilitation
• Methods of Reconstruction

5.1.1 DISASTER

A disaster is an event of a sudden calamity that leads to a lot of damage, destruction, and
loss of life. Disaster results in the destruction of the surrounding in a manner which leads to
major losses and it is not easy to cope with those losses.

Disasters are terrible situations that affect the ecosystem and the normal life pattern of the
people living in society. The situation of disaster leads to the loss of lives and destruction of
property, injury to people along with many health problems that require immediate medical
treatments to save people and also the environmental conditions. People lose their assets.
There is a loss of effective socio-economic services, damage, and destruction to the large
parts of the environment and ecosystems. Disaster comes without warning and their
enormity leads to big losses of great magnitude which disrupts the lives of people and
leaves an impact on them for a long period.

Disasters can be categorized in many different ways. The most common method of
segregating the disaster is based on its main causes, hence disaster can be a natural process
or it can be due to activities that are man-made. Natural disasters are a result of changes in
the climate that have resulted in the El-Nino effect in recent years. It has led to an increase
in the occurrence of natural disasters, such as cyclones, floods, hurricanes, tornados,
earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, droughts, and landslides.

United Nations defines a disaster as the occurrence of a sudden misfortune that disturbs the
basic fabric and normal functioning of society (community).

Man-made disasters are caused due to the activities of human beings leading to pollution,
explosions, electrical failures, oil spillage, bomb blasts, nuclear radiations, and many other
forms of activities. Disasters are normally categorized according to their underlying causes
and the speed of their impact. The impacts of the disaster are as follows:

• It completely disrupts normal life.

• It causes a major loss of life and property.
• It also leads to the loss of farming and agriculture and affects animals and wildlife.
• It hampers all forms of development projects.
• It negatively influences the emergency systems.
• It affects the system, healthcare, etc., depending upon its intensity.

5.1.2 HAZARDS

Hazards are sources that can cause loss of life, health problems, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, etc. They have adverse impacts on social and economic situations
and environmental damage. The hazards can become an emergency with negative
consequences and when it goes beyond the control of people it can be termed as a disaster.
The hazard can be an event that is a natural or man-made phenomenon. It can result
in a major loss to the environment and infrastructure if it occurs in an area of human
settlement. The natural form of hazards can be in the form of tsunamis, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, typhoons, etc.

Other forms of hazards are also due to the activities of humans and also have a natural
aspect in the form of floods, landslides, drought, fires, nuclear radiations, leakage of toxic
gases, and more. In the past years, there have been many hazards due to human activities
and also because of the natural phenomenon with major nuclear explosions, dam failures
resulting in floods; earthquakes can cause major landslides, which has been proven by
history on the kind of damage it can cause to human lives and property.

The incidence of hazards is increasing in numbers in recent years along with the increase in
the magnitude of loss to life and the environment. The hazards can be categorized into the
following:

• Chemical hazards: These refer to the loss caused by the chemicals.

• Physical hazards: These refer to the loss which can be seen, felt, or touched.
• Ergonomic hazards: These refer to the loss that an individual faces due to the poor
work-space or work design that affects the musculoskeletal system, such as
ligaments or muscle injury.
• Psycho-social hazards: These refer to the occupational losses that affect the mental
and physical conditions of workers.
• Biological hazards: These refer to the loss due to fungi, virus or any other biological
substance that affect the health of living beings, mainly humans.
• Technological hazards: These refer to the loss because of technological failure and
nuclear power plant failures.

For managing the hazard, one must identify the hazards, assess and control the risks and
review the control measures. Engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal
protective equipment are the methods of controlling the hazards.

5.1.3 VULNERABILITY

Vulnerability is a situation that describes the set of consequential conditions that adversely
affect human beings, buildings, and the environment due to the impact of hazards. It
reduces human beings’ ability to prevent, prepare and cope with the impact of hazards. The
various aspects of vulnerability and their impacts on the social, physical, economic, and
environmental factors are long-term constraints that affect the community’s ability to cope
with the losses and to recover from the damage.
Vulnerabilities lead to disasters and contribute to their severity which could be due to the
following reasons:

• Inadequate protection of assets

• Poor design and construction of buildings
• Lack of public information and awareness
• Limited recognition of risks
• Lack of preparedness measures
• Disregarding the environmental conditions

The vulnerability can be categorized into four situations which are as follows:

• Physical vulnerability: This is determined by the physical aspects concerning the

place of settlement, design, materials used for the infrastructure, the density of
population, location of the settlement, and more conditions.
• Social vulnerability: Refers to the situation where the people are not able to cope
with the impact of the hazards due to various social conditions of the individuals,
societies, and the community.
• Economic vulnerability: This is dependent on the economic conditions and status of
the people, society, community, and the country. The people living in poverty would
be more prone to disasters since they lack the resources to build strong structures
and protect themselves from different aspects of the hazards.
• Environmental vulnerability: Refers to the degradation of the land, deforestation,
levels of pollution, and depletion of natural resources which are the important
aspects of environmental vulnerability

5.1.4 RESILIENCE

Disaster resilience is the ability of a system, individuals, communities, and country exposed
to hazards and their ability to resist, adapt, transform and recover from the effects of
hazards in an effective manner. They can plan, anticipate and reduce the risk of disaster by
protecting the livelihood, socio-economic assets, cultural heritage, and the ecosystems with
the restoration of basic structures without compromising on long-term prospects for
development. Resilience is the ability to face and cope with disasters by managing
effectively and to be able to bounce back with the strengths and resources available to
recover from the disaster.

The concept of resilience has made countries alert with identifying the principles and
measures required to protect their socio-economic developments from disasters. Keeping in
mind, the countries across the globe are sharing the agenda of resilience concerning the
hazards, conflicts, political and other forms of climatic threats to development. Therefore,
resilience can be categorized as cultural, economic, social, health, and environmental, which
would help in realizing various aspects of resilience.

According to UNISDR, 2005, disaster resilience is determined by the degree to which

individuals, communities, and public and private organizations are capable of organizing
themselves to learn from past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at
international, regional, national, and local levels.

According to OECD the ability of individuals, communities, and states, and their institutions
to absorb and recover from shocks, whilst positively adapting and transforming their
structures and means for living in the face of long-term changes and uncertainty.

5.1.5 RISK

Risk is the likelihood of a potential disaster. It helps in analyzing the loss of life, injury or
destruction, and damage of the property due to disaster that could take place in a specific
community, society, or country during a certain period in the future. Risks involve the
probability of harmful events, because of hazards and the vulnerable situation of the
environment that can result in big a loss, with destruction to the ecosystems and disruptions
of economic activity.

Risks are also termed disaster risks. The complex interlinks that come between the process
of development lead to generating the conditions of vulnerability and exposure to hazards.

According to the UNDRR, the risk is defined as the potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed
or damaged assets that could occur to a system, society, or a community in a specific period,
determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, and capacity.
Risk can be shown as an equation in the following manner: Risk = Probability of Hazard ×
Degree of Vulnerability

Disaster risk management is the systematic procedures that are used for reducing disaster
risks. These are measures that are effective in the reduction of losses and strengthening
resilience by using effective strategies and policies.

The process of disaster risk management consists of activities that can be put into the
following categories:

• Prospective disaster risk management

• Corrective disaster risk management
• Compensatory disaster risk management

There are different ways to mitigate the risks to minimize the losses due to disasters:

• Identifying and analyzing the disaster risk

• Strengthening the governance of managing the disaster risk
• Introducing methods and activities for mitigating the risk for resilience
• Enhancing the preparedness with knowledge and capacity for handling the disaster
with effective methods of reconstruction, recovery, and rehabilitation

5.2 TYPES OF DISASTERS

Disasters are sudden events that are accidental and of great magnitude and severity that
result in deaths, injuries, health problems, and property damage. These are occurred
suddenly and cannot be effectively managed with normal resources and procedures. The
cause of these events could be climatic change, malfunctioning of equipment, biological
hazards, caused due to human error, and other natural processes. The increase in natural
disasters and the likely increase of actual and potential effects of man-made disasters are
leading to a major negative impact on the health of people across the globe. A large part of
India is exposed to natural hazards and it is among the world’s most disaster-prone areas
that can lead to the loss of life and property.
The category of disasters is normally recognized by their origin, for example, which is
natural or man-made. There are thousands of people across the globe that is affected by
natural and man-made disasters. These disasters lead to adverse effects of physical
destruction and major loss of life that can leave the total communities and the country in a
condition of shock and emotional distress. These lead to many health problems that are
concerned with depression and anxiety with sleep disorders. People need to recover and get
back with rehabilitation and also need help from the government and other private
agencies, before, during, and after the disasters.

5.2.1 Natural disasters

Natural disasters are unpredictable and also be very acute at the same time. Natural
hazards are occurred unpreventable on a large scale.

These are occurred due to natural forces and that have the potential to cause loss of life or
property on a large scale. Natural disasters can have

long-term effects.

The common forms of natural disasters are:

• Earthquakes
• Tornadoes and severe storms
• Cyclones
• Hurricane and tropical storms
• Drought
• Wildfires
• Floods and landslides
• Tsunami
• Volcanic eruptions

The disasters which result in severe storms and floods are the common forms of natural
disasters that cause enormous loss to life and property. The areas prone to natural disasters
require planning, such as evacuations and protection of public property. There are various
methods of mitigating, preventing, and controlling natural disasters by the following
methods:

• Identifying the flood-prone areas and restricting the concentration of human

population and the construction of buildings
• The building of reservoirs to collect excess water during floods
• Determining methods and installing systems for early warning in the coastal areas
• Planting of trees and methods of forestation on the upper areas of the river for
controlling soil erosion and excessive runoff
• Educating people regarding earthquakes and the methods of evacuation
• Building quake-resistant buildings with proper structural design
• Determining and establishing fast relief agencies for earthquake
• Creating specific health care units with medical facilities for treating the people
• Finding effective methods of mapping faults and weak zones in earthquake-prone
areas
• Using the methods of satellites which can help to forecast the origin of cyclones in
advance

5.2.2 Man-made Disasters

Man-made disasters are the result of human activities which result in human errors and
oversight during the process of industrial and technological activities. The disasters which
are manmade occur suddenly and form of accidents that result in a major loss of life and
property.

The disasters due to human activities are mainly of two kinds:

• Local or regional disasters: These are disasters, such as train accidents, shipwrecks,
or plane crashes.

• Technological disasters: These are the large-scale disasters that happen due to the
failure of technology or accidents in the industry. These disasters affect large areas
and the people living around these areas are hugely affected. The accidents or the
failure can happen due to bad planning, accidental leakage of toxic gases, or air
 pollutants. Chemicals or pollutants at times are extremely toxic and spread over
large areas that affect the human population in many different adverse ways. Such
chemicals or pollutants cause the instant death of people in major cases and others
get seriously injured or affected in the form of paralysis, blindness, and many other
forms of health problems.

Man-made disasters can be reduced to a large extent by adopting the following measures:

• Identifying the hazardous areas and restricting human population in these areas
• Providing effective training programs for the workforce who are working in
hazardous industries
• Determining effective safety care measures for people who are affected
• Instructing people to use a wet cloth over the mouth and nose in case of gas
leakages
• Advising people to remain at home and indoors during radioactive accidents
• Providing effective medical care and compensation for the people affected by the
hazards

5.3 Impacts of disaster Management

The disasters can impact the people and their livelihoods by changing their normal lifestyles
and affecting their lives in a manner that will take time for them to recover.

Disasters can affect the people living in communities, cities, or the state and can even
impact the whole country. The main objective of disaster management is to reduce the loss
of life and property during the process of disaster. The disaster management forces are
responsible for removing the people from the disaster-prone areas by initiating timely and
effective rescue measures with the process of rehabilitation and relief. The level of
preparedness helps in minimizing the impact of disaster since the unpredictability of the
disaster leaves not much time to react to the situation. Because of the disasters, these days
every country has set departments for dealing with the process of preparedness to mitigate
the disasters and issuing warnings to the public on time. There is an urgent need to
integrate the disaster risk and assessment of the hazard into strategic planning and
sustainable development by effective planning for preventing and mitigating the impact of
disasters.

The process of disaster management involves the following methods:

• Process of mitigation: The process of mitigation involves reducing the impact of the
disaster on the life and property of people. It involves methods for analyzing the
risks, reducing the level of risks, and ensuring effective measures against the risks. It
requires effective planning, coordination, and mock exercises for investing in the
long-term well-being of the people and the community.

• Focus on the rescue operations: The rescue operations start after the disaster by
helping the people to safety. Many agencies are employed along with the army and
air-force of the country to rescue the people. The rescue operations involve
searching for people and providing medication to people who are hurt and unable to
move. They are transported to hospitals for better medical care.

• Provide relief operations: The process of relief operations starts after the disaster
has happened and the injured are taken care of with medical facilities, and people
are relocated to safer areas and given food and clean water. It is important to start
the process of relief operations immediately so that the number of causalities is
reduced and to provide help and basic amenities to the people who have been
rescued.

• Rehabilitation and recovery operations: The process of rehabilitation starts after

the emergency, needs have been met for the people affected by the disaster.
Rehabilitation and recovery involve the process of health care, rebuilding
infrastructures, shifting the people to various locations, and providing them with
basic and important requirements and necessities. The main objective of the
rehabilitation process is trying to get the situation back to the phase of normalcy as
much as possible.

5.3.1 Social Impact

The result of disasters severely affects societies, threaten lives, and leads to damage of
property which affects their socio-economic structures. The vulnerability of the population
and the Social structure of a society are damaged on a large scale. The process of assessing
the social impact is by monitoring, analyzing, and managing the social outcomes of the
projects, programs, and policies. The outcome of these programs could be for the short
term or long term and can have a positive or negative impact. Since the disaster affects all
the people, hence, it is important to understand its social effects.

Disaster leads to the loss of employment, livelihood, and property of the people. The
earnings of people from their entire life get wiped out due to disaster. It could lead to the
displacement and rehabilitation of the people to different places which affect their financial
standings and major social disorientation with a breakdown of social status. Some situations
can be very traumatic, stressful, and disruptive for those who are affected. The total society
and community can be uprooted, families get divided, people lose their homes, livelihoods,
and lives. These all may result in major psychological, emotional, and physical issues that
can impact their ability to cope with the situation.

According to Inter-organisational Committee, by social impacts, we mean the consequences

to human populations of any public or private actions that alter how people live, work, play,
relate to one another, organize to meet their needs, and generally cope as members of
society. The term also includes cultural impacts involving changes to the norms, values, and
beliefs that guide and rationalize their cognition of themselves and their society.

5.3.2 Economic Impact

The disasters result in a lot of damage to property, livelihood of the people, and the
infrastructure, which is damaging for the economy in the long run. The disasters destroy all
the assets which are tangible in terms of human capital, buildings, equipment, and
institutions. Such losses are impacting their economic growth and production capacity. This
has also an adverse effect on the development and the economic growth of the country,
and it results in a decrease in sustainable development, job creation, and other aspects of
the health and education system.
Economic impact results in the following conditions:

• Loss of wages
• Structural damage
• Damage to the infrastructure of bridges, railways, highways, telecommunication
systems, and more
• Loss of production with shutting down of industries, businesses, and more
• Expenses for medical aids and emergency rehabilitation
• Reduction in demand for production leads to changes in GDP per capita

The countries and communities should adopt the following methods to mitigate the impact
on the economy:

• Initiating development programs to reduce losses

• Diversification of the economic activities
• Developing economic activities that are disaster-resistant within a region.
• People should be given economic incentives for encouraging the development
• Strengthening the sectors of the economy that are particularly vulnerable to
disasters

5.3.3 Political Impact

Disasters lead to major impacts on political stability and political strategies. The role of the
government regarding the public policy processes is becoming an important aspect in every
country. It is a significant reflection of economic growth and development which are
important drivers of change. The political analysis focuses on the role of the government
that develops the policies with an understanding of the economy. The focus is on the
influences within formal and informal processes with a focus on incentives of the policies
and power relations between the political circles.

Government institutions play a significant role in developing disaster management policies

for mitigation, preparedness, rehabilitation, and recovery.

Political analysts have put in a lot of effort in analyzing the effects of disasters and hazards.
Also, the analysts review the ability to cope with the impacts of disaster. Government
organizations and institutions play a significant role in making decisions efficiently for
managing the conflicts and determining how quickly a community will recover from the
disaster. Their effectiveness is linked with the resilience and methods for recovering.

The twenty-first century has brought in an important shift in the government’s role in the
administration of emergency management which has expanded the national government’s
role in disaster management.

There are other factors, such as the size of the disaster, health of the economy, and
demographics which influence the process of emergency management, and the role of the
government to take the lead during times of crisis.

5.3.4 Environmental Impact

Disasters make the vulnerability of the environmental factors which includes the extent of
the depletion of natural resources and environmental degradation. Due to disasters,
problems of clean air, drinking water, sanitation are aroused. Because of environmental
conditions of soil degradation, poor environmental conditions of reduced biodiversity, and
scarcity of food can lead to people overexploitation of the products of the land, forests, and
marine for their livelihoods. Since the natural resources become lesser, therefore, the range
of options available for the people becomes limited and reduces the resilience to hazards
and their capacity to recover from disasters.

Countries are using effective methods for planning and preparedness to reduce the risk of
disaster. Degradation of the environmental factors can lead to negative environmental
impacts of storms, typhoons, and hurricanes which makes landslides, flooding, and
groundwater contamination.

It is necessary to make use of different management tools for mitigating and reducing the
impacts of disaster by analyzing and studying the environmental conditions and assessing
the risk of disasters. Heavy rainfall for a long duration on degraded land can result in a flood.

There is a need to highlight the role of integrated environmental management in reducing

the risk of disasters and mitigate the consequences of human lives and the environment.
5.3.5 Health Impact

The disasters, whether natural or man-made, have a direct and indirect impact on the
health of the people which results in all kinds of physical and emotional trauma, acute
injuries, and diseases. There need to be effective health systems and medical facilities for
taking care of immunization, routine surveillance with maintaining proper health services.
Across the globe, every year millions of people get affected by natural and man-made
disasters, such as earthquakes, tornados, Tsunami, floods, cyclones, and more forms of
disasters.

Many people have become homeless and impacted socially and economically, while many
have lost their lives or were injured. Disaster management measures involving health and
other factors can help to reduce or mitigate the various forms of diseases, disabilities,
psychosocial problems, other health impacts, death, and injuries. Health facilities and
services need to be protected against disasters. Government facilitates the following
necessities:

• Security of the people

• Provide food and water
• Facilitate shelter and proper sanitation
• Provide clothes and bedding
• Help with fuel and utensils
• Provide health care facilities

The major health problems that arise with disasters are Malnutrition, Measles, Diarrhoea,
Pneumonia, and Malaria.

5.3.6 Psycho-social Impact

The people are affected by the disaster. Various psychological reactions some of which are
more likely to occur during or immediately after the disaster, whereas some likely to be
seen later. The emotional effects are due to the socio-economic impacts of homelessness,
unemployment, disorganization, and destruction of property and environment which
emerge as a consequence of devastation. The various stress reactions help to understand
the level of effort put in by the people for their reconstruction and the number of
disabilities that have resulted due to these psychological problems. There is a range of
emotional responses or reactions that can be seen as an emotional response to the disaster.
Also, it is conceptualized with different phases. The medical and humanitarian organizations
working on the mental health of children in disasters often focused on the effects of trauma
and post-traumatic stress disorders. Effective forms of mental health and psychosocial
support programs help people to recover after a crisis or disaster. These programs are
aimed at strengthening and building the resilience of individuals and communities. These
are not only important to the response efforts but also the preparedness of the activities of
the community with the aim of the recovery of the people from the effects of the disaster.

People exposed to a disaster face many psychosocial impacts which result in emotional
responses ranging from anxiety, fear, small levels of distress to inattention, and various
forms of depressions and symptoms of disruptive behavior. These kinds of reactions in many
instances are considered normal responses to a traumatic experience. The situations
associated with disaster trigger a wide range of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral
reactions. People, with severe reactions, require clinical help. Severe reactions could be due
to any of the following reasons:

• Loss of loved ones

• Loss of home
• Loss of employment and income
• Loss of predictability and positive self-image
• Loss of social cohesion and support
• Loss of material goods and loss of safety
• Loss of trust, dignity, and safety
• Unsure of the future and independence
• Loss of confidence, hope, and control

5.4 SUMMARY

A disaster is an event of a sudden calamity that leads to a lot of damage, destruction, and
loss of life. Disasters destroy life, property, and infrastructure, and have adversely affected
the lives of people for many years with negatively impacting the human population. Disaster
Management is a process of management and organization of resources for dealing with
every aspect of disaster and to protect the life and property of humans from expected or
anticipated hazards. The process of disaster management is to provide emergency and
immediate relief facilities and rescue operations for the people affected by the disaster and
also to facilitate their programs for rehabilitation and recovery.

The hazards can become an emergency with negative consequences. When the hazard goes
beyond the control of people, it can be termed as a disaster. Vulnerability is a situation that
describes the set of consequential conditions that adversely affect human beings, buildings,
and the environment. It reduces the ability to prevent, prepare and cope with the impact of
hazards. The concept of resilience has made countries alert with identifying the principles
and measures are required to protect their socio-economic developments from shocks and
stresses of disasters. Resilience can be categorized as cultural, economic, social, health, and
environmental resilience which would help in understanding the various aspects of
resilience. Risks are also termed as disaster risks which result due to complex interlinks that
come between the process of development which leads to generate conditions that result in
vulnerability and exposure to hazards. The level of preparedness helps in minimizing the
impact of the disaster since the unpredictability of the disaster leaves not much time to
react to the situation.

5.5 Key Words

• Disaster: An event of the sudden calamity which leads to a lot of damage,

destruction, and loss of life
• Hazards: These are sources that can cause the loss of life, injury or other health
problems, damage to property, and the loss of livelihoods
• Vulnerability: A situation that describes the set of consequential conditions that
adversely affect human beings, buildings, and the environment
• Disaster resilience: The ability of a system, individuals, communities, and country
exposed to hazards and their ability to resist, adapt, transform and recover from the
effects of hazards
• Risk: The probability of a potential disaster that can lead to the loss of life, injury or
destruction, and damage to people in a specific community, society, or country
UNIT 6: HAZARD AND VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA
COMPONENTS OF DISASTER RELIEF

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain the concept of Disaster Management in India
• Hazards and Vulnerability Profile of India
• Elucidate the system of institutional arrangements
• Discuss the importance of mitigation
• Describe response and preparedness
• Explain the disaster management acts and policies

Structure

6.1 India and Disaster Management

6.1.1Hazards and Vulnerability Profile of India
6.1.2India’s Approach to Disaster Management
6.2 Institutional Arrangement
6.2.1 Mitigation
6.2.2 Response & Preparedness
6.2.3 Disaster Management Act & Policies
6.3 Summary
6.4 Keywords
Introduction

In the previous unit, you studied the important concepts about disaster management. The
unit also elucidated the types of disasters that were further classified into man-made and
natural disasters. The unit also outlined the range of the impact that disasters have on
aspects, such as social, economic, political, environmental, health, and psychosocial.
Disasters are catastrophic events that could be natural or man-made. They result in loss of
lives, damage to properties, infrastructures, and the environment. They result in the loss of
means of livelihood for the people and the essential services are affected on a large scale. It
becomes difficult for the people and the affected communities to cope up with the hazard
of the disasters. Disasters are not new to people. Natural disasters can occur in the form of
cyclones, earthquakes, floods, landslides, hailstorms, snow avalanches, fires, soil erosion,
and many more events that have affected mankind since time immemorial. Some examples
of man-made disasters are air and water pollution, train accidents, nuclear explosions, oil
spills, and other forms of disasters.
Disasters are common events and, at times, they occur without any kind of warning
throughout the world. According to the latest analysis, disasters are not only increasing in
numbers but also the level of magnitude. They are becoming more frequent, complex and
are posing a threat to people, especially in the underdeveloped regions with dense
populations. There have been over two hundred kinds of natural disasters in the different
parts of the world in the latter half of the twentieth century. The developed countries that
have gone through the disaster have suffered a major loss. Moreover, millions of people
have lost their lives. Unfortunately, Asia happens to be on top of the list for casualties
because of these disasters.
In this unit, you will be able to understand how India manages disasters and what is the
vulnerability profile of India. The unit will brief you about India’s approach towards disaster
management.
6.1 India and Disaster Management
India happens to be one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world because of its
geographical climate and its socio-economic vulnerability. A disaster causes an extreme loss
to mankind and ecosystems by disrupting the normal functioning of the community. The
magnitude of disaster makes it difficult to cope with the loss of available resources.
Disasters are sometimes classified according to their origin. When disasters, such as
earthquakes, droughts, tsunami, typhoons, and more take place, they are all termed natural
disasters. The types of disasters that result from the pollution of the environment or due to
accidents in the industries are termed as man-made disasters. These take place because
people living in overpopulated areas or the urban surroundings exploit environmental
resources. These areas become highly vulnerable since they are susceptible to the global
effects, tremors of the earth leading to earthquakes or ragging floods. They are also
vulnerable to various forms of disasters because of sudden fluctuations of seasons and the
unpredictability of the weather conditions and climatic changes. For example, unseasonal
rain can be witnessed in many parts of India.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines a disaster as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity,
or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes or by accident or
negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and
destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment and is of such
nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected
area.

India is taking an active interest in global initiatives on disaster management and has taken
the initiative of strengthening cooperation among South Asian countries for mitigating
disasters. India is working with the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (UNISDR) and with other countries for exchanging expertise and ideas on
managing disasters. There is the National Disaster Management Authority in India, which is
headed by the Prime Minister of India. The different states and districts have the State
Disaster Management Authority and District Disaster Management Authority who
undertake activities for disaster management. They are entrusted with the following
responsibilities:
 • To gauge the threat and danger of disasters
• To work at reducing, mitigating the risk of any disaster and its consequences
• To provide for capacity-building
• To be prepared for dealing with any disaster
• To have prompt action to any situation and threatening disaster
• To analyze and assess the magnitude of the disaster and its effects
• To work towards rescue, evacuation, and relief during disaster
• To provide effort for reconstruction, rehabilitation, and recovery

6.1.1Hazards and Vulnerability Profile of India

The socio-economic development, climatic changes, and altering of the demographical
situations worldwide have increased the levels of vulnerability for the countries regarding
disasters and hazards. The increase in industrialization accompanied by a high level of
urbanization and population has increased the use of biological, chemical, and radiological
substances. This use of harmful substances has subsequently increased the vulnerability to
disaster risks.
Since the nineteenth century onwards, India has seen several natural disasters that have
resulted in a major death toll, loss of property and infrastructures. The Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal are very vulnerable to cyclones that extend through India’s coastlines of 5,700
km. The coastal states which lie on the east coast and the west coast are very prone to
cyclones, floods, and river erosions.

According to various statistics and data made available by the government, the vulnerability
factor of India is as follows:
• 58.6% of the landmass in India is susceptible to earthquakes
• 68% of cultivable land in India is in danger of drought
• 12% of the land is susceptible to floods and erosion by rivers
• The coastal states of the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones
• The Indian coastline of 7,516 km is in danger of Cyclones and Tsunamis
• Sub-Himalayan and the Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides
India is vulnerable to several disasters because of its unique geo-climatic condition and
population growth, socio-economic conditions, environmental degradation, and other
topographical features that are prone to various disasters. It has high disaster-prone areas
that are vulnerable to earthquakes, landslides, forest fires, and droughts.

In the last thirty-five years, India has seen around 432 major disasters which have resulted
in huge loss to lives and property. The Orissa cyclone in 1999 and the Bhuj earthquake in
Gujarat in 2001 are some of the major disasters which the Indians have gone through.
Thereafter, there was a cloud burst in Leh with flash floods in the surrounding areas. The
Himalayan regions are very vulnerable to earthquakes due to the active crustal movement
in the Himalayan Mountains. However, the high-intensity earthquakes recorded sofar, have
occurred in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Kutch region of Gujarat, and the North-
East areas of India.

In 2004, there was an earthquake in the Indian Ocean that resulted in a tsunami that had its
epicenter off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The tsunami caused serious
damage to human lives, property and resulted in a large number of death tolls across the
country. Natural calamities, such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, hailstorms, droughts in
the arid regions, and more are the most frequently occurring disasters in India.

6.1.2 India’s Approach to Disaster Management

In India, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been set up under the
chairmanship of the Prime Minister of India. The body of NDMA is responsible for planning
and creating policies and guidelines for working on as well as coordinating the
implementation of disaster management in the country. Disaster management in the
country is the total responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs which works along with the
NDMA. The plan and policies of the NDMA guide the Central Ministers, State Governments,
and the District Administration to work on the various strategies and policies. The various
ministries and departments of the Government of India get their national plans approved by
the NDMA. There is also the National Crisis Management Committee which is chaired by the
Cabinet Secretary.
States have the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) which is headed by the Chief
Minister of the state. The SDMA is responsible for the coordination and implementation of
the state plans and policies for disaster management in the State. The NDMA and SDMA
work on the methods and measures that are needed for handling the hazards. They work on
development plans with the provision of funds in various states for the measures of
preparedness and mitigation and sustainable development for preventing the risk of
disasters. The structure for national disaster management in India is shown in Figure 1

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

GOVT OF INDIA
CABINET COMMITTEE
CABINETCOMMITTEE
ON MANAGEMENT OF HIGH LEVEL COMMITTEE
NATURAL CALAMITIES ON SECURITY

PLANNING NATIONALINSTITUTEOF
NDMA
COMMISSION DISASTERMANAGEMENT

NATIONAL CRISIS NFC

NATIONAL DISASTER
C
MANAGEMENT
RESPONSE FORCE
COMMITTEE
MHA O
NATIONAL DISASTER
MINISTRIES
&DEPARTMENTS
STATES MITIGATION RESOURCE
CENTRES
M
OF GOVT OF INDIA

SDMAs
MINISTRIES & M
ARMEDFORCES DEPARTMENTS OFSTATES
U
CENTRAL SECs
STATE POLICE
N
PARAMILITARY FORCES
IT
HOMEGUARDS DISTTs STATE DISASTER Y
CIVILDEFENCE
DDMAs RESPONSE FORCE
LOCAL FIRE
NCC, NSS &NYKS
AUTHORITIES SERVICES

ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS PROFESSIONAL BODIES

SCIENTIFICORGANISATIONS C O M M U N IT Y CORPORATESECTORS

TECHNICALINSTITUTIONS NGOs

Figure1:StructureforNationalDisasterManagementinIndia
Source: http://hp.gov.in/hpsdma/AboutUs/DMStructure.html

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the specialized force for disaster response.
It is the apex body for disaster management that coordinates with the NDMA and works on
their supervision during the time of disasters. At the state level, there is the State Disaster
Response Force (SDRF). The armed forces of India play a significant role in the structure of
India’s disaster management for helping the civil administration when required at the time
of disaster. They are called in by the civil administration. The state is unable to cope with
the disaster on a large scale. Apart from the armed forces, there are the Central Paramilitary
Forces, Fire Services, Civil Defense and Home Guards, and the State Disaster Response
Force.

6.2 Institutional Arrangement

The institutional arrangements determine the relationship and working of organizations,
institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards the reduction and
mitigation of disaster risk. Institutional arrangements coordinate the planning of various
organizations and institutions for implementing disaster programs and practices for
mitigating the effects of disasters. It requires synchronizing the work and procedure among
government, national- and state-level programs. They work through the different levels of
the institutional framework with planning, organizing, and reporting structures based on the
roles and responsibilities of the organizations and institutions for implementing their tasks.
There is normally a single entity that is responsible for coordinating the activities at each
government level and maintaining the levels of communication. Various steps involved in
the framework of risk management are as follows:

• To identify the risks

• To analyze the risks
• To evaluate the risks and establishing a process for policies
• To work on the risks and defining the main elements of the policy
• To follow the implementation and maintenance procedures
• To consult and communicate with others
• To monitor and review the process

Many methods are the main focus of the disaster mitigation policy for the reduction of
disaster risk. The methods are used for controlling the use of land, enforcing the code and
standards for engineering and construction activities. The methods also employ technology
for the process of warning and forecasting disasters. The policies for the mitigation of
disasters need to be implemented consistently and continuously for them to be successful.
The national government has an important role to play in formulating the framework for
disaster risk management. The government helps with the implementation, development,
and controlling of the policies and legislation required for the national disaster risk
management framework.
The national-level institutional arrangements in India are implemented through the National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) which was set up in India in 2005 under the
Disaster Management Act, 2005. NDMA is in New Delhi, India. It is the main body that is
responsible for laying down the policies, guidelines, and plans which need to be
implemented for disaster management. The NDMA aims at coordinating the activities for
effective preparedness and timely responding to disasters and hazards. It is headed by the
Prime Minister of India and is assisted by the National Executive Committee that consists of
Secretaries to the Government of India from different Ministries relating to health,
agriculture, atomic energy, drinking water supply, defense, rural development environment
and forests, and other departments which are involved with the ministries.

It is the responsibility of the National Executive Committee to plan, prepare and update the
required national policy for disaster management. The policies define the roles and
responsibilities of various departments to undertake measures for preventing and
mitigating disasters. The National Executive Committee works towards the preparedness
and development plans for the state and the region by effectively responding to any form of
disaster situation.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides the State Disaster Management Authority
(SDMA) of the different states with their Chief Minister as the chairperson. The State
government is guided by the State Executive Committee which is headed by the Chief
Secretary of the State. SDMA works in collaboration with the NDMA on the capability of the
state to handle disasters. SDMA analyses the vulnerability of the states and their capability
to handle disasters, adopt measures for prevention, mitigation, and forecasting disasters.
On the District level, the District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is the institution
for implementing and mitigating the disasters which are headed by the district magistrate
or the collector. The people from the community elect a co-chairperson as their
representative at the local level. Various plans for managing the disasters are made under
the guidelines of SDMA and the NDMA for preparing, mitigating, and preventing disasters.
The local institutions are the Panchayat and the Municipality which are responsible for
controlling and managing disaster relief operations during the disasters.

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), consisting of paramilitary forces is available
for providing help in disasters. The NDRF is headed by the Director-General of NDRF. NDRF
forces are available with the state government and are called in to help during the time of
disasters. They also provide training to the state personnel for responding to disasters and
conduct disaster awareness programs for the communities. Apart from these forces, the
Armed forces are called for helping the civil administration, whenever they are needed to
cope with disaster situations.

A legal framework of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 is illustrated in Figure 1:

Legal-Institutional Framework

Disaster ManagementAct-2005
Central National
Executive
Government MHA (DM cell) Committee
Nodal Ministry NDMA chair: HS

State
NIDM NDRF
Government State
SDMA executive
District Committee
Administration DMD
chair: CS

Panchayat Municipalities DDMA

Figure 1: Framework for Disaster Management at

Various Levels
Source: http://www.geographynotes.com/disaster-
management-2/india-disaster-management-2/institutional-
framework-of-disaster-management-in-india
6.2.1 Mitigation
Mitigation refers to the measures and efforts undertaken for reducing or eliminating the
impact of disasters before they occur. It is the process that is initiated to reduce the loss of
life and property by working on strategies that are helpful and cost-effective for dealing
with disasters. It is necessary to act before the disaster strikes for reducing the impact of
disasters. Disasters can happen at any time and any place, and the consequences can be
very damaging if people are not prepared in advance. The objective of mitigation involves
generating awareness about risks amongst the community, reducing the risks, working on
various structural and physical arrangements, adhering to certain rules and policies, and
strengthening the capabilities of the system. There are various methods of mitigation that
can reduce the damage and major impacts of disasters. They are discussed as follows:
• By effective planning and prevention measures
• By modifying building structures for protection by the following methods:
• Elevating structures in flood-prone areas
• Utility underground structures
• Creating flood walls
• Retention and detention structures
• Making culverts
• Construction of safe rooms
• By creating public awareness and education
• By the protection of natural resources
• By protecting critical facilities and infrastructure
• By deploying warning and emergency response services

Mitigation is important as it focuses on taking actions and measures at the correct time
before the occurrence of a disaster which helps in saving the personal, physical, and
financial resources and assets. The environmental health and socio-economic sustainability
of a community can be maintained through effective preparedness, prevention, and
mitigation of disasters. The government of India has also adopted measures for disaster
prevention and mitigation as an essential component in the disaster management
processes. Mitigation is being institutionalized through NDMA along with SDMA on the
methods for disaster mitigation according to the procedures outlined in their plans.
The process of mitigation has two approaches:

Structural approach: The structural approach of mitigation refers to the act of protection
from disasters or hazards. Under the structural approach, there are:
• Engineered structure
• Non-engineered structure

The engineered structure consists of the building and construction of bridges, dams, roads,
buildings, and more. The construction and design of these structures are based on the
guidelines and codes for construction and techniques in areas prone to disasters. On the
other hand, non-engineered structure forms are those that are instantly and informally
constructed with little or no intervention from qualified architects and engineers. Non-
engineered structures, such as coastal embankments, shelters for cyclones, and floodwalls,
are necessary for protection from floods and cyclones.

Non-structural approach: The non-structural approach refers to the coordination among

the government, agencies, organizations, and persons involved with the various processes
of disaster management. These are methods, techniques, activities, and policies which are
needed for creating awareness regarding hazards and encouraging developments to reduce
the impact of disasters. It is done through educating people and bringing a sense of
awareness through a legal framework, incentives, insurance, training, institutional building,
and warning systems.

Disaster mitigation is based on certain principles which are as follows:

• To provide training and generate awareness of the risk of hazards for the people and
the community
• To promote activities with the participation of the people and the community for
reducing the disaster risks
 • To determine mitigation measures in the development plans for the state and the
region for the disaster-prone areas
• To help with policymakers regarding nature and risks that could be faced by people
or communities
• To define proper decision making, planning through displays and exhibitions for
reducing the disaster risks
• To establish effective measures for implementing disaster mitigation plans across
various government levels based on the risk and vulnerability factors

Different phases of the disaster cycle are shown in Figure 2:

Mitigation Preparedness

Recovery
Response

Figure 2: Different Phases of Disaster Cycle

Source: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/disaster/Facilitator_Guide.pdf

6.2.2 Response and preparedness

Preparedness infers activities and measures which are initiated to prepare for and cut
down on the impact of disasters. It is a method that is used for predicting, preventing, and
mitigating the impact of hazards by making people aware of the impending calamity. The
process of preparedness consists of actions regarding the disaster risks faced by a
community for improving its capability to respond and recover from disasters. It helps
provide a planning method, organizing, coordinating, and improving the total effectiveness
of responding to disasters. It helps in mitigating the impact of the calamity on the people
and the community, and it further helps in coping effectively with the consequences. It is a
platform for activities that are integrated with risk reduction measures for preventing
situations of disasters. It also helps in saving lives and the livelihood of the people and
communities affected by the disaster. Disaster preparedness is a continuous process with
the activities and resources for reducing the risks of hazards and helping the affected
population to get back to normal life as early as possible.

There has been a paradigm shift in the approach for disaster management from previous
decades when it was more of a reactive process based on relief for attending to the
disasters. Now the process is based on more holistic and systematic management of
disasters at the national and state levels. It is an integration and coordination of activities
from different fields of healthcare, recovery, logistics, rescue training, institutional
development, recovery of livelihood of the people and communities from the disasters. The
preparedness helps in preserving the developmental efforts and taking corrective actions on
time for ensuring effective coordination during the hazards with minimizing the loss of lives,
property, and livelihood of the people.

Response relates to the activities which are initiated before, during, and after the impact of
a disaster. It focuses on saving lives, reducing losses and suffering. The process of response
helps with the efficient coordination of resources with the mobilization of required services
during an emergency in disasters. These services include the rescue teams, ambulance,
medical services, relief services, firefighters, police, and many other responsive agencies at
work during the disaster. The response action starts when there is an emergency or after a
disaster has happened, which consists of activities that help with the effect of the calamity.
It is the implementation of certain operational plans required for reducing the impact of a
disaster and limiting the losses in terms of the lives of people and their livelihood.
The response phase starts immediately after the disaster and the plans made during the
phase of preparedness are put into their various actions for the victims and the survivors.
The response starts with the first step of assessing the situation and providing relief to the
people. The government and various agencies are involved in providing the people with
medical aid and executing search and rescue efforts to restore transportation and
communication networks. The process starts with the tasks of determining the methods
and technologies for reducing the effects of a disaster by providing necessary supplies, food,
and water to the survivors. The process involves restoring the important infrastructure for
the people and the community. The process subsumes continuous analyses and
investigation into the nature and origin of the hazards.
Various phases which are involved with disaster preparedness and response planning are as
follows:
• To assess the risks
• To determine and provide the workforce
• To establish the availability of critical positions
• To form methods for warning and updates
• To test the efficiency of the plan
•
Different advantages which are involved with disaster preparedness and response planning
are as follows:
• They help in minimizing the loss of lives and property.
• They assist in effective and prompt action to prevent further damage.
• They aid to establish a disaster preparedness plan properly.
• They help with quick action on rehabilitation and recovery.
• They assist to take care of other emergencies like social conflicts.
• They provide planned and organized support from all the alliances with coordinating
all the activities.

6.2.3 Disaster Management Act and policies

Disasters have been increasing globally due to an increase in the level of population,
urbanization, and global climate change. An increase in the frequency and magnitude of
disasters has resulted in the degradation of the environment due to disasters that are on an
increase throughout the world. Every country requires a disaster management policy for
determining and maintaining proper resources to deal with every aspect of the threats of
disaster. It involves all institutional arrangements from the government departments and
the non-government agencies working at various levels with the communities. Disaster
management policies are essential to deal with disasters because, without them, the nation
would be at a loss and will suffer while dealing with disasters. The policies help with
minimizing and preventing the damaging impact of a natural or man-made hazard by
identifying their causes. The policies help in assimilating the following factors which relate
to national disasters:

• To determine the threat of disaster accurately

• To identify the impact which can be caused by the disaster
• To analyze and assess the required resources for dealing with the threat
• To provide the institutional arrangements needed to prepare, respond, mitigate and
recover from the events of the disaster
• To determine effective methods of integrating the national disaster management
policy with the other aspects of the policies for national development and protecting
the ecosystem
• To determine other factors which are applicable for the betterment of the people
and the environment

In India, the Disaster Management Act, 2005, was initiated for dealing with the
management of disasters. The act provides for the three institutions which have the
responsibility of handling the activities for disaster management which are:
a. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
b. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
c. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

The growth of the human population has interconnected communities and societies. This
interconnection has made the damages from the disasters more compound. Therefore, the
Disaster Management Act, 2005, has provided the process of managing the disaster which is
integrated and continuous. The implementation of the various policies and measures are
needed for the following:
• To prevent the threat and danger of any kind of disaster
 • To promote an environment of prevention, preparedness and make communities
resilient across all levels
• To reduce and mitigate the risk of any form of disaster and its consequences
• To contribute towards capacity development by establishing an institutional
framework for creating standards and the regulatory environment
• To establish mitigation measures based on technology for environmental sustenance
• To be prepared with an effective mechanism for identification, assessment, and
monitoring of disaster risks to deal with any kind of disaster
• To respond promptly to any threat of disaster or calamity
• To analyze and assess the gravity of the effects of any form of disaster
• To determine methods of relief, rescue, and evacuation processes with ensuring
efficient response and relief with a caring approach
• To provide rehabilitation, recovery, and reconstruction facilities with building
disaster-resilient structures for a safer living

Disaster Management Amendment Bill, 2006 was made to broaden the features available
regarding the disaster in the Disaster Management Act, 2005. Disaster management consists
of the phase before the disaster which includes the process of preparedness, mitigation, and
prevention. The phase also consists of response, reconstruction, rehabilitation, and recovery
from the disaster.

The focus of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 is as follows:

• The Act focuses on disaster prevention and risk reduction which has moved away
from the earlier concept which was mostly relief-centric.
• The Act has provided the creation of the National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) which would handle the
factors of preparedness and reduction of disaster risks at their levels.
• The Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for the division of Disaster Management
and for guiding and moving ahead with the work for National disaster.
 • The Act provides for the various departments and the respective ministries and
institutions to work according to their plans, drawn on the specifications of the
National planning.
• The Act provides for the financial arrangements and mechanisms for funds required
at the state and the national level, for the response through the National Disaster
Mitigation funds and other forms of financial Institutional arrangements

6.3 Summary
The disaster management framework is a set of tools that are integrated and coordinated
with the roles and responsibilities of the institutions and agencies responsible for
implementing them. The tools consist of the policies, institutional and legal arrangements
that are needed for addressing each of these actions provided in the framework for putting
it into practice. The national government is needed for establishing a disaster risk
management framework for the country which acts as a guideline for various levels of
government, institutions, agencies, and non-governmental organizations. The Disaster
Management Act, 2005 has provided for the institutional structures in India for disaster
management at the National, State, and District levels. It has led to the formation of the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) for making India safe from disasters and
making it disaster resilient.

The institutional arrangement determines the relationship and working of organizations,

institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards reduction and mitigation
of disaster risk. All the organizations have an important role to play with the government
being the major part of the framework in hazards and risk management, and for
coordination among organizations and institutions. The national-level institutional
arrangements in India are implemented through the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) which was set up in India in 2005 by the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
It is the main body that is responsible for laying down the policies, guidelines, and plans
which need to be implemented for disaster management.

6.4 Key Words

• Disaster Management Framework: It is a set of tools that are integrated and
coordinated with the roles and responsibilities of the institutions and agencies
responsible for implementing them.
• Institutional arrangement: It refers to the relationship and working of organizations,
institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards reduction and
mitigation of disaster risk.
• Mitigation: It refers to the measures and efforts undertaken for reducing or
eliminating the impact of disasters before they occur.
• Disaster preparedness: It can be deduced as activities and measures which are
initiated to prepare for and mitigate the impact of disasters.
• Response: It relates to the activities which are initiated before, during, and after the
impact of a disaster which focuses on saving lives and reducing losses
 7 Disaster Management in
India

Table of Contents
Unit Objectives
Introduction
Learning Outcomes
7.1 India and Disaster Management
7.1.1Hazards and Vulnerability Profile of India
7.1.2India’s Approach to Disaster Management
7.2 Components of Disaster Relief
7.2.1 Water
7.2.2 Food
7.2.3 Sanitation
7.2.4 Shelter
7.2.5 Health
7.3 Waste Management
7.3.1 Meaning and Objectives of Waste Management
7.3.2 Importance of Waste Management

7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

UNIT OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the concept of Disaster Management
 Describe the components of disaster relief of water, food, sanitation, shelter and
health
 Discuss waste management
 Elucidate the meaning and objectives of waste management
 Describe the importance of waste management

INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you studied the important concepts pertaining to disaster
management. The unit also elucidated the types of disasters that were further
classified into man-made and natural disasters. The unit also outlined the range
of the impact that disasters have on aspects, such as social, economic, political,
environmental, health and psychosocial.

Disasters are catastrophic events that could be natural or man-made. They result
in loss of lives, damage to properties, infrastructures and the environment. They
result in the loss of means of livelihood for the people and the essential services
are affected on a large scale. It becomes difficult for the people and the affected
communities to cope up with the hazard of the disasters. Disasters are not new to
people. Natural disasters can occur in the form of cyclones, earthquakes, floods,
landslides, hailstorms, snow avalanches, fires, soil erosion and many more events
that have affected mankind since time immemorial. Some examples of man-made
disasters are air and water pollution, train accidents, nuclear explosions, oil spills
and more forms of disasters.

Disasters are common events and, at times, they occur without any kind of
warning throughout the world. According to the latest analysis, disasters are
not only increasing in numbers, but also in the level of magnitude. They are
becoming more frequent, complex and are posing a threat to people, especially in
the underdeveloped regions with dense populations. There have been over two
hundred kinds of natural disasters in the different parts of the world in the latter
half of the twentieth century. The developed countries who have gone through the
disaster have suffered a major loss. Moreover, millions of people have lost their
lives. Unfortunately, Asia happens to be on top of the list for casualties because of
these disasters.

In this unit, you will be able to understand how India manages disasters and what is
the vulnerability profile of India. The unit will brief you about India’s approach
towards disaster management. The components of disaster relief, such as water,
food, sanitation, shelter and health will also be discussed. Later on, the unit will
discuss the meaning and objectives of waste management.
 Disaster Management in India

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The content and assessments of this unit have been developed to achieve the following
learning outcomes:
 Recognise the hazards and vulnerability profile in India
 Describe India’s approach to disaster management
 Discuss the importance of waste management

7.1 INDIA AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

India happens to be one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world because of
its geographical climate and its socio-economic vulnerability. A disaster causes an
extreme loss to mankind and the ecosystems by disrupting the normal functioning of
the community. The magnitude of disaster makes it difficult to cope with the loss of
the available resources. Disasters are sometimes classified according to their origin.
When disasters, such as earthquakes, droughts, tsunami, typhoons and more take
place, they are all termed as natural disasters. The types of disasters that result from
the pollution of the environment or due to accidents in the industries are termed as
man-made disasters. These take place because people living in overpopulated areas
or in the urban surroundings exploit environmental resources. These areas become
highly vulnerable since they are susceptible to the global effects, tremours of the
earth leading to earthquakes or ragging floods. They are also vulnerable to various
forms of disasters because of sudden fluctuations of seasons and the unpredictability
of the weather conditions and the climatic changes. For example, unseasonal rain
can be witnessed in many parts of India.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity
or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes or by accident
or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and
destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment and is of such nature
or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.
India is taking an active interest in global initiatives on disaster management and has
taken the initiative of strengthening cooperation among South Asian countries for
mitigating disasters. India is working with the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and with other countries for exchanging expertise
and ideas on managing disasters. There is the National Disaster Management
Authority in India, which is headed by the Prime Minister of India. The different states
and districts have the State Disaster Management Authority and District Disaster
Management Authority who undertake activities for disaster management. They are
entrusted with the following responsibilities:
 To gauge the threat and danger of disasters
 To work at reducing, mitigating the risk of any disaster and its consequences
 To provide for capacity-building
 To be prepared for dealing with any disaster
 To have prompt action to any situation and threatening disaster
 To analyse and assess the magnitude of the disaster and its effects
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

 To work towards rescue, evacuation and relief during disaster

 To provide effort for reconstruction, rehabilitation and recovery

7.1.1 HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

The socio-economic development, climatic changes and altering of the demographical
situations worldwide have increased the levels of vulnerability for the countries in
regards to disasters and hazards. The increase in industrialisation accompanied by a
high level of urbanisation and population has increased the use of biological, chemical
and radiological substances. This use of harmful substances has subsequently
increased the vulnerability to disaster risks.

Since the nineteenth century onwards, India has seen a number of natural disasters
that have resulted in a major death toll, loss of property and infrastructures. The
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are very vulnerable to cyclones that extend through
India’s coastlines of 5,700 km. The coastal states which lie on the east coast and on the
west coast are very prone to cyclones, floods and river erosions.
According to various statistics and data made available by the government, the
vulnerability factor of India is as follows:
 58.6% of the landmass in India is susceptible to earthquakes
 68% of cultivable land in India is in danger of drought
 12% of the land is susceptible to floods and erosion by rivers
 The coastal states of the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones
 The Indian coastline of 7,516 km is in danger of Cyclones and Tsunamis
 Sub-Himalayan and the Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides
India is vulnerable to a number of disasters because of its unique geo-climatic
condition and population growth, socio-economic conditions, environmental
degradation and other topographical features that are prone to various disasters. It has
high disaster-prone areas that are vulnerable to earthquakes, landslides, forest fires
and droughts.

In the last thirty-five years, India has seen around 432 major disasters which have
resulted in huge loss to lives and property. The Orissa cyclone in 1999 and the Bhuj
earthquake in Gujarat in 2001 are some of the major disasters which the Indians have
gone through. Thereafter, there was a cloud burst in Leh with flash floods in the
surrounding areas. The Himalayan regions are very vulnerable to earthquakes due
to the active crustal movement in the Himalayan Mountains. However, the high-
intensity earthquakes recorded so far, have occurred in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Kutch region of Gujarat and the North-East areas of India.

In 2004, there was an earthquake in the Indian Ocean that resulted in a tsunami that
had its epicentre off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The tsunami
caused serious damage to human lives, property and resulted in a large number
of death tolls across the country. Natural calamities, such as floods, earthquakes,
cyclones, hailstorms, droughts in the arid regions, and more are the most frequently
occurring disasters in India.
 Disaster Management in India

7.1.2 INDIA’S APPROACH TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

In India, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been set up
under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister of India. The body of NDMA is
responsible for planning, and creating policies and guidelines for working on as well
as coordinating the implementation of disaster management in the country. Disaster
management in the country is the total responsibility of the Ministry of Home
Affairs which works along with the NDMA. The plan and policies of the NDMA
guide the Central Ministers, State Governments and the District Administration to
work on the various strategies and policies. The various ministries and departments
of the Government of India get their national plans approved by the NDMA. There
is also the National Crisis Management Committee which is chaired by the Cabinet
Secretary.

States have the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) which is headed by
the Chief Minister of the state. The SDMA is responsible for the coordination and
implementation of the state plans and policies for disaster management in the State.
The NDMA and SDMA work on the methods and measures that are needed for
handling the hazards. They work on development plans with the provision of funds
in various states for the measures of preparedness and mitigation, and sustainable
development for preventing the risk of disasters. The structure for national disaster
management in India is shown in Figure 1:

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

GOVT OF INDIA
CABINET COMMITTEE
CABINET COMMITTEE
ON MANAGEMENT OF HIGH LEVEL COMMITTEE ON SECURITY
NATURAL CALAMITIES

PLANNING NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

COMMISSION DISASTER MANAGEMENT
NDMA
NATIONAL CRISIS
MANAGEMENT
NFC NATIONAL DISASTER
C
COMMITTEE RESPONSE FORCE
NATIONAL DISASTER O
MHA MITIGATION RESOURCE
MINISTRIES &
DEPARTMENTS STATES
CENTRES M
OF GOVT OF
INDIA
MINISTRIES &
M
SDMAs DEPARTMENTS OF STATES U
ARMED FORCES SECs
CENTRAL N
STATE POLICE
PARAMILITARY FORCES
I
DISTTs
HOME GUARDS
DDMAs
STATE DISASTER
RESPONSE FORCE
T
CIVIL DEFENCE
Y
LOCAL FIRE
NCC, NSS & NYKS AUTHORITIES SERVICES

ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS PROFESSIONAL BODIES

SCIENTIFICORGANISATIONS C O MM U N IT Y CORPORATE SECTORS

TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS NGOs

Figure 1: Structure for National Disaster Management in India

Source: http://hp.gov.in/hpsdma/AboutUs/DMStructure.html
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is the specialised force for disaster
response. It is the apex body for disaster management that coordinates with the
NDMA and works on their supervision during the time of disasters. At the state
level, there is the State Disaster Response Force (SDRF). The armed forces of India
play a significant role in the structure of India’s disaster management for helping
the civil administration when required at the time of disaster. They are called in by
the civil administration. The state is unable to cope with the disaster on a large scale.
Apart from the armed forces, there are the Central Paramilitary Forces, Fire Services,
Civil Defense and Home Guards and the State Disaster Response Force.

7.2 COMPONENTS OF DISASTER RELIEF

Disaster relief refers to the humanitarian assistance required by people and
communities affected by a calamity. They need relief in terms of food, shelter and
protection during the time of distress. Disaster relief helps in providing them with the
required essentials according to their needs and contributing effectively to their fast
recovery from calamity. It is the process of dealing with the situation of disaster by
coping, supporting and rebuilding the systems. The management of relief operations
requires effective coordination and a collaborative effort from the government,
community, and private and non-profit organisations for delivering essential relief
measures at the time of need. It is necessary to take action at the right time for saving
lives and being responsive to the needs of the affected people. The response can be
to provide the essential items and helping the affected people to recover and get
back to their normal routines. During disasters, people are immediately provided
with food, water, shelter, utensils, hygiene kits, tents, medical aid and more items
required by them.

Effective disaster relief management is a coordinated effort and a continuous process

by which all people, communities, organisations, etc., manage the hazards in an
effort to cope with the challenges and the impact of disasters. The actions are taken
depending on the risk the people are exposed to. Subsequently, the integration
of relief plans is required at all the levels of government and non-government
agencies. The disasters and hazards wreak havoc to the lives of the people, their
adverse impact retrogrades the growth and leave them vulnerable to various forms
of physical, social and economic forms of suffering. Even though the measures of
relief help communities with their immediate and essential needs, it is necessary to
have effective rehabilitation and a strong recovery process. This, in turn, would help
restore what they have lost. It would also help the people and the communities in
building their resilience.
 Disaster Management in India

It is necessary to do a total assessment of the damage to understand and analyse

the losses, gather data and information in regard to the impact of the disaster. The
analysis will help the team plan and organise strategies for the relief work. The relief
could be in terms of offering financial help, rebuilding homes, hospitals, schools,
toilets and other centres for the community.

7.2.1 WATER

The people can survive the disaster for several days without food, but cannot stay
long without water. During disasters, it may not be safe to drink water from the taps
as the water may be contaminated. After a hazard or a disaster has struck, it is very
difficult to predict the condition of drinking water. If there is a breach in the water
supply chain during the disaster, then there can be impurities in the water which make
it toxic and not fit for consumption. People should be supplied with clean and safe
drinking water to maintain well-being. There should be alternative methods to make
the water safe to drink by chemically treating the water. The most effective method of
purifying contaminated water is to boil the water.

Normally, the municipalities or government supply water through water tankers in

various camps and shelters. An average person requires almost one gallon of water
daily for drinking, cooking and sanitation purposes. Water can be stored in clean
containers with proper lids.

During an emergency situation, it is important to follow the given steps:

 It should be ensured that drinking water is bottled, boiled or disinfected with
chlorine.
 It is important to seal the bottled water which is used for drinking.
 If the water cannot be boiled, then it should be disinfected using bleach.
 It is necessary to stay hydrated at all times.
 It is important to protect the upstream water and wells.
 Surface water should not be used since it would be polluted.
 Pump water should be supplied to storage tanks for an effective distribution
system.

7.2.2 FOOD
Disaster victims require access to safe food and water after the disaster. When the
victims have experienced flood calamity, the food contaminated by floodwater
requires special attention. The floodwater carries a lot of diseases and filth that
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

contaminate food and water by making it unsafe to consume. The vegetables and
fruits which have been exposed to floodwater are not safe to be eaten. The kind of
food to supply during an emergency depends upon several factors since the need
of people differs according to their age. For example, small babies or children,
pregnant women, elderly people, etc., require special food depending upon their
age, condition, health and diet needs. Canned food can be kept for some time and,
generally, short-term emergency food supplies are required to meet the needs for
liquid intake, energy and special diets. During an emergency, people can be supplied
with canned food, which includes:
 Fruits and fruit juices
 Vegetables
 Soups, broths and stews
 Milk
 Bottled water
Voluntary organisations extend food for shelters and other mass feeding sites.
They can organise the distribution of food packages directly to households during
emergency situations. In Canada, there are food banks that have been made to help
individuals and families deal with food problems. Food banks can be formed by
charitable organisations throughout the country with their respective provincial
food bank associations to provide succour during calamity.

7.2.3 SANITATION
Disasters and calamities can occur in any part of the world. They affect the health
of the people, the livelihood of the people and the infrastructure of the country. The
problems of sanitation and health problems can get severe during disasters. Various
emergencies can surface ranging across biological, social and physical aspects which
pose a problem. The environmental situations at the time of emergency can pose
a threat to the well-being of the people in regards to water, sanitation, pollution,
shelter and other facilities that are provided to them at the time of calamity. The
lives of the people get disrupted with a major loss of economic, material and physical
infrastructure. The situation requires immediate attention with the rebuilding of the
drainage and sewage systems, providing water supply to bring the situation back
to normalcy and protecting the people from the spread of diseases and infections.

The main objective of the relief and emergency response is to help the people
medically. They aim to supply clean water for drinking and prevent the outbreak
of waterborne diseases. The main cause of these health problems is the pollution
of water resources that malfunctions the water supply due to the lack of sanitation
facilities. Improper sanitation can further exacerbate problems during or following
a disaster. It is necessary to work at providing basic sanitation facilities with the
provision of a sufficient quantity of safe water for promoting effective hygiene
behaviour. The sanitation activities which are required at the emergency shelters
are as follows:
 To provide clean, safe water for storage and sanitation purposes
 To circumvent indiscriminate defecation
 Disaster Management in India

 To create safe disposal of excreta and refuse, which can further help control rodents
and pests
 To integrate hygiene promotion within the community
 To ensure the continued safety of local water resources

7.2.4 SHELTER
Disasters that are natural and human-induced have caused major loss of life, injury,
damage to properties, infrastructures and degradation of the ecosystem. Under such
adverse circumstances, it is necessary to have an effective mechanism that provides
emergency shelter for people suffering from the hazards. There are many shelters that
are provided by the government and non-government organisations for coping with
the needs of emergency housing of the affected people. When a calamity has struck,
people may lose their belongings or may even have to leave their dwelling place.
Shelters are necessary as people need refuge when their homes are destroyed by a
disaster. During floods, when the water level reaches the danger mark, people have to
leave their homes. Until the situation improves, they stay in shelters. The shelters
provide water, food, medicine, health and basic sanitary facilities. The shelter facility
should encompass the following:

 To have the provision of temporary shelter and support for rehabilitation of

displaced persons from disasters
 To build temporary transitional shelters and distribute tents and other required
tools
 To have improved conditions for living in temporary shelters with effective
sanitation
 To provide financial assistance, buy material, and if possible, pay rents for the
affected families
 To evacuate, rescue and give medical facilities to the affected people
 To offer special shelter facilities for people with physical disabilities and chronic
illness as they would be unable to survive in a normal shelter environment
Mass care sheltering has provisions for many people to stay together. However,
these situations can become very stressful for the affected people to be confined in
a small cramped space. Shelters not only provide the immediate provision of basic
refuge, but also assist people, families and communities to recover and re-establish
themselves in the long run.

7.2.5 HEALTH
Disasters and other forms of calamities result in impacting the health of the people
due to inadequate water supply, sanitation, and poor hygiene. Large-scale population
movements during hazards bring in new challenges for managing health problems,
injuries, deaths, diseases, disabilities, psychosocial problems and other health issues.
To evacuate people from affected areas and relocate them to unfamiliar places can be
an uphill task. Moreover, if there is no access to water or proper hygiene, there is a
serious risk of transmission of disease. Generally, priorities at the time of emergency
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

include ensuring access to food, water supply, shelter, medical facility, sanitation
facility along with controlling diseases and facilities for public health. The health
problems that can arise are:
 Major injuries
 Emotional stress
 Epidemic of disease and communicable diseases
 Increase in indigenous diseases
Health care systems provide specific environmental health measures during the
hazardous phase for reducing the loss of life and protecting health conditions
by effectively changing the adverse conditions and minimising the damage and
suffering of the people. The victims are classified according to their problems for
implementing health care with well-equipped ambulances for transporting the
victims. People with serious injuries or with heart problems would need effective
medical facilities with systematic monitoring while transporting them to the health
care centres. Priorities in the acute emergency phase include:

 Ensuring the protection of water supplies from contamination

 Providing water for drinking, cooking, and personal and domestic hygiene
 Ensuring clean water containers for people to collect and store
 Providing people with the cooking utensils and fuel to cook food safely
 Educating people with the knowledge and understanding of avoiding health and
disease problems
 Providing people with soap and sanitation facilities

7.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT

The waste generated during disasters and hazards presents a major problem in rescue
operations and in delivering aid to the people. It also results in other problems
involving risk to health, environment and safety of the people while recovering their
livelihoods. Managing the disposal of waste possesses a big challenge. It should be
handled properly and in a timely manner. It should be safe, efficient and must help
conserve natural resources. The various forms of disasters, whether man-made or
natural, lead to the generation of a lot of waste which could be hazardous. The waste
generated makes it difficult for the administration and hinders government efforts
 Disaster Management in India

of reconstruction. The health of people can be affected by direct contact with the waste
or indirect sources, such as rodents and flies.

The disaster waste can also stymie the relief work by creating obstructions and access
to people in the affected areas. The waste requires fast removal from the populated
areas since it adds to an additional burden on the society and the communities of
people who are already struggling with the impact of the disaster. The disaster
waste contains a lot of valuable materials, such as rods, steel, wires, bricks and more
materials that can be effectively reused. Such material can be used to transform
commodities for the communities affected by the disaster. A lot of waste can be
recycled and reused for construction purposes, wherever possible, for mobilising
and supporting the recovery activities.

It is important to create urgent priorities for the hazards by following these steps:
 Characterising the waste according to the categories
 Using a data map in the affected areas for the waste
 Assessing the waste
 Prioritising the action to be taken
 Identifying the appropriate disposal sites for waste disposal
 Clearing the streets of waste to create access for relief provisions
 Using proper equipment and tools for waste removal
 Segregating healthcare waste, storing it separately and transporting to the disposal
sites
 Managing the waste by reusing and recycling methods

7.3.1 MEANING AND OBJECTIVES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Disasters can produce a large quantity of waste that can endanger the lives of the
people, block roads, block drainage channels and even trap people. Therefore, for
promptly restoring and recovering from disasters, it is important to manage the
waste which consists of damaged buildings, household goods and other materials.
The management of disaster waste in a safe manner is necessary for recovery
since prolonged exposure to waste is potentially risky to the public as well as
environmental health. Managing the disaster waste with safe handling and its fast
removal with effective approaches are important issues to mitigate disaster’s effect
on life and health.

An effective plan is necessary for disaster waste management to help with the relief
operations and for the community to identify options for collecting, disposing and
recycling waste. Recycling and reusing disaster waste can help to reduce the burden
on the environment by reducing landfill and replacing natural raw materials. An
integral aspect of waste management is to assure proper segregation of waste from the
source. It should also be noted that the waste passes through varied streams of
resource recovery along with recycling. The residue is deposited properly in sanitary
landfills which are the means of disposal for unutilised municipal solid waste that
cannot be reused or recycled.
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

The main objectives of waste management are as follows:

 To minimise the waste generation for protecting the well-being and health of the
people and the environment
 To minimise the use of natural resources
 To maximise the collection efficiency of waste
 To maximise the economic value of waste by reusing, recycling and recovering of
waste
 To develop and adopt environmentally sound treatment waste disposal methods
 To have an effective waste management system for preventing pollution and
ecological degradation
 To work towards ecological sustainable development effectively along with social
and economic development
 To promote and ensure the effective removal of waste through methods of landfill
 To make people aware of the harms that waste can pose to their health, well-being
and the surrounding

7.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Disaster results in damage to human lives, ecology and public utility services
with the accumulation of wastage. Disaster waste management involves thorough
planning that aims to identify and understand the types of waste materials that have
resulted from the disaster. An estimate can be taken from previous experience of
hazards and calamities with the help of tools and forecasting from other nations and
communities. When disasters occur, tons of mixed waste is generated. It is necessary
to initiate waste removal and disposal operations immediately. It is done to expedite
recovery operations, protect the public health and assure the safety of the people.
The disaster waste includes concrete rubble, plastic goods, steel, concrete wires and
bricks, vegetative waste, electronics appliances and many other things. The waste
collected from disaster-affected regions needs to be transported to the disposal
facilities site.

It is necessary to have an effective disaster waste management plan and prior

planning. Proper planning enables to manage and dispose of waste effectively. The
major quantities of the generated waste can exceed the capability of disposal facilities
for the process of recycling, composting and combustion of the waste. Therefore, it is
important to keep in mind the extra places to store or process waste material before
it is sent to the final disposal site. An effective disaster waste management plan
helps the people and the communities in defining the right management options in
advance with careful planning and organisation. Effective planning can prevent the
generation of extra waste, protect human health and the environment. An effective
response to disaster waste management programs helps in improving the quality
of the response. It helps boost the morale of the community and enable the disaster
management personnel to respond to the disaster effectively.
 Disaster Management in India

Waste management during a disaster helps in the following ways:

 It helps in maintaining the cleanliness of the place.
 It helps to reduce waterborne diseases, such as cholera and abdominal conditions.
 It assists in recycling hazardous waste into a productive form.
 It helps conserve the natural beauty of the ecosystem.
 It mitigates inadequate sanitation as improper sanitation can lead to major health
problems.

7.4 SUMMARY
Disasters are catastrophic events that could be natural or man-made. They result in
loss of lives, damage to properties, infrastructures and the environment. Disasters
result in the loss of important means of livelihood for the people and the essential
services are affected on a large scale. According to the latest analysis, disasters
are not only increasing in numbers, but also in the level of magnitude. They are
becoming more frequent and complex, and are posing a threat to the people in the
underdeveloped regions with dense populations. There have been over two hundred
kinds of natural disasters in the different parts of the world in the latter half of the
twentieth century.

India is susceptible to disaster owing to its geographical climate. A disaster causes

an extreme loss to mankind and the ecosystems by disrupting the normal
functioning of the community. Disasters are sometimes classified according to
their origin and when disasters, such as earthquakes, droughts, tsunami, typhoons
and more take place, they are all termed as natural disasters. The socio-economic
development, climatic changes and altering of the demographical situations
worldwide have increased the levels of vulnerability for the countries in regards to
disasters and hazards.
The increase in industrialisation accompanied by a high level of urbanisation and
population has increased the use of biological, chemical and radiological substances.
Disaster relief refers to the humanitarian assistance required by people and
communities affected by calamity and they need relief in terms of food, shelter, and
protection. Relief helps to provide them with the required essentials according to
their needs and contribute effectively to their fast recovery. It is the process of
dealing with the situation of disaster with coping, supporting and rebuilding the
systems.

The waste generated during disasters and hazards presents a major problem
in rescue operations and in delivering aid to the people. It also results in other
problems involving risk to health, environment and safety of the people along
with the recovery of their livelihoods. Managing the disposal of waste possesses a
big challenge. It should be handled properly and in a timely manner. It should be
safe, efficient and must help conserve natural resources.

7.5 KEY WORDS

 Disaster management: It refers to the management of processes and policies to handle the
disaster.
 SDMA: State Disaster Management Authority
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management
 NDRF: National Disaster Response Force
 Disaster relief: It refers to the humanitarian assistance required by people and communities
affected by a calamity in terms of food, shelter and protection.
 Recycling of waste: It is the method of converting waste into useful items that can be used again.
 8 Institutional Arrangements
in Disaster Management

Table of Contents
Unit Objectives
Introduction
Learning Outcomes

8.1 Institutional Arrangements

8.1.1 Mitigation
8.1.2 Response and Preparedness
8.1.3 Disaster Management Act and Policies
8.1.4 Other Related Legislations
8.2 Summary
8.3 Key Words
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

UNIT OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Elucidate the system of institutional arrangements
 Discuss the importance of mitigation
 Describe response and preparedness
 Explain the disaster management acts and policies
 Illustrate other related legislations

INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you studied how India manages disasters and what is the
vulnerability profile of India. The unit briefed about India’s approach towards disaster
management. The components of disaster relief, such as water, food, sanitation, shelter
and health were also discussed. Later on, the unit outlined waste management along
with its meaning and objectives.

The disaster management framework is a set of tools that are integrated and
coordinated with the roles and responsibilities of the institutions and agencies
responsible for implementing them. The policies, institutional arrangements and
legal arrangements are the main support for disaster risk management framework
since they are required for implementing and supporting the activities needed for
disaster risk reduction. The framework for the tools of disaster management is
required for mitigating disaster risks and determining the policies and goals
required for disaster risk reduction. Moreover, to define the resources to secure
them for disaster risk reduction, initiate and coordinate efforts in reducing disaster
risks.

It is necessary for government, institutions, agencies and non-government

organisations to identify and recognise the need for a national disaster risk
management. These institutions frame policies for the management of disaster risk
and determine the main elements of the policies. They also monitor, maintain and
review the implemented procedures, and measure the effectiveness of actions for risk
reduction.

The disasters have compelled the government to work on reforms, policies, legislative
actions, and create new programs and establish institutions. It is necessary to build the
confidence of the people in the disaster management systems, and to identify and
promote the best practices throughout the nation. India is considered as one of the
most vulnerable to disaster nations in the world. There have been a number of
disasters in India that have resulted in significant losses and have affected the
economy.

In this unit, you will get an insight into the institutional arrangements, mitigation,
response and preparedness towards eventualities. The unit will also outline the
disaster management acts and policies. The later part of the unit will discuss other
related legislations.
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The content and assessments of this unit have been developed to achieve the following
learning outcomes:
Summarise institutional arrangements
Elucidate mitigation
Explain response and preparedness
Describe the Disaster Management Acts and Policies

8.1 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

The institutional arrangements determine the relationship and working of
organisations, institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards the
reduction and mitigation of disaster risk. Institutional arrangements coordinate the
planning of various organisations and institutions for implementing disaster
programs and practices for mitigating the effects of disasters. It requires
synchronising the work and procedure among government, national- and state-level
programs. They work through the different levels on the institutional framework with
planning, organising and reporting structures based on the roles and responsibilities
of the organisations and institutions for implementing their tasks. There is normally
a single entity that is responsible for coordinating the activities at each government
level and maintaining the levels of communication. Various steps involved in the
framework of risk management are as follows:

 To identify the risks

 To analyse the risks
 To evaluate the risks and establishing a process for policies
 To work on the risks and defining the main elements of the policy
 To follow the implementation and maintenance procedures
 To consult and communicate with others
 To monitor and review the process
There are a number of methods that are the main focus of the disaster mitigation
policy for the reduction of disaster risk. The methods are used for controlling the use
of land, enforcing the code and standards for engineering and construction activities.
The methods also employ technology for the process of warning and forecasting of
the disasters. The policies for mitigation of disasters need to be implemented in a
consistent and continuous manner for them to be successful. The national government
has an important role to play for formulating the framework for disaster risk
management. The government helps with the implementation, development and
controlling of the policies and legislation required for the national disaster risk
management framework.
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

The national-level institutional arrangements in India are implemented through the

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) that was set up in India in 2005
under the Disaster Management Act, 2005. NDMA is located in New Delhi, India. It
is the main body that is responsible for laying down the policies, guidelines and plans
which need to be implemented for disaster management. The NDMA aims at
coordinating the activities for effective preparedness and timely responding to
disasters and hazards. It is headed by the Prime Minister of India and is assisted by
the National Executive Committee that consists of Secretaries to the Government of
India from different Ministries relating to health, agriculture, atomic energy, drinking
water supply, defence, rural development environment and forests, and other
departments which are involved with the ministries.

It is the responsibility of the National Executive Committee to plan, prepare and

update the required national policy for disaster management. The policies define the
roles and responsibilities of various departments to undertake measures for
preventing and mitigation of disasters. The National Executive Committee works
towards the preparedness and development plans for the state and the region by
effectively responding to any form of disaster situation.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides the State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA) of the different states with their Chief Minister as the chairperson.
The State government is guided by the State Executive Committee which is headed
by the Chief Secretary of the State. SDMA works in collaboration with the NDMA on
the capability of the state to handle disasters. SDMA analyses the vulnerability of the
states and their capability to handle disasters, adopt measures for prevention,
mitigation and forecasting disasters.

On the District level, the District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is the
institution for implementing and mitigating the disasters which are headed by the
district magistrate or the collector. The people from the community elect a co-
chairperson as their representative at the local level. Various plans for managing the
disasters are made under the guidelines of SDMA and the NDMA for preparing,
mitigating and preventing disasters. The local institutions are the Panchayat and the
Municipality which are responsible for controlling and managing disaster relief
operations during the disasters.

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), consisting of paramilitary forces is

available for providing help in disasters. The NDRF is headed by the Director- General
of NDRF. NDRF forces are available with the state government and are called in to
help during the time of disasters. They also provide training to the state personnel for
responding to disasters and conduct disaster awareness programs for the
communities. Apart from these forces, the Armed forces are called for helping the civil
administration, whenever they are needed to cope with the disaster situations.
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

A legal framework of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 is illustrated in Figure 1:

Legal-Institutional Framework
Disaster Management Act-2005

Central National
Government MHA (DM cell) Executive
Nodal Ministry NDMA
chair: HS

State
Government NIDM NDRF
State
executive
SDMA
Committee
District chair: CS
Administration DMD

Panchayat Municipalities DDMA

Figure 1: Framework for Disaster Management at Various Levels

Source: http://www.geographynotes.com/disaster-management-2/india-disaster-management-2/institutional-
framework-of-disaster-management-in-india

8.1.1 MITIGATION
Mitigation refers to the measures and efforts undertaken for reducing or eliminating
the impact of disasters before they occur. It is the process that is initiated to reduce
the loss of life and property by working on strategies that are helpful and cost-
effective for dealing with disasters. It is necessary to take action before the disaster
strikes for reducing the impact of disasters. Disasters can happen at any time and at
any place, and the consequences can be very damaging if people are not prepared in
advance. The objective of mitigation involves generating awareness about risks
amongst the community, reducing the risks, working on various structural and
physical arrangements, adhering to certain rules and policies and strengthening the
capabilities of the system. There are various methods of mitigation that are able to
reduce the damage and major impacts of disasters. They are discussed as follows:

 By effective planning and prevention measures

 By modifying building structures for protection by the following methods:
 Elevating structures in flood-prone areas
 Utility underground structures
 Creating flood walls
 Retention and detention structures
 Making culverts
 Construction of safe rooms
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

 By creating public awareness and education

 By the protection of natural resources
 By protecting critical facilities and infrastructure
 By deploying warning and emergency response services
Mitigation is important as it focusses on taking actions and measures at the correct
time before the occurrence of a disaster which helps in saving the personal, physical
and financial resources and assets. The environmental health and socio-economic
sustainability of a community can be maintained through effective preparedness,
prevention and mitigation of disasters. The government of India has also adopted
measures for disaster prevention and mitigation as an essential component in the
disaster management processes. Mitigation is being institutionalised through NDMA
along with SDMA on the methods for disaster mitigation according to the procedures
outlined in their plans.

The process of mitigation has two approaches:

 Structural approach: The structural approach of mitigation refers to the act of
protection from disasters or hazards. Under the structural approach, there are:
 Engineered structure
 Non-engineered structure
The engineered structure consists of building and construction of bridges, dams,
roads, buildings and more. The construction and design of these structures are
based on the guidelines and codes for construction and techniques in the areas
prone to disasters. On the other hand, non-engineered structure forms are those
that are instantly and informally constructed with little or no intervention of
qualified architects and engineers. Non-engineered structures, such as coastal
embankments, shelters for cyclones and floodwalls, are necessary for protection
from floods and cyclones.
 Non-structural approach: The non-structural approach refers to the coordination
among the government, agencies, organisations and persons involved with the
various processes of disaster management. These are methods, techniques,
activities and policies which are needed for creating awareness regarding hazards
and encouraging developments to reduce the impact of disasters. It is done through
educating people and bringing a sense of awareness through a legal framework,
incentives, insurance, training, institutional building and warning systems.

Disaster mitigation is based on certain principles which are as follows:

 To provide training and generate awareness of the risk of hazards for the people
and the community
 To promote activities with the participation of the people and the community for
reducing the disaster risks
 To determine mitigation measures in the development plans for the state and the
region for the disaster-prone areas
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

 To provide assistance for policy-makers regarding nature and risks that could be
faced by people or communities
 To define proper decision making, planning through displays and exhibitions for
reducing the disaster risks
 To establish effective measures for implementing disaster mitigation plans across
various government levels based on the risk and vulnerability factors
Different phases of the disaster cycle are shown in Figure 2:

Mitigation Preparedness

Recovery
Response

Figure 2: Different Phases of Disaster Cycle

Source: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/disaster/Facilitator_Guide.pdf

8.1.2 RESPONSE AND PREPAREDNESS

Preparedness infers activities and measures which are initiated to prepare for and cut
down on the impact of disasters. It is a method that is used for predicting, preventing
and mitigating the impact of hazards by making people aware of the impending
calamity. The process of preparedness consists of actions in regard to the disaster risks
faced by a community for improving its capability to respond and recover from
disasters. It helps provide a method for planning, organising, coordinating and
improving the total effectiveness of responding to disasters. It helps in mitigating the
impact of the calamity on the people and the community, and it further helps in
coping effectively with the consequences. It is a platform for activities that are
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

integrated with risk reduction measures for preventing situations of disasters. It also
helps in saving lives and the livelihood of the people and communities affected by the
disaster. The disaster preparedness is a continuous process with the activities and
resources for reducing the risks of hazards and helping the affected population to get
back to normal life as early as possible.

There has been a paradigm shift in the approach for disaster management from
previous decades when it was more of a reactive process based on relief for attending
to the disasters. Now the process is based on more holistic and systematic
management of disasters at the national and state levels. It is an integration and
coordination of activities from different fields of healthcare, recovery, logistics, rescue
training, institutional development, recovery of livelihood of the people and
communities form the disasters. The preparedness helps in preserving the
developmental efforts and taking corrective actions on time for ensuring effective
coordination during the hazards with minimising the loss of lives, property and
livelihood of the people.

Response relates to the activities which are initiated before, during and after the
impact of a disaster. It focusses on saving lives, reducing losses and suffering. The
process of response helps with the efficient coordination of resources with the
mobilisation of required services during an emergency in the area of disasters. These
services include the rescue teams, ambulance, medical services, relief services,
firefighters, police and many other responsive agencies at work during the disaster.
The response action starts when there is an emergency or after a disaster has
happened, which consists of activities that help with the effect of the calamity. It is
the implementation of certain operational plans required for reducing the impact of a
disaster and limiting the losses in terms of the lives of people and their livelihood.

The response phase starts immediately after the disaster and the plans made during
the phase of preparedness are put into their various actions for the victims and the
survivors. The response starts with the first step of assessing the situation and
providing relief to the people. The government and various agencies are involved in
providing the people with medical aid and executing search and rescue efforts to
restore transportation and communication networks. The process starts with the
tasks of determining the methods and technologies for reducing the effects of a
disaster by providing necessary supplies, food and water to the survivors. The process
involves restoring the important infrastructure for the people and the community.
The process subsumes continuous analyses and investigation into the nature and
origin of the hazards.

Various phases which are involved with disaster preparedness and response planning
are as follows:
 To assess the risks
 To determine and provide the workforce
 To establish the availability of critical positions
 To form methods for warning and updates
 To test the efficiency of the plan
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

Different advantages which are involved with disaster preparedness and response
planning are as follows:
 They help in minimising the loss of lives and property.
 They assist in effective and prompt action to prevent further damage.
 They aid to establish a disaster preparedness plan properly.
 They help with quick action on rehabilitation and recovery.
 They assist to take care of other emergency situations like social conflicts.
 They provide planned and organised support from all the alliances with
coordinating all the activities.

8.1.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT AND POLICIES

Disasters have been increasing globally due to an increase in the level of population,
urbanisation and global climate change. An increase in the frequency and magnitude
of disasters has resulted in the degradation of the environment due to disasters that
are on an increase throughout the world. Every country requires a disaster
management policy for determining and maintaining proper resources to deal with
every aspect of the threats of disaster. It involves all institutional arrangements from
the government departments and the non-government agencies working at various
levels with the communities. Disaster management policies are essential to deal with
the disasters because, without them, the nation would be at a loss and will suffer while
dealing with disasters. The policies help with minimising and preventing the
damaging impact of a natural or man-made hazard by identifying their causes. The
policies help in assimilating the following factors which relate to national disasters:
 To determine the threat of disaster accurately
 To identify the impact which can be caused by the disaster
 To analyse and assess the required resources for dealing with the threat
 To provide the institutional arrangements needed to prepare, respond, mitigate
and recover from the events of the disaster
 To determine effective methods of integrating the national disaster management
policy with the other aspects of the policies for national development and
protecting the ecosystem
 To determine other factors which are applicable for the betterment of the people
and the environment
In India, the Disaster Management Act, 2005, was initiated for dealing with the
management of disasters. The act provides for the three institutions which have the
responsibility of handling the activities for disaster management which are :
a. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
b. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
c. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
The growth of the human population has interconnected the communities and the
societies. This interconnection has made the damages from the disasters more
compound. Therefore, the Disaster Management Act, 2005, has provided the
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

process of managing the disaster which is integrated and continuous in nature. The
implementation of the various policies and measures are needed for the following:
 To prevent the threat and danger of any kind of disaster
 To promote an environment of prevention, preparedness and make communities
resilient across all levels
 To reduce and mitigate the risk of any form of disaster and its consequences
 To contribute towards capacity development with establishing an institutional
framework for creating standards and the regulatory environment
 To establish mitigation measures based on technology for environmental
sustenance
 To be prepared with an effective mechanism for identification, assessment and
monitoring of disaster risks to deal with any kind of disaster
 To respond in a prompt manner to any threat of disaster or calamity
 To analyse and assess the gravity of the effects of any form of disaster
 To determine methods of relief, rescue and evacuation processes with ensuring
efficient response and relief with a caring approach
 To provide rehabilitation, recovery and reconstruction facilities with building
disaster-resilient structures for a safer living
Disaster Management Amendment Bill, 2006 was made with the objective of broadening
the features available in regard to disaster in the Disaster Management Act, 2005. The
disaster management consists of the phase before the disaster which includes the
process of preparedness, mitigation and prevention. The phase also consists of response,
reconstruction, rehabilitation and recovery from the disaster.

The main focus of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 is as follows:

 The Act focusses on disaster prevention and risk reduction which has moved away
from the earlier concept which was mostly relief-centric.
 The Act has provided with the creation of the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) which
would handle the factors of preparedness and reduction of disaster risks at their
levels.
 Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for the division of Disaster Management
and for guiding and moving ahead with the work for National disaster.
 The Act provides for the various departments and the respective ministries and
institutions to work according to their plans, drawn on the specifications of the
National planning.
 The Act provides for the financial arrangements and mechanisms for funds
required at the state and the national level, for the response through the National
Disaster Mitigation funds and other forms of financial Institutional arrangements.

8.1.4 OTHER RELATED LEGISLATIONS

Laws and regulations are needed for enhancing the resilience of people and community
by reducing the risks posed by natural hazards. Laws and legislation are required for
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

making the place and the country safer for the people by implementing policies that are
required for reducing the risks. It highlighted the need for good legislation for building
the resilience of nations and communities to disasters, and supporting disaster risk
reduction. This effectively guided different nations including India for strengthening
laws and regulations for disaster risk reduction. This was followed by the Sendai
Framework for disaster risk reduction which succeeded the Hyogo Framework for
Action for building the resilience of the countries and communities towards disasters.

In the year 2016, the Prime Minister of India released the National Disaster Management
Plan, 2016 (NDMP). It was the first national plan prepared in the country for handling
disasters. The NDMP follows all the processes and systems which are promoted globally
by the United Nations. It follows the approach adopted at the Third UN World
Conference in Sendai in Japan on 18th March, 2015. It is an agreement followed by India
to contribute voluntarily for improving the disaster management processes and
incorporate the best practices in India in accordance with the guidance provided by the
Sendai Framework. The four best methods mentioned in the Sendai Framework are as
follows:
 To understand disaster risk in regards to its total effect on the people and the
environment
 To strengthen disaster risk governance at the national, state, region and global
levels
 To invest in disaster risk through various forms of public and private investments
for improving the socio-economic factors, health and other factors involving
people, communities and environment
 To enhance disaster preparedness for effective response and to strengthen the
various aspects of recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction
The important features of NDMP’s national plan are as follows:
 To incorporate the approach of the Sendai Framework
 To cover the different aspects of prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response
and recovery from the disasters
 To provide integration of various tasks and actions concerning the government
departments and the non-government agencies
 To assign the roles and responsibilities for the various level of central, states,
regions, district and the local level bodies with a certain structure of plans
 To form plans that are effective for managing, preventing and mitigating the
disasters and also contribute to the development
 To interlink various processes with critical activities of the early warning system,
distribution of communication, transportation, search and rescue operations,
medical facilities and more functions that are needed for managing the disasters
Environmental Awareness and Disaster Management

8.2 SUMMARY
The disaster management framework is a set of tools that are integrated and
coordinated with the roles and responsibilities of the institutions and agencies
responsible for implementing them. The tools consist of the policies, institutional and
legal arrangements that are needed for addressing each of these actions provided in
the framework for putting it into practice. The national government is needed for
establishing a disaster risk management framework for the country which acts as a
guideline for various levels of government, institutions, agencies, and non-
governmental organisations. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 has provided for
the institutional structures in India for disaster management at the National, State and
District levels. It has led to the formation of the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) for making India safe from disasters and making it disaster
-resilient.
The institutional arrangement determines the relationship and working of organisations,
institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards reduction and
mitigation of disaster risk. All the organisations have an important role to play with
the government being the major part of the framework in hazards and risk
management, and for coordination among organisations and institutions. The
national-level institutional arrangements in India are implemented through the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) that was set up in India in 2005 by
the Disaster Management Act, 2005. It is the main body that is responsible for laying
down the policies, guidelines, and plans which need to be implemented for disaster
management.

Mitigation refers to the measures and efforts undertaken for reducing or eliminating
the impact of disasters before they occur. It is the process that is initiated to reduce
the loss of life and property by working on strategies that are helpful and are cost-
effective for dealing with disasters for a long-term period. Disaster preparedness can
be deduced as activities and measures which are initiated to prepare for and mitigate
the impact of disasters. It is the method that is used for predicting, preventing and
mitigating the impact of hazards by making people aware of the impending calamity.
Disasters have been increasing globally due to an increase in the level of population,
urbanisation, and global climate change. The increase in frequency and magnitude of
disasters has resulted in the degradation of the environment due to disasters that
are on an increase throughout the world. Laws and regulations are needed for
enhancing the resilience of the people and the community by reducing the risks
 Institutional Arrangements in Disaster Management

because of natural hazards, and being prepared by preventing new risks from
appearing. These are required for making the place and the country safer for the people
by implementing policies that are required reducing the risks.

8.3 KEY WORDS

 Disaster Management Framework: It is a set of tools that are integrated and
coordinated with the roles and responsibilities of the institutions and agencies
responsible for implementing them.
 Institutional arrangement: It refers to the relationship and working of
organisations, institutions, governmental and non-governmental bodies towards
reduction and mitigation of disaster risk.
 Mitigation: It refers to the measures and efforts undertaken for reducing or
eliminating the impact of disasters before they occur.
 Disaster preparedness: It can be deduced as activities and measures which are
initiated to prepare for and mitigate the impact of disasters.
 Response: It relates to the activities which are initiated before, during and after the
impact of a disaster which focusses on saving lives and reducing losses.