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    676-G A Laboratory Study of Gravity Segregation in Frontal Drives

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    Felipe Baños

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    Ry, x UR: A Laboratory Study of Gravity Segregation in Frontal Drives FF CRAIG, JR J SANDERUN D, w. MOORE | PAN AMERICAN PETROLEUM CORP, JUNIOR MEMBERS AIME | TULSA, OKLA, TM GEFFEN MEMaeR AIME T.P.4649 ABSTRACT. Scaled reservoir models have been used to study the effect of gravity on vil recovery performance in frontal- drive operations; namely, water, gas, or solvent flooding The difference in density between the reservoir oil and the injected fluid causes their segregation, resulting in a non-uniform advance of the fluid front, In the labora- ory flow tests, which simulated both five-spot and linear injection operations in flat reservoirs, the viscous, capillary, and gravity forces present in these operations were scaled. Dyed fluids were used so that the gross movement of the injected fluid could be observed. The studies covered a range of injection rates, formation thicknesses, and rock and fluid properties normally en- ‘countered in field operations The results of the model tests indigate that the volume of the reservoir contacted by the injected fluid at its breakthrough into the producing sell iy less than that expected based on information which neglects gravity effects. This difference can often be a much as 80 per cent by gas or water injection in uniform sand bodies. Preliminary flow tests on a non-uniform sand body indicate that the uniformity of the flood fronts ‘may in some situations be influenced to a much greater degree by permeability variations within the rack body than by gravity effects. The magnitude of fluid segresa: tion due to gravity is controlled by the average injection rate, rather than day to day or week to week variations INTRODUCTION One of the important factors controlling the oil recovery from a frontal-drive operation, such as water, gas, oF solvent injection, is the volumetric sweep effi ciency. This factor is a’ measure of the gross portion of the reservoir that is contacted by the displacing fluid. The volumetric sweep efficiency is influenced by gravity effects, well arrangements, and variations in rock permeability within the reservoir. The gravity effects are of Patou, SPE 676- due to the displacing Muid being of different density than the reservoir oil. This causes the displacing Muid to move preferentially toward either the top or bottom (of the formation, Non-uniform advance of the flood front can be caused by the relative positions of the injection and production wells, Vatiations in rock per= meability also result in an uneven advance of the dis- placing Muid. Gas zones, representing paths af low resistance, may result in non-uniform movement of the injected fluid. The more uneven the advance of the dis placing fluid, the lower is the volumetric sweep eff- ciency and thus the lower the oil recovery efficiency. The effects of well arrangement and permeability variations, upon the gross movement of the injected fluid have been the subjects of extensive investign- fions."""** Gravity effects have heen recognized as being present in frontal-drive operations" but there has been little quantitative measure of theit magnitude, Very likely the reason gravity effects have not been studied is that this problem does not lend itself to simple experimental or mathematical analysis, The development of reservoir modeling techniques has made possible 2 quantitative determination of the effect of sravity on fluid segregation and thus upon the oil recovery performance of frontal-drive operations, This paper presents a progress repost on a laboratory investigation of gravity effects in fully liquid.-saturated, horizontal, uniform aswell as non-uniform systems These results were obtained from scaled experiments on both linear and five-spot systems within the range of conditions normally encountered in secondary recovery ‘operations. This study is concerned with the gross move: ‘ment of the injected uid to the time it frst reaches the production wellbore. Therefore, it should he empha- Sized that the results of this paper can not be used (0 determine the effect of gravity segregation on oil recovery efficiency at abandonment conditions MODEL SCALING The science of scaling models is relatively new as applied as petroleum production problems. Many of the scaling techniques have been adaptions of those used in basic studies of heat and fluid flow, There are {vo conventional means of determining sealing criteria, ‘These are (1), dimensional analysis’ and (2) inspec” sional analysis.” Determining scaling criteria by dimen- sional analysis consists of selecting all the variables that may influence the process, and combining these variables into a series oF dimensionless groups. This is a relatively simple procedure, However, special care must be taken so that the variables included are all those truly relevant to the process. In inspectional analysis all equations describing the behavior of the process are combined to form a single ‘equation. The coefficients of this equation are then combined to form the dimensionless sealing groups. The procedure in using inspectional analysis has been illus trated in the literature." The scaling criteria thus determined have a clear physical meaning, and their function in the process can be readily visualized. The sealing groups presented in this paper have been deter- mined by inspectional analysis. ‘A single differential equation was written combining the continuity equation with Darcy's law for both horizontal and vertical flow through @ uniformly aniso- tropic formation. Diffusion was not considered in formu- lating this equation. The resulting equation accounts for the properties of all the fluids involved and the flow properties of the rock. The following scaling criteria were derived by # procedure similar to that previously published.” a @ @ a where gravitational constant Specific permeability inhorizontal direction specific permeability in vertical direction relative permeability to oil relative permeability to the displacing uid ‘M = mobility ratio q. = linear injection rate (volumetric injection ‘erost-seetional area) x = length of system hickness of system nsity difference between the injected fand displaced fluids Interfacial tension etween the injected and displaced fluids isplacing fluid viscosity ‘The terms R., R., and Ry are similar to those devel- ‘oped for isotropie systems." ‘The scaling criteria, presented here, apply to the gross movement of the injected fluid in all frontal drive operations in which displacement is the sole mechanism. “These criteria do not apply to gas injection operations in which the injected gas dissolves to a significant extent in the reservoir oil. These scaling criteria apply to sol- vent injection operations having a negligible. mixing zone between the solvent and oil The term, R., is the ratio of the effective length to height, the geometric dimension of the system. Ry is the ratio of the displacing fluid mobility behind the Rood front, ky/ju, 10 the oil mobility ahead of the Hood front ky/i. This term expresses the relative ability of the displacing Muid to move behind the flood front to the ability of the oil to flow ahead of the front, For systems in which there is a saturation gradient behind the flood front, the displacing. phase mobility has heen found experimentally’ to be that at the average displacing phase saturation behind. the flood front, In water flooding, the more viscous the reservoir oil, the higher the mobility ratio. In solvent Nlooding, the permeability of the rock to both oil and solvent is the same, and the mobility ratio reduces to the oilsolvent viscosity ratio. The term, R,, isthe ratio of the viscous pressure gradient to the capillary pressure gradient, The term, Ry, is the ratio of the Viscous pressure gradient to the gravity gradient, or the ratio of the horizontal to vertical pressure gradients. Inherent in the use of these scaling factors is the requirement that the well arrangement in the model ‘must he the same as that in the prototype. Model low tests thus sealed provide information 4s (© the gross movement of the injected Aid through the sand body. Since the manner in which the injected ‘uid moves is not dependent upon the rock porosity, this factor need not be scaled. The relatively permeabil- ity characteristics of the rock affect the gross move- ment of the injected fiuid in uniform sand bodies only through the term R,. ‘A measure of the gross movement of the injected fluid is the portion of the rock volume that has been contacted by this fluid at the time it breaks through to 2 production well. This i termed the volumetric sweep elficiency, E,, ‘A single model test can be used to simulate many different field situations. For example, the volumetric ‘weep efficiency obtained in a test scaled to a particular water flood would apply to a gas injection operation with the same value of Ry, having a different injection rate anda correspondingly different oil-injected Muid density difference, That is, the volumetric sweep effi eiencies in frontal-drive operations depend upon the values of the scaling groups and not upon whether the injected fluid is gas, water, or solvent, EQUIPMENT Moor. On Fits: The advance of the displacing fluid in uniform sys- tems was studied using models of both linear systems and five-spot well arrangement patterns. These models ‘were constructed of transparent plastic and packed uniformly with closely sized sand or glass beads, To test the uniformity of the packing, the advance of the Hood front was observed When dyed water displaced clear water of the same density and viscosity, Con- solidated sandstone models, made of Torpedo. sand- stone (500 md) and Berea sandstone (150 md) were also used, ‘The linear unconsolidated models were from 16.5 to 66 in, long, having an inside cross section 1 by 4 in. With these models the ratio of the length of the system to its height ranged from 4.1 to 66. The consolidated sandstone models were of various dimensions, ranging from 10 to 34.5 in. long. ‘The unconsolidated models used in the study of fivespot pattern flooding were identical in geometry 0 one-eighth ot a five-spot well pattern (Fig. 1). Two sizes of models were made. The larger model was 46 in, between wellbores, and 4 in. thick. The openings into the sand body at the wellbores were 0.040 in Wide, With these dimensions, the model was geomeiric- ally scaled, for example, to'a fivespot pattern, having fone well every 10 acres, 40 ft of pay thickness, with wellbores I ft in diameter. The smaller models were 29 in, between wellhores and 3 in. thick. ‘To simulate a formation having one type of rock non-uniformity, a stratified fivespot_ model was con- structed. This model was similar in dimensions to the smaller uniform five-spot models previously described, but contained five parallel cloth separators. The sand body was thus divided into six strata having the same thickness, The strata were picked with different sized glass beads, such that each stratum was of different permeability. The cloth was of fine texture so that the beads were completely separated. However, the cloth hhad negligible resistance to flow across it, The perme: abilities of the strata ranged progressively from 5.8 10 , as determined from tests on the individual Feuns In the miscible flow tests, one liquid was water and the other a mixture of glycerol and water. In the mode! water floods, the oils were mixtures of decane and ‘mineral oil, the water being 0.1 N sodium chloride solution, In'the water floods in which reduced capillary elfects. were desired, either isopropyl or butyl alcohol was added to both the oil and water to reduce the inter~ facial tension. Either the injection or displaced liquid was dyed. “The advance of the flood front could then be observed through the transparent sides of the model PROCEDURE When using miscible fluids, the pore space of the model was first saturated with’the liquid simulating the reservoir oil, Then the liquid simulating the solvent ‘was pumped at a constant Tate into the injection well. Tn preparation for the model water floods, the pore space Was first saturated with water, which in tum was displaced with the hydrocarbon liquid representing the reservoir oil. The water remaining in the model after thorough flushing simulated reservoir connate water. Fic, 1-Mopet oF Fivsspor Went Antanciatest Injection water was then pumped at constant rate into the model. In measuring the volumetric sweep efficiencies, it was necessary to determine the fraction of the model volume that was contacted by the displacing fluid st breakthrough. This could be accomplished by noting the profile of the dyed flood front at the time it first reached the production well and measuring the fraction ‘of the model volume which had been invaded, Determi= nations of solvent breakthrough by observing the dyed fluids and by refractometer readings on the produced fluids were identical. Preliminary linear solvent floods indicated that the volumetric sweep efficiencies deter~ mined from the flood-front profiles were equal to the “oil” production at breakthrough, expressed as a frac- tion of the initial oil in place. This indicates that under the conditions of the model tests there was a negligible mixing zone between the injected and displaced fiuids. Tn these. model tests there Was no visual evidence of “fingering.” For convenience in measuring sweep efficiencies the model water floods were designed such that there was rno flowing oil behind the flood front. In the model water Moods, the sweep efficiencies obtained from the food-front profiles equaled the oil production to water breakthrough, expressed as a fraction of the total recoverable il. This agreement substantiated that in these model tests which were made at mobility ratios ‘below unity there was no flowing oil behind the flood front Model flow tests were conducted at mobility ratios from 0.057 to 200, and at simulated reservoir liquid injection rates of from 2 to 30 B/D/fe of formation thickness or gas injection rates of from 0.1 to 10 Met/D/ft, at reservoir temperature and pressure “These correspond to ranges of mobility ratios and in- jection rates normally encountered in field water flood- ing, gas injection, and solvent injection operations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lincrarions oF Stupy ‘The following limitations apply to the model study reported here: 1. The porous systems were completely liquid satu- rated, and therefore simulate reservoirs having zo gas saturation prior to fluid injection. 2, Inthe majority of the tests, sand bodies of uniform rock texture were studied, An exception was the model simulating a flat stratified forma- tion, having no resistance to flow between strata. Each of the strata were of uniform permeability 3. The study considers only the performance up to the time the injected fluid fist breaks through 10 the producing wells. \Venisteation oF SeALING Carrenia Before the scaling criteria could be used with con: fidence, it was necessary to establish their validity. Thi could be accomplished by comparing the results of tiflerent model tests having the same values of the sca- ling groups. Such tests were made, using miscible liquids, or linear models constructed of unconsolidated sand (130 dareies), Torpedo sandstone (500 md), and Beres sandstone, The sample of Berea sandstone had micro- scopic bedding planes, resulting in a permeability of 150 md. parallel to the bedding planes, and 75 md normal 10 them. Six sets of comparative tests were ‘made. Within each set of tests the values of R,, Ry, and , were constant. Fach set inchuded one test each on an unconsolidated sandstone model, a Torpedo sandstone ‘model, and a Berea sandstone model. The values of R,, the effective physical dimensions’ of the system, were 4 and 33, Three values of Ry, 0.174, 0.743, and 2.1 were used. Only one value of R,, 1.0, was studied in these comparative tests. As a consequence of the difference in permeabilities, the injection rates were adjusted so that within a given set of tests the term R, was tho same for each of the different porous media. ‘The volumetric sweep efficiencies for any given sot of tests agreed to within = 2 per cent. In view of the ‘wide range of permeabilities involved in these tests and the ranges of R, and Ry, it was possible to conclude from the resulls that the’ scaling criteria developed for frontal drives were valid To determine the validity of the sealing group, R.. involving the capillary pressure gradient, numerous model water floods were made, In these flow tests, the values of R,, Ry, and Ry were held constant. The value of R. was varied from 0.6 to 1,000, that is over the range encountered in normal field operating conditions. R, was varied by changing the oil-water interfacial tension with the addition of alcohol. It was noted that in model waterflood tests involving uniform per- meability systems, variations in the value of R, had negligible effect upon sweep efficiency. This indicates that in many water floods of uniform permeability sys- tems, the capillary pressure gradient has a negligible effect upon the gross movement of the water, This also applies to the gross movement of gas in a gas injection ‘operation, The results of these model water floods in which there were negligible capillary effects agree with those of miscible Now tests. This appears proper because it has been previously demonstrated’ that either miscible ‘or immiscible floods yield identical arca sweep off ciencies at breakthrough for the same mobility ratios, when capillary effects are negligible ‘Untronst Livean S¥STEMS The model flow tests on linear systems apply strictly to laboratory systems where there are no Well effects However the linear test resulis approximate those ex: pected for special field situations in whieh the food Progress in a linear manner. ‘Numerous experimental data were obtained at various values of the dimensionless scaling evteri, R., Ry and Re It the terms R, and R, are multiplied a 2' con venience for cortelaling purposes, the result is ain _ (Pe romney (Cr), ® It may be noted that the middle section of Eq, 5 has the dimensional form of the horizoatal viscous pressure differential, AP, divided by the vertical gravity pres Sure differential” AP... However, the term AP./AP, does not imply the ratio of actual pressure dillereniils 4 this term does not consider the varying horizontal pressure ilfereatal encountered with constant rate in- jection at mobility ratios other than unity, The product Of Ru and Ry is termed (AP\/AP,).,. in which the Subsetipt J indicates a linear system. “All the experi mental data obtained over a wide range of Ry and R could be adequately correlated by the term AP,/AP, Fig. 2 presents the volumetric sweop fliciency at breakthrough, E,., vs (APVAP.),, obtained from the resulis of model flow tests. On the basis ofthese results it is possible to conclude that gravity effects which result in lower oil recovery are diminished by increased injection rate. For a given injection rate there will be a lesser gravity ellect in reservoirs having a high ratio of distance between wells t pay thickness and having decreased values of Rs, The range of Ry encountered in normal field water- flooding operations is from 0.05 to 2.0; in gas drives, from 0.12 to 2.0. The values (AP\/AP.), of interest in field water oF gas injection projects range from 0.4 to 60. In these ranges of Rand (APV/AP.),, the volumetric sweep efficiencies at breakthrough are fram 20 to near 100 per cent in systems having uniform rock texture. If gravity effects are neglected in pre- dicting the performance of these systems, the oil recovery at breakthrough in field gas or water injec- tion projects may be as low as 20 per cent of that predicted In field solvent injection operations, the values of Rs between the oil and solvent range from 1.0 to 200, for ‘example if the solvent is LPG or alcohol, The values of volumetric sweep efficiencies at breakthrough obtained in the simulated solvent floods covering this range of R, were from 5 to 90 per cent. It is emphasized that the data presented in Fig. 2 were obtained by model fests in Which there was @ negligible mixing zone between the oll and solvent. The factors which result in the formation of a mixing zone, possibly diffusion pore size, pore size distribution, and/or length of travel Were not scaled in the laboratory experiments, The ratio of the mixing zone length to the length of the system in the model tests was appreciably smaller than that which is expected in field operations. The effect of the mixing zone length upon the volumetric sweep elficieney at breakthrough was not studied in detail, The volumetric sweep efficiencies obtained by exploratory model tests in which a mixing zone was established were im excess of those reported in Fig, 2 Unirons Five-spor SysteMs In the study of gravity effects in five-spot systems, oly gas and water injection operations were simulated In the previous section it was shown that, at break through of the injected fluid into the production wells, the volumetric sweep efficiencies of uniform linear sys. ems were dependent upon the product of R, and R., termed (AP,/AP,),. This expression must be modified to apply in a five-spot system. In such a system the linear rate of advance of the injected fluid decreases as it moves from the injection wellhore. The major por tion of the fluid volume of a five-spot pattern exists midway between the injection and production wells Therefore the representative linear velocity may be far) ater Fic. 2—Vouunserste Swuae Erricigscy ar Baraxtinoven sean Ustromse Syste selected as the average linear velocity midway between the injection and producing well, or ° aWwy in which Q is the volumetric injection rate, W is the width of a quadrant of the five-spot pattern midway between the injection and production well, andy is the formation thickness. 1¥ is also equal to the distance between injection and production wells. If this dimen- sion is also chosen as the representative length of fivespot system, x, then Ww. o Substituting Eqs. 6 and 7 into the expression for (AP./P,), the following expression results Py AP.) ,. in which the subscript, fs, indicates five-spot system. While the dimensionless five-spot scaling group has the form of the ratio of horizontal to vertical pressure difler- cntials, this expression cannot be interpreted in terms fof actual pressure differences since neither mobility ratio effects nor the formation resistance about the ‘wells is explicitly included. Fig. 3 presents the results of the model tests on uniform five-spot systems, expressed as the volumetric ‘weep efliciency at breakthrough vs the dimensionless sealing group, (AP,/AP.),... The model tests were made at mobility ratios from 0.057 to 1.85, the range encountered in normal gas or water injection operations The relationships defined by the experimental data are straight Tines on this plot for each mobility ratio. It is fof interest to note that this figure presents data from two different size models. The agreement serves to sub- stantiate the validity of the scaling group, (AP./\P,), In five-spot systems, with no gravity effects, the volumetric sweep efficiency at breakthrough ean be less than 100 per cent due to the well arrangement, There fore the volumetric sweep efficiency is not a measure only of the gravity effects in a five-spot system, The volumetric sweep efficiency with no gravity effects depends upon the mobility ratio and is equal to the areal sweep efficiency obtained in previous studies, in which negligible gravity effects were present, By com paring the sweep elficiencies shown in Fig. 3 with those expected with no gravity effects it may be seen that gravity effects can reduce the sweep efficiency to break: through (0 as low as 40 per cent of that expected with fo gravity segregation For normal field gas or water injection operations, the values of (AP,/AP,),. usually ie within the ra a= ro) «sy net gra earns (623) agate (SF) aaaR Fre. 3 Vourauiime Sweer Berienxcy av Barakrunoren Firaror Usitont Sysirs ee oneanrnoucn 0.2 to 16. Over this range in uniform systems, the actual oil recovery at breakthrough of the injected fluid can be from 40 io near 100 per cent of that predicted by methods which assume negligible gravity effects Thus gravity effects can play an important part in the oil recovery obtained by injection operations in uniform formations Nov-uNIFoRM Five-sPor SYSTEMS ‘An infinite variation in non-uniform systems. is Possible. However, to illustrate the combined effects ‘of gravity forces and variations in rock properties upon Aluid segregation, the results of one series of flow tests are given, These tesis were made using miscible liquids and therefore similate injection operations in. which there are negligible capillary effects. A model composed of six strata, each of different permeability as shown in Table I,'was used. Although these permeabilities are much greater than those encountered in field opera- tions, the results of sealed tests on this system apply to ‘any other system having the same relative range of permeability, eg, 5.7 to 127 md, By inverting this ‘model, either the most permeable or the least permeable stratum would be uppermost. ‘The results of these flow tests having a mobility ratio ‘of 0.745 are shown in Fig. 4, ploticd as the volumetric sweep ellicieney at breakthrough vs (\P/P.)).. AKO shown in this figure, for comparison purposes, are the Fesults of tesis with uniform five-spot systems, With no segregation of the iluids, due to cither permeability variations or gravity effects, the volumetric sweep eff- ciency at breakthrough is 73.1 per cent. With gravity ‘effects present, the volumetric sweep efficiencies of uniform systems range from 29 10 73 per cent over the range of (AP./AP.),.. normally encountered in field ‘operations. With only’ the effect of variations in rock permeability, the volumetric sweep efficiency of this Ide won 17.0 per cent With the fly ooh land rock “non-uniformities present, the sweep Sficiencies ranged from 14.3 to 17. per cent On the basis of this limited information, it may be concluded that ins non-uniform system, the breakthrough vol metric sweep efficiency, and thus the oil recovery at breakthrough, may in some situations be affected to a ireater degree by non-uniform rock charaecteristis than by gravity effects, ‘The stratified model test results shown on the upper curve in Fig, 4 were obtained with the most permeable stratum uppermost, the lower curve with the least permeable stratum uppermost, In these tests the injected uid was of greater density than tho in-place Mui, thus simulating a water flood. With the most permeable stratum at the bottom, the injected Mud moved prefer- entially through this stratum due to both its higher per- meability and gravity effects. Thus the injected fluid reached the production well faster through only a portion of the horizontal section, resulting in a lower volumetric sweep. With the mosi permeable stratum at the top of the model, the gravity effects tend to. ‘counterbalance the tendency of the injected uid to ‘move through the upper, more permeable stratum, This resulls in a higher volumetric sweep efficiency at the 4 «t —Le | FL we Fe. Ermner op Nossusisoniry ox Gnaviry Esrsers Mosniry Ratio = 075, time of breakthrough to the producing well. However, as the value of (AP,/AP,),. increases, the gravity eifects become Jess important, and the volumetric sweep efficiencies approach that for a situation ia which there are no gravity effects. These test results indicate that the effect of gravity upon fluid segregation in a non- uniform system depends upon the permeability arrange: ment. Though not proven by these tess, it is reasonable to speculate that the magnitude of gravity effects also depends upon the permeability range of the systems. Gravity Eprects witit VARIATIONS IN RATE ‘The effect of injection rate upon segregation of the fluids due to. gravity has been discussed earlier in this paper. In order to study the effect of variations in in- jection rate upon the volumetric sweep efficiency, water floods were made using a uniform five-spot model. The reservoir conditions simulated are shown in Table 2. ‘Three operation schedules were studied: (1) continuous injection and production operations from the start of water injection to oil flood-out, with a simulated rate of 143 B/D per well; (2) intermittent operations, simulating 15 days operating and 15 days shut in per month, with a simulated rate of 286 B/D per well, each day of operation; and (3) intermittent operations, simulating alternate days of operation and shut ia, with simulating rate of 286 B/D per well, each day of operation, Considering the water injected on a monthly basis, the intermittent water floods operated in effect at the same rate of the continuous flood (Test 1). The oil recovery performance of all three water floods was identical. These results indicate that the magnitude of segregation of the fluids due to gravity is influenced by the average water injection rate rather than day 10 day or week to week variations. Siotricance oF Gravity Eerects 1 ELD OPERATIONS. Model studies have indicated that when capillary effects are negligible, reduced injection and production rates can result in Iower oil recovery to breakthrough, ‘The magnitude of this rate sensitivity due to gravity effects is dependent upon the reservoir rock and fluid properties. The effect of gravity on oil recovery in uniform texture reservoirs may be estimated from the correlations presented in this paper. In some non-uni- form reservoirs, gravity effects may have no practical effect on the oil recovery. However, segregation of the fluids due to gravity forces should’ be borne in. mind when considering frontal-drive operations. The results of model studies of secondary recovery ‘operations indicate that the oil recovery to break: through of the injected fluid to the production wells is rate sensitive. When capillary effects can be neglected the lower the rate, the lower isthe oil recovery, regard less if reduced rates are due to lower daily rates oF intermittent operations. The magnitude of this rate sensitivity is also influenced by the permeability dis- tribution within the reservoir, It appears that the more uniform the reservoir rock texture, the greater is the magnitude of rate sensitivity. Insofar as actual reser- voirs are concerned, the possible influence of capillary effects must be considered, and each reservoir must be considered separately as to whether or not a varia- tion in range of practical rates will have a significant effect on oil recovery. CONCLUSIONS In the section entitled “Results and Discussion,” the limitations of this study were set forth. The following conclusions apply directly for the limited situations studied. For other situations, the results and conclusions can only serve as guides. 1, In linear gas or water injection operations in flat formations of uniform rock texture, segregation of the fuids due to gravity effects can result in oil recoveries to breakthrough as low as 20 per cent of those other- ‘wise expected. 2. In fivespot injection operations, in flat uniform systems, the oll recoveries at breakthrough can be as Tow as 40 per cont of those predicted by methods which assume negligible gravity effects 3. In secondary recovery operations in stratified rock formations, the oil recovery at breakthrough may be alfected to a greater degree by fluid segregation due to variations in rock properties rather than by gravity effets 4. The magnitude of segregation of the Muids due to gravity is influenced by the average injection rate, rather than day to day or week to week variations, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is expressed to J. D, Griffith, T. E. Dickerson, N. B. Simpson, and R. B, Lewis for their contributions and help in collecting the experimental data. The authors also wish to express their appreciation fo R. E. Collins, for his assistance in developing the scaling criteria for anisotropic systems, REFERENCES 1 Stile, W. Be of Permeability Distabution in Water Flood’ Calelasions Trans, AIME (1949). 186, 9 2 Maskat, Mz “The Hifect of Permeability Stratincation in Complete Water Drive Systems", Trans, AIME. (1980), 189, 34. 3. Dykes, H, and Paysons, R. Le: “The Prediction of Oil Recavery by Water Flood, Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United Stave, API, (1950) 4 Dyes, "AB. and Braun, P. Hs “Sweepout Patterns in Depleted and. in Stratiiod” Reservoirs": Prod, Monthy (1858), 195 25, 5. Dyes, A.B. Caudle, B, Ha and Erickson, R, A.: “Ot Pro- duction” Aer Breakthrough as Tafuerced. by Mel Ratio", tran, AINE (1954), 301, 8 6. Graig, FF, Geffen, T. My and Morse, Be Au “Ot Re aor Petganc’ of Pal Gan a. neti rations fom Model Test, ‘Frans, 2647 Warhol, R. Dy Hout H Ge and Malan, Ms “The Mechanics of Porous “Flow ‘Applied to" Water-fooding Problems", Frans AINE, (938), 203, 29. 1 Funk, E. Eu: “Beet of Production Restrictions on Water: flood Recovery", Presented APT. Meeting Wichita, Ken (April 6 956), 9 Langhaar, H. ei Dimensional and Theory of Models Tok Wiley aud Sons, Now York (381) 10. Ruark, A. E.z “Tnspectionsl Analysis, 4 Method which Sapplements Dimensional Analyst, J. Busha, Mitchell, See (1935), 51, 127 M1. Offetnga, Ty and van der Poel, Das “Displacement of Oil from Porous Media by Miseible Liquidy’, Tans. AIME, (G80), 301, 310. Groce, G. A. and Sehware, Nut “Theory of ly ‘Sealed “Models of Petroleum Reserva, Trans, ATME. (1985), 207, 118. 12, Rapoport, L, Aw "Sealing Laws for, Use in Desiga and Operation of WaterO;1 Flow Models" Trans, AIME. (loss), 204, 143, 14 Bngelbirts, WF, and Klinkenberg, Le Ju: “Laboratory periments on the Displacepeat of Oil by Water from Packs of Granular Materia", Pror. Thid World Petro- Tum Conaress, Seetion 11 (1961). Si, DISCUSSION This paper represents a valuable contribution t0 knowledge regarding the flow of fluids in porous medi ‘The authors have added a new technique for the scaling of flow in uniform anisotropie porous media. The extensiveness of the careful experimental investigations ‘of displacements in uniform sands is particularly to be commended and provides valuable quantitative infor- mation demonstrating the importance of considering gravitational forces in frontal-drive operations. The study of miscible displacements in the stratified sand introduces dats on a subject of widespread interest. It Js believed, owever, that the interpretations of the fietd applicability of results as expressed in this paper are valid only under very timited conditions and are apt to be misleading, ‘The authors conducted a series of displacement ex: periments in uniformly packed five-spot models from which they concluded that there is a large effect of injection rate on oil recovery at breakthrough of the displacing phaso in secondary recovery operations. In particular, they showed in Fig. 3 that as the ratio of horizontal to vertical pressure gradients, (AP\/AP.) is increased the oil recovery at breakthrough increases until critical value of (AP\/AP.),. is reached, above which further increases in (AP;/AP.),, do not result in increased oil recovery. Although this is undoubtedly correct for their model, itis important to note that the feated range of field operations in Fig. 3 is mis- leading. This can be illustrated by consideration of a ficld example, For instance in a reservoir having 10 ft thickness, 20’ md permeability, 20 acre five-spot well spacing, an oil-water density difference of 15.6 Ibs/fty and a mobility ratio of 0.3 (am oil viscosity of 1 ep), the oil production rate is 45 B/D, the value of (APL/AP,) nis 57. However, it can be noted in Fig. 3 that oil recovery at water breakthrough cannot be in- creased by increasing the rate at (AP,/AP,),, values sreater than 10. This means that in the above example reservoir the oil production rate could be decreased to 9 B/D before the gravitational forces would alter the oil recovery at water breakthrough, The fact that gravity segregation would be unimportant in many practical situations ean be illustrated further by referring to ‘Table 1 of this discussion. Here values of (AP\/AP.) are shown for several values of permeability and forma- tion thickness for a production rate of 43 B/D. From inspection of Table 1, it can be seen that (AP\/AP.);. ranges from 0.47 to” 117,000 with a majority of the values being greater than 10. ‘The principal reason for increasing the range of practical field operations probably results from the use ff smaller formation thicknesses than that used by the authors of the subject paper. Although there are un-

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