Chemistry Apparatus

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LIST OF FORM ONE TOPICS
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◦Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with composition
and decomposition of matter.
 Science is the scientific study of nature.
Science has three branches; Physics, chemistry and biology.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
◦People who studies chemistry are called Chemists.
◦People who studied chemistry in ancient times (before 1700)
were called Alchemists.
◦Science subjects involves experiments and practical works.
◦There are many branches of chemistry, the following are some of
them
i. Organic Chemistry
ii. Inorganic Chemistry
iii. Physical Chemistry
iv. Analytical Chemistry
v. Soil Chemistry

Places were chemistry is applied
◦ Chemistry is an important subject that is applied in different fields
such as agriculture, medicine, manufacturing, education, food and
beverage industry, home care and cosmetics industry.
◦ This means that Chemistry is applied in
i) Factories
ii) Homes
iii) Hospitals
iv) Laboratories
v) Research centres
vi) Universities
1 Agriculture Fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers, animal vaccines
2 Medicines Drugs, vaccines, food supplements
3 Home care and cosmetics Detergents, beauty products, soaps, shoe polish,
industry toothpaste, disinfectants, insecticides
4 Food and beverage Soft drinks, common salt, yeast, baking powder, canned
industry food
5 Manufacturing industry Paints, chemicals, varnishes, cement ,plastics
6 Textile industry Clothes, dyes
7 Transport Fuels, lubricants (eg oil and grease), coolants, tyres
1) Chemistry produces basic human needs like food, shelter,
and clothing, entertainment and health.
2) It leads to new discoveries.
3) Helps to get interesting careers and professions like
pharmacists, physicians, doctors and teachers.
4) It answers questions about nature of things, ie. Why iron
rust?
5) Enable to change natural resources into useful substances,
eg. glass, cement and medicine.
6) It serves life.
is a special room that is used for scientific
experiments.
◦Laboratories have special tools and equipment called Apparatus.
◦The laboratory must be full equipped with all the infrastructures
for safety.

Features of a good Laboratory
1) Good drainage system.
2) Water supply system
3) Availability of electricity.
4) Well illuminated
5) It should be well ventilated
6) The doors should open out ward
7) There should be gas supply
8) There should be fume chamber.
◦laboratory rule is the set of regulation governing practical
activities in the laboratory
◦Laboratories rules divided into three parts include

1. Before experiment
2. During experiment
3. After experiment

1.Before experiments
i) Do not enter the laboratory without the permission.
ii) Do not wear loose clothing.
iii) Tie back long hair.
iv) Roll up long sleeves.
v) Don’t walk with bare feet or in sandals.
vi) Keep the windows and door open for proper ventilation.
vii) Master the location of all exits.
viii) Don’t touch anything without permission.
2. During experiments
i) Read instructions carefully before you start any activity
ii) If you do not understand something, ask your teacher before
proceeding
iii) Read the labels on reagent bottles carefully.
iv) Do not interchange labels .
v) Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory.
vi) Do not smoke, play or run in the laboratory
vii) Do not taste or smell chemicals unless advised on how it
should be done
viii) Only perform the intended experiments.
ix) Do not spill liquids on the floor
x) Report any accidents to the teacher or laboratory assistant
immediately
xi) When heating substances, direct the mouth of the test tube away
from you or others.
xii) Use lighter or wooden splints to light burners(Do not use
papers)
xiii) Always strike the match before turning on the gas tap.

3. After experiments
i) Dispose all the wastes and the reagents which remained.
ii) Wash all the apparatus you have used and store them safely.
iii) Clean the working surfaces and benches.
iv) Wash your hands with soap and running water.

◦First aid is the help given to a sick or injured person before
getting professional medical help.
◦A person who is proving first aid is called .
1. It helps to serve (preserve) life

2. It prevents the victim’s condition from becoming worse
3. It promotes recovery.
4. It bring hope and encouragement to the victim
5. It helps to reduce pain and suffering
6. It prevents infection
7. It prevents permanent disability
First Aid Kit
◦First aid kit is the small box contains items that are used to give
first aid.
◦Usual labelled as “FIRST AID” and stored in a safe and easily
accessible place.
◦The items that are used to give first aid are known as
.

First aid kit components and their functions
ITEM FUNCTION
1 First Aid Manual Contains guidelines on how to use the items
in the first aid kit
2 Antiseptic(eg Dettol, usol) Cleaning wound to kill germs
3 Soap washing hands, wounds and equipment
4 Cotton wool Cleaning and drying wounds
5 Disposable sterile gloves Preventing direct contact with victim’s body
fluids
6 Liniment Reducing muscular pain
7 Painkillers Relieving pain
ITEM FUNCTION
8 Plaster(adhensive bandage) Covering minor wounds
9 Gauze bandage Keeping dressings in place and
immobilizing injured limbs
10 Elastic clip bandage Immobilizing the sprained muscle or joint
11 Sterile gauze Covering wounds to protect them from
dirty and germs
12 Safety pins (clips) Securing bandages or dressing.
13 Scissors and razor blades Cutting dressing materials.
14 Petroleum jelly Smoothening the skin
15 Torch Source of light
ITEM FUNCTION
16 Whistle Blow to call for help
17 Gentian violet For fungal infection of the skin and mouth.
Also used for the treatment of serious heat
burns
18 Thermometer Measure body temperature

Weekly test 15 minutes
1)What is laboratory?
2)Mention four laboratory rules?
3)What is first aid
4)Mention three importance of first aid.
5)List five first aid kit components.

Causes of Laboratory Accident
1. Slippery floor
2. Gas leakages from faulty gas taps
3. Fires
4. Failure to follow the right experimental procedures.
5. Spilling of the liquid on the floor
6. Improper waste disposal.
7. Using wrong equipment.
8. Poor ventilation may cause poisoning and suffocation.

First Aid Procedure
◦Physical injuries and even sudden illness may occur in the
laboratory due to different reasons. It may be due to:-
 Gas leaks
 Fires
 Liquids and chemical spills

◦Burns is an injury resulting from contact with heat or harmful
chemicals.
◦Burns may be caused by liquids or vapour is called scalds.
Effect of burns
◦Burns cause blisters on skin
◦The skin becomes charred and peels off if burn is severe.

Procedure
i. Lay the victim down and protect the burnt area from coming
contact with ground.
ii. Gently pour cold water on the burn for about 10 minutes to cool it
and reduce pain.
Note: if the burn is severe, immediately call for medical help
iii. Check the breath and pulse and prepare to resuscitate the victim,
if necessary
iv. Gently remove any Jewellery, shoes or burnt clothing from the
injured area
Note: Do not remove any sticking clothing to the skin when
loosing tight clothing.
v. Cover the burn with sterile gauze and wrap it loosely with
bandage to avoid pressure on the skin
Note: Do not use fluffy cotton.
vi. Give the victim a pain reliever and treat them for shock
vii. Seek medical help immediately
Caution!
1) Do not use ice as it further damages the skin
2) Do not apply ointment or butter to the burn since this prevents
proper healing
3) Do not break any blisters as this can cause infection
4) Burns to the face and in the mouth or throat are serious as they
cause rapid inflammation of air passage and may cause
suffocation. In such case seek medical help immediately.
◦Is the condition in which the lungs are not getting enough oxygen
hence causing difficulty in breathing.
◦It may lead to appearance of foam at the mouth and nostrils.
◦A victim may eventually lose consciousness.
◦Some chemicals when inhaled may cause suffocation.

Procedures
i) Remove the cause if possible, or remove the victim from the
cause of suffocation.
ii)Ensure the victim’s airway is open for air to reach the lungs. Do
this by placing the victim on his/her back. Tilt the head
backwards to open the airway.
iii)Administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
◦ This involves mouth to mouth resuscitation and compressing
chest with two hands.
iv)Keep the victim warm using light blanket.
v) Seek medical help immediately.

◦Chocking is the blockage of the upper part of the airway by food or
other objects.
◦Chocking may lead to difficulty in speaking and breathing.
Procedure
i. Encourage the victim to cough up the object
ii. If the subject remain stuck, give firm but gentle taps between
the shoulder blade
iii. If the object is still stuck, perform the Heimlich manoeuver.

Heimlich maneuver involves the following
a) Stand behind the victim
b) Grasp fist placed near the top of the victim’s stomach
c) Make quick upwards thrusts to dislodge the object
d) Repeat the thrusts until the object comes out

•Apparatus are special tools and equipment that are used in the
laboratory.
•They are made up by glass, clay or plastic materials.
•But most of the apparatus are made up by glass materials, ?
1. They are transparent, hence its easy to observe changes taking
place during chemical reactions example: colour change.
2. Are not easily destructed by heat.
3. They do not catch soot easily when used in heating.
4. It is easy to wash the apparatus made by glass materials.
5. They are not easily corroded by chemicals.
1. Pipette: Is the apparatus used to measure a fixed
volume of liquids.
◦ It is a narrow glass tube into which small
amounts of liquid are suctioned for transfer to
other containers.
◦ Normally it is used to measure volume of base.
◦ Normal pipettes are 25ml and 20ml.

2. Burette: Is used to accurate measure and
dispense volume liquids.
◦It is commonly used in titrations whereby it
measures the volume of acid used.
3. Measuring cylinder: Is a glass or plastic

container that is graduated to measure volume
of liquids.

4.Measuring syringe: is used for sucking in and measuring
specific volumes of liquids or gases.
5. Thermometer: It is used to measure the temperature of

substances.
 The units for temperature is Degree Celsius.

6. Triple beam balance: Is used for measure
the mass of chemicals.
7. Electronic beam balance: Is the device that

is used to measure the mass of chemicals.
◦It give more accurate readings than the beam
balance.

8. Stopwatch: is a special watch that is used to record time
accurately in laboratory processes.

1. Beaker: is a glass or plastic container that is used
for holding chemicals. Approx.
250 ml
◦It is also used for

 Heating chemicals
 Mixing chemicals
2. Test tube: Is used for heating substances for short
period of time.
◦It is also used for
Holding chemicals
Mixing chemicals.
3. Flasks: They are the apparatus used for holding liquids during
experiments.
◦There are different types of flasks used in the laboratory.
◦These include the conical flask, round-bottom flask, flat-bottom
flask and distilling flasks.

4. Dropper: Is used to add liquids during an experiment,
drop by drop.
5. Watch glass: Is used as a surface to evaporate some

liquids. It is very shallow circular glass container.
◦ It has other functions such as:-
 Holding substance that are being weighed or observed.
 Cover for a beaker.
6. Gas jar: This is a glass container that is used for collecting gases
during experiments.
7. Thistle funnel: Is a glass funnel with a wide top and a long stem.
It is used to add reagents into flasks during experiments.

8. Bell jar : Is the vessel used to collect gases in large amounts.
9. Desiccator : Is the apparatus used in drying chemical substances.

1. Bunsen burners : Is the device used for heating substances in
the laboratory.
2. Boiling tube: is a large test tube that is used to heat substances

at high temperature.

3. Tripod stand: is a stand that is used for
supporting apparatus during heating.
◦It has three legs, hence its name(“tri” means
three, “podia” means legs)
◦It is usually placed above the Bunsen burner
when heating or boiling substances.
4. Wire gauze: Is the apparatus which spreads
out the flame and heat evenly under the
container.
◦It also trap the soot.
◦It is usually placed on a tripod stand.
5. Crucible: Is a container in which is used for
heating substances strongly.
6. Evaporating dish: It is the apparatus used

to heat and evaporate liquids and solutions.
◦Its a shallow bowl with Curled lip.
◦It can be heated to very high temperatures.

7. Deflagrating spoon: is a long-handled spoon used to heat small
amount of substances inside a gas jar.
◦Its cover helps to prevent air to escape easily from a gas jar.
Deflagrating spoon
Gas jar
Deflagrating spoon
The chemical is being burned inside
the gas jar using deflagrating spoon
1. Filter funnel: It is the apparatus that is used for
separating solids from liquids.
◦It is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom.
2. Filter paper: is usually folded into a cone and placed

in a filter funnel to separate solids from liquids.

1. Mortar and pestle: Are used for grinding substances.
◦They are made up of clay materials.
1.Test tube rack: Is a structure that is specially designed for placing

test tubes so that they do not roll or break.

2. Test tube holder: Is an instrument that is used for holding a
test tube while heating.
3. Retort stand and clamp: These are used to hold apparatus

such as burette during experiment.

4. Tongs: Is an instrument that is used to hold
hot substances and apparatus.
1. Reagent bottles: Is the bottle used to store

different chemicals.
◦Each labeled with the chemical it contains.

2. Dropping bottle: Is the bottle used to store different chemicals.
Its cover is modified into a dropper.
3. Plastic wash bottles: is used for storing distilled water.

◦ Scooping is the picking up of substance especially in powder
form using a spoon.
1. Spatula: is used for scooping small quantities of powder or
crystalline chemicals.

1. Safety goggles: are used to protect the eyes from chemical
spills, strong light and harmful vapours in the laboratory.
2. Nose mask: Is the apparatus used to prevent inhaling the

fumes and chemical spills.

•Chemical warning signs are safety symbols found on
chemical containers, especially those used in the laboratory.
•They are important to ensure safety in the laboratory.
•The following are some of the warning signs used in the

laboratory and their meaning:

1.Harmful: This substance is may cause
illness. Eg paints.
◦Harmful substance does not kill
instantly.
2. Irritant: This substance can irritate

parts of the body. Eg mercury.

3. Radioactive: this substance emits harmful
radiations. Eg uranium
4. Corrosive: This substance burning to the

surface or human body. Eg acids and bases

5. Toxic: This shows substance which is
dangerous and can cause death. Eg
insecticides
6. Oxidant: This is a substance which

accelerates burning of fire.

7. Flammable: This is a substance which
catches fire easily. Eg petrol, diesel
8. Explosive: This is a substance which

explodes easily. Eg petroleum gas

9. Fragile: This shows a substance breaks
easily if poorly handled. It should be
handled with care to prevent it from
breaking. Eg glass laboratory apparatus
10. Caution: This symbol advise you to be

careful.
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11. Danger of electric shock: this substance
has high voltage and should not be touch.
12. Keep Away From Water : Symbol that is the

caution advise you to keep item away from
the water. Example computer, mobile
phones and radio

are substance which produces heat energy.
•They are also known as burners.
•Burners uses fuel or electricity to produce heat energy.
•When fuel burns they produce heat and light.
is a form of energy which brings about rise in temperature.
•Thus, heat is simply the quality of being hot.
•There are two main types of heat sources
: This is a naturally occurring heat source.
Example: the sun.
: This is the man made heat source.
Example; Candle, Charcoal burner, Kerosene stove, Electric
burner, Spirit burner, Gas stove, Bunsen burner
i) Candle: Is the heat source which is made up with waxy materials.
◦It gives yellow flame which is very bright.
ii) Charcoal burner: Is the heat source which uses charcoal as the
fuel.
iii) Kerosene burner: Is the heat source which uses kerosene as the
fuel.
◦It gives blue flame which is very hot and can be regulated.
iv) Electric burner: Is the heat source which uses electric energy
to produce heat energy.
◦It gives very high amount of heat and can easily be regulated.
◦But electric burner is limited to the regions where electricity is
available.
v) Spirit burner: Is the heat source which uses spirit as the fuel.
◦It gives yellow flame which give bright light.
vi) Gas stove: Is the heat source which uses gaseous fuel.
◦It gives blue flame which is very hot and can be regulated.

v) Bunsen burner: Is a small adjustable heat source that is
connected to the gas source.
•It was discovered scientist called Robert Bunsen 1885.
•Bunsen burner has six parts, which are
1. Base 2. Gas hole
3. Pipe point jet 4. Air holes
5. Collar 6. Chimney (barrel)

Barrel (chimney)
Collar
Air hole
Jet
Gas in – let tube
Base
1. Base – it gives stability to Bunsen burner.It is due to its heavy
weight when placed on bench.
2. Gas hole/gas in-let tube-lets the gas on from the gas supply.
3. Jet-Directs the gas to the barrel.
4. Collar-Regulates the amount of air entering the burner so as to
get the required flame.
5.Air holes-These are holes allow air (oxygen) in to support
burning of gas.
6. Chimney-is a part of the burner where air from outside and gas
from gas supply mix up and burn.

How to light a Bunsen burner
1. Connect the Bunsen burner by a rubber tube to the gas
supply.
2. Close the air holes.
3. Turn the gas tap on to let in sufficient gas.
4. Quickly bring a flame at the top of the barrel.
5. Turn the collar to adjust the air holes until you get a type
of a flame you want.
6. Adjust the gas tap until the gas supply enough to produce
a non luminous flame.
NOTE;
◦To put off the flame of the burner after you finish heating a
substance turn the gas tap off in order to cut off the gas
supply to the burner.
◦Never turn on the gas tap before starting up the flame.

◦Flame is a region of burning gases that gives out heat and light.
◦It is the visible glowing part of a fire.
◦The flame is formed when fuel burns.
◦The colour and amount of heat produced when the fuel burns
depends on the fuel and the heat source.
◦They are two main types of flames, these are:-
i) Luminous flame
ii) Non – luminous flame

◦Is a flame which gives out bright-yellow light.
◦The flame is sooty and yellow colour is because the oxygen
supplied is not enough to complete burning of the fuel.
◦In the Bunsen burner luminous flame is formed when the air
holes are closed.
◦It consists four parts (zones)
(i) Thin outer zone (ii) Luminous and yellow zone
(iv) Zone of unburnt gas (iv)Blue or green zone

Characteristics of a luminous flame
1. It is bright-yellow in colour
2. It burns quietly.
3. It has four zones.
4. It is sooty.
5. It is unstable.
6. It is not very hot.
7. Has a wavy shape.

Example of luminous flame
1.Coal gas flame
2.Kerosene lamp flame
3.Fire wood flame
4.Candle flame
5.Tin lamp flame

Uses of non-luminous flame
1. Used for lighting purposes
2. Used in the flame test.

◦Non Luminous flame is the flame which is blue in colour.
◦It produced when the oxygen supply is usually enough to
complete burn up the fuel.
◦In the Bunsen burner luminous flame is formed when the air
holes are opened.
◦It consists three parts (zones)
(i) Pale purple-blue zone (ii)Blue-green middle zone
(iii) Colourless inner zone (unburnt gas zone)

Characteristics of non luminous flame
1. It is blue in colour.
2. It is noisy.
3. It has three zones.
4. It does not form soot.
5. It is steady (stable)
6. It is very hot.
7. Has a triangular shape.

Example of Non–luminous flame
1.Kerosene stove flame
2.Gas burner flame
3.Oxy-acetylene flame

Uses of non-luminous flame
1. Used for heating purpose in laboratory.
2. Used in welding.
3. Used at home for cooking.
4. Used in the flame test.

1 It is yellow in colour It is blue in colour
2 It is quiet It is noisy
3 It has four zones It has three zones
4 It produce soot It does not produce soot
5 It is unstable It is stable(steady)
6 It is not so hot It is very hot
7 It is wave like flame It is triangular flame
8 It gives bright light It gives dim light
STRIKING BACK (BURNING BACK)
◦When a Bunsen burner is burning to form a non luminous
flame and a gas tap is turned off slowly. The supply of the gas is
reducing in the gas air mixture.
◦The mixture contains very little gas and much air in such a way
that mixture burns rapidly forming an explosion.
◦In this case the flame will be accompanied by a pop sound.
This is called burning back.
◦At this time the rate of burning the gas is greater than the rate
at which the gas rises up the barrel.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a)Define the following terms;
(i)Heat
(ii)Flame
(b) Explain the steps of lighting up the Bunsen burner.
2 (a) Mention the types of flame.
(i).......................
(ii)......................
(b) Give the uses of each type of flames above.
(c) Give the difference between the types of flame above.
3. Draw and label the following
(i) A Bunsen burner
(ii) A non–luminous flame
(iii) A luminous flame

◦ Is a set of techniques used by scientists to investigate a problem.
◦Scientific procedure may the answer questions about different
problems scientifically.
◦It is also called scientific investigation or scientific method.
(i) Identification of the Problem (ii) Formulation the hypothesis

(iii) Experiment and observe (iv) Data collection and analysis
(v) Data interpretation (vi) Draw a conclusion from data
(i) Identification Problem
◦In this step the scientist makes a puzzling observation.
◦This involves asking questions about what you have noticed.
◦For example;
“Does temperature affects the solubility of common salt in water?”
◦This is the problem for your investigation.
(ii) Formulation of Hypothesis
◦Hypothesis is a possible explanation for to the question asked.
◦It is the best possible answer to the question. Example;
“Temperature does not affect solubility of salt in water”
(iii) Experiment and observe
◦Experiment is the test under controlled conditions.
◦The aim of experiment is to test whether hypothesis is true or
false.
◦It based on variable which affects the experiment to test the
hypothesis.
is the condition in which changes to obtain set of values
◦There are three types of variables, namely
1) Dependent variable: Is the factor which changes its value
when the values of other factors change. Example solubility of
the salt.
2) Independent variable: is the conditions manipulate to obtain the
results.
◦It does not depend other factors. For example temperature.
3) Controlled variable: Is the factor in an experiment that does not
change.
◦It does not affect the outcomes of the experiment. For example
amount of water.
(iv)Data Collection and Analysis
◦It involves collecting and recording what you have observed during
experiment.
◦Analysis includes comparing the results obtained at different stages
of experiment.
◦The results may be represented in a table or diagrams.
Solubility of common salt at different
temperature
Temperature of Time taken for salt to
water (℃) dissolve(s)
30
40
50
60
70

(v) Data Interpretation
◦In this step we look trend or patterns and explain why they occur
that way.
◦This will help us to make conclusion.
◦For example from the table above when temperature increase also
solubility increase.
(vi) Draw a Conclusion
◦This step, is concerned with the summary of the experiment.
◦It includes a statement that either proves or disproves the
hypothesis.
◦In our experiment change in temperature affected solubility of
common salt. Thus, it disproves the hypothesis.
Reporting the results
◦Scientists publishes their findings in scientific journals and
publications.
◦They also present their results to the scientific community at
seminars, symposia and meeting.
◦If the results does not support hypothesis:
Give possible reason for the difference between the hypothesis
and experimental results.
Give ideas for further testing to find a solution.

Application of Scientific Procedure
i) Carrying out experiment: to study what happens and gain
new knowledge.
ii) Project work: to find information on subject/problem.
iii) Field study: to test hypothesis. A field study also called field
work.

Significance of the Scientific Procedure
i) It helps us to solve scientific problems
ii) It helps us to gain new knowledge
iii) It helps us to conduct project work
iv) It helps us to carry out field study
v) It helps us to solve problems or answer scientific
questions

MATTER
◦Matter is anything that has got mass and occupies space.
◦Example: stones, vegetation, air, food, water and animal bodies
◦Mass is a measure of quantity of matter in an object.
◦It is measured in kilogram or grams.
States of matter
1. Solid state
2. Liquid state
3. Gas state

1. SOLIDS: A solid substance does not flow and retain its definite
shape and size. It is usually hard and not easily deformed.
Example: stones, pen, paper, nails, door
2. LIQUID: Liquid substance flow easily but still retain their
volume. A liquid substance will, however, take the shape of the
container holding it. For example: water, juice, alcohol, tea
3. GAS: Gaseous substance have no specific shape and size. They
easily flow and expand indefinitely to occupy space in which
they are held. For example: oxygen, (O2), nitrogen (N2).

CHANGE OF STATE IN MATTER
Matter may change its state from one form to another.
Example, when heated some solids melts to liquids, while liquids
changes to gas when heated.
Processes involves in changes of states of matter
1. Melting - Is a process of changing solid state to liquid state.
2. Freezing - Is the process of changing liquid state to solid state.
3. Evaporation - Is a process of changing liquid to gas.
4. Condensation- Is the changing of gas to liquid.

5. Sublimation - Is a process of changing solid directly to gas
without passing through liquid.
6. Deposition - Is the changing of gases to solid without passing
liquid.

Importance of Changes of States of Matter
i. Water cycle
ii. Refrigeration/ Air Condition -Water change to vapour absorb
energy (heat) from the surround and final cause cooling effect
iii. Refinery
iv. Metallurgy – It involves purification of metals from their ores
and manufacture of alloys
v. Steam engines
vi. Drying of materials

Particulate nature of matter
Matter are made up of particles. This was proved by the
phenomenon known as Brownian motion.
Brownian motion.
◦In 1827, a botanist called Robert Brown observed through a
microscope that pollen grains suspended in water moved short
distances in an irregular zigzag manner.
◦This is because they are constantly bombarded by particles of
water which can not be seen even through a laboratory
microscope. This shows that matter is particulate in nature.

Behavior of particles in matter.
All matters are made up of small particles. The behavior of
these particles differ in the three states of matter.

Properties of Solid state
i. Particles are closely packed together
ii. Has definite shape and volume
iii. Has strongest inter-particle force
iv. Particles are not free to move
v. Particles can not be compressed.
vi. Particles vibrate in fixed position.

Properties of Liquid state
i. Particles are slightly further apart
ii. Have definite volume
iii.Have not definite shape
iv. Has medium density due to
medium volume
v. Has medium motion
vi. Inter-particle force is weak

Properties of Gas state
i. Has no definite shape
ii. Has no definite volume
iii.Has largest inter particle distance
iv. Has low density due to largest
volume
v. Has weakest inter particle force
vi. Particle move at high speed

PROPERTIES GAS LIQUID SOLID
Shape No definite Takes shape of Fixed shape
shape container
Movement of Move past one Move/slide past Rigid (locked
particle another one another into place
Flow Flow easily Flow easily Do not flow
Volume Takes volume Has a Fixed Has a Fixed
of container volume volume
Compressibility Compressible Not easily Not easily
Compressible Compressible
Space Large space Moderate space No space
Kinetic nature of matter
◦ The particles of matter tend to display different characteristics
depending on the physical state of the substance.
Particles in solid are packed so closely that when heated they
can only vibrate but not move.
◦ Heating can provide energy in such a way that their regular
arrangement breaks down, hence solid change to liquid. This
process is called melting.
◦ The temperature at which solids melts and change to liquid is
called melting point.

If energy (heat) is applied to liquid, the particles move about
faster and faster until the liquid bubbles and turn into vapour.
This process is called boiling.
◦ The temperature at which liquid boils and change to vapour is
called boiling point.
The particles in gas have a large spaces in between them and
therefore a gas can be compressed.
◦If energy is applied to gas the kinetic energy of the molecules
increase, but no change in state occurs.
◦ The idea about the way particles behave in solids, liquid and
gases is called kinetic molecular behavior.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
a) Physical change
This is a type of change whereby no new substances are
formed.
Examples:
Melting of solid to liquid example ice to water
Dissolving salt into water
Grinding of chalk
Melting of ice
Properties of physical change
1) Do no new substance is produced.
2) The change is reversible.
3) No change in mass.
4) No heat is applied.

b) Chemical change
◦This is a type of change whereby new substances are formed.
Examples:
 Burning of paper
 Decaying of teeth
 Souring of milk
 Rusting of iron
 Decaying of food
 Rusting of iron

Properties of chemical change
1) New substance is formed.
2) The change is irreversible.
3) There is change in mass.
4) It involves heat change.

Differences between physical changes and
chemical changes
Physical changes Chemical changes
1. It involve the physical properties It involve the chemical properties
of matter of matter.
2. There is no new substance formed A new substance is formed.
3. There is no product given off. Some products such as gases may
be given off.
4. The change is reversible The change is irreversible
5. It does not affect the composition It affect the composition of the
of the substance. substance.
5.4 ELEMENTS AND SYMBOLS
A.) Element:
◦Is a pure chemical substance that cannot be split into simpler

substance by chemical means.
◦The element is made up of many atoms which are similar.
Example of elements: hydrogen, oxygen, helium, lithium,
carbon, sodium

METALS AND NON-METALS
◦Elements can be classified into two major groups which are
metals and non-metals.
a) Metals:
◦Are the elements which ionizes by losing electron.
◦This property makes the metals to be called reducing agents.
Examples: Sodium(Na), Potassium(K), Lithium(Li),
Magnesium(Mg), Aluminium(Al), Calcium(Ca), Copper(Cu),

b) Non-metals:
• Are the elements which ionize by gaining electron.
• This property makes the non-metals to be the oxidizing
agents.
Examples: Sulphur (S), Chlorine(Cl), Fluorine(F),
Nitrogen(N), Oxygen(O), Bromine(Br), Iodine(I),

Difference between metals and non-metals
1 Shiny and bright Neither shiny nor bright
2 Strong and tough Not strong or tough
3 Good conductor of heat and electricity Poor conductor of heat and electricity
4 Ductile ie. Can be drawn into a wire Not ductile
5 Malleable ie. Can be made into sheets Not malleable
6 Have high melting points Have low melting points
7 High density Low density
8 Make sound when hit. Do not make sound when hit.
9 Have high tensile strength Have low tensile strength
10 They are reductant They are oxidant
B.) Chemical symbol:
◦Is a code for a chemical element.
◦It is one or two letters which means one atom of an element.
◦The chemical symbols are normally derived from one or two
letters of a Latin or English name.
◦If an element is represented by two letters the first one should be
capital letter and the second should be small letter.
◦If an element is represented by one letter it should be in capital
letter.

LIST OF FIRST 20 ELEMENTS
1 Hydrogen H
2 Helium He
3 Lithium Li
4 Beryllium Be
5 Boron B
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
8 Oxygen O
9 Fluorine F
10 Neon Ne
11 Sodium Na
12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminium Al
14 Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulphur S
17 Chlorine Cl
18 Argon Ar
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca
H He
Li B Be C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca

Criteria for assigning chemical symbols
i) A symbol may be derived form the first letter of its English name.
Example;
NAME SYMBOL
Carbon C
Fluorine F
Hydrogen H
Nitrogen N
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Oxygen O
ii) A symbol may be derived from two letters of its English
name.
◦It may be the fist and any other letter often the second one.
◦This avoids confusion for those elements with the same first
letter.
Example Calcium and Carbon
Silicon and Sulphur

Example:
NAME SYMBOL
Calcium Ca
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Argon Ar
Silicon Si
Lithium Li

iii) A symbol may be derived from Latin names of the
elements.
Example: English name Latin name symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Significant of chemical symbols
i) It simplify communication among the scientists.
ii) Enable learners to understand elements quickly.
iii) Enable to show the quantity of the element referred.
iv) Its easy to write the chemical equation using symbols
 Word equation: Hydrogen + chlorine  hydrogen chloride
 Formula equation(using symbols): H2 + Cl2  2HCl

5.5 COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
A) COMPOUND
◦A compound is a pure substance that contains more
than one element chemically combined together.
◦The combination is always in fixed ratio.
Example: water (H2O), carbon dioxide(CO2),

Characteristics of compounds
i) Its components can be separated by chemical means only
ii) Its components are in fixed ratio.
iii) Its formation involves chemical change.
iv) Its properties are quite different from those of its
components. NaCl
v) The components can not be seen separately.
vi) Its formation involves energy change.
Example : Sound, heat or light

B)MIXTURE
◦Is a physical combination of two or more substances.
◦The components of the mixture are in any ratio.
Example: sea water, ink, air, brass (mixture of Copper and Zinc).
◦There are two types of mixture, namely;
i) Homogeneous mixture
ii) Heterogeneous mixture

i) Homogeneous mixture
• Is a mixture which has uniform composition,
appearance and properties.
Example: -Salt dissolved in water
-Sugar dissolved in water
ii) Heterogeneous mixture
• Is a mixture which has different composition,
appearance and properties.
Example: -Sand and water
- Ice and water

Characteristics of mixtures
i) Its components can be separated by physical means.
ii) Its components are not in fixed ratio.
iii) Its formation involves physical change.
iv) Its properties are those of its components in it.
v) The components can be seen separately.
vi) No energy change when it is formed.
Example : Sound, heat or light
Difference between compounds and
mixtures
COMPOUND MIXTURE
i Its components can be separated by Its components can be separated by
chemical means only physical means
ii Its components are in fixed ratio Its components are not in fixed ratio.
iii Its formation involves chemical change Its formation involves physical change.
iv Its properties are quite different from Its properties are those of the components
those of its components in it .
v The components can not be seen The components can be seen separately
separately
vi Its formation involves energy change No energy change when it is formed.
Solutions, Suspensions and Emulsion
A) Solution: is a uniform mixture of two or more substances.
◦ A solution can be in solid, liquid or gaseous state.
SOLID SOLUTION LIQUID SOLUTION GASEOUS SOLUTION
Alloys eg brass, Sugar in water Air (CO2,O2,N2)
bronze Salt in water
◦ A solution is made up of solvent and solute
◦ Solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent
Example: sugar and salt
◦ Solvent is a substance that dissolves the solute.
Example: water and alcohol
SOLUTES
Solid Liquid Gas
Gas -Naphthalene sublime -Water vapour in air -Different gases in air

slowly in air to form
solution
SOLVENTS
Liquid -Sugar in water -Ethanol in water -Carbon dioxide in

water(carbonated
-Salt in water -Various hydrocarbons
water)
in petroleum
Solid -Different metals in alloy -Mercury in gold -Hydrogen in metals

Types of solution
i) Unsaturated solution
◦Is a solution that can dissolve more solute at a given
temperature.
ii) Saturated solution
◦Is a solution that can dissolve no more solute at a given
temperature.
iii) Supersaturated solution
◦Is a solution that temporarily holds more solute than
saturated solution at a given temperature.
Application of saturation
i) Is used in separating mixtures.
ii) In extracting some minerals

USES OF SOLVENTS
i) Used in cleaning.
ii) Used in stain removal.
iii) Used as bleaching agent.
iv) Used in thinning paints.
v) Used in degreasing.
vi) Used in varnish removal.

QUIZ Time: 05 min
1. Mention three types of solutions.
2. List three uses of solvents.
3. Give one example of
i. Liquid solution.
ii. Solid solution.
iii.Gaseous solution.

Suspension
◦Is a liquid containing undissolved solid particles which are
spread throughout it and settle at the bottom on standing.
◦Some drugs are written “shake well before use” so as to mix
them well before use since they are in form of suspension.
◦The process of the particles to settle at the bottom on standing is
called sedimentation. The solids are called sediments while the
liquid is called supernatant.
Example: sand in water, chalk powder in water, muddy water

Differences between suspensions and solutions
SOLUTION SUSPENSION
1 It is homogeneous mixture It is heterogeneous mixture
2 It is transparent(clear) It is opaque (not clear)
3 Particles completely Particles do not dissolve (particles

dissolved separate on standing)
4 Components are separated Components are separated by
by evaporation filtration.

Emulsions
◦Is a mixture of liquids that do not completely mix with each other.
Example: Milk, which is drops of butterfat in water
Emulsion paint, which is drops of coloured oils in water
◦Emulsion is a an example of suspension where two immiscible
liquids are mixed and shaken together.
Immiscible liquids are the liquids which do not mix.
Example: water and oil
Miscible liquids are the liquids which can mix together.
Example: water and alcohol
Immiscible liquids Emulsion
QUIZ 5min
1. _________are the liquids which do not mix. Example _____

2. The process of the particles to settle at the bottom on standing
is called ___________
3. Mention two examples of suspension
4. Some drugs are written ____________ so as to mix them well
before use because they are in form of suspension

◦The methods used to separate a given mixture will
depend on the physical properties of the components
of the mixture.
◦Such properties are density, solubility, size,
magnetic properties, sublimation, boiling and
melting point

1.) Decantation
◦Is the process of separating the heterogeneous mixture of
liquid and solid particles by pouring out the liquid.
◦The solids are left at the bottom of the container .
◦These solids are called sediments.
Example of mixtures separated by decantation:
 Sand and water
 Small grains and water

2) Filtration
◦Is the process of separating solid particles from a fluid (a fluid
can gas or liquid).
◦This process is done by using filter funnel and filter paper.
◦The fluid that passes through the filter is called filtrate.
◦The solids which remains on the filter are called residue.
Example of mixtures separated by filtration:
Muddy water

3) Layer separation
◦Is the process of separating immiscible liquids.
◦The apparatus used in this process is called separating funnel.
◦The dense liquid at the bottom is let out first.
Example of mixtures separated by layer separation:
Kerosene and water
Cooking oil and water

4) Evaporation
◦Is the process of separating solid from a liquid solution.
◦This is done by heating the solution mixture allowing the
liquid component to escape by evaporation leaving the solute.
Example of mixtures separated by evaporation
 Salt and water
 Sugar and water

5) Sublimation
◦Is the process where by solid state changes directly to gas when
heated.
◦After the vapour cools it form solid called sublimate.
◦This cooling process is called deposition.
◦The process can be used when one of the components of the
mixture sublimes( eg. Iodine, ammonium chloride).
Example of mixtures separated by sublimation
 Iodine and sand
 Table salt and ammonium chloride
Sublimation

6) Distillation
◦Is the process of separating the components from liquid
mixture by selective boiling and condensation.
◦The mixture is boiled and the more volatile component form
vapour and the cooled to form liquid again.
◦Cooling process is done in the lie big condenser.
◦The liquid formed after cooling is called distillate.

Types of distillation
◦There are two types of distillation, these are:-
i) Simple distillation
ii) Fractional distillation

i) Simple Distillation
◦Is the process of separating the liquid components with
large difference in boiling point.
◦It is more efficient when it is used to separate liquid from a
solution or mixture of liquids which differ in boiling point
by 500C.
Example of mixtures separated by simple distillation
 Obtaining water from Salty water
 Obtaining water from Muddy water
 Acetone from mixture of acetone and water
ii) Fractional distillation
◦Is the process of separating into fractions differing in their
boiling points by means of fractionating column.
◦This method is used when the boiling points of the
components are too close(250C or less).
Example of mixtures separated by fractional distillation:
Ethanol(alcohol) and water
Hydrocarbons in crude oil

Lie big condenser
(Distillate )

Application of Distillation
i. Purification of water
ii. Manufacture of alcohol
iii. Separation of components of crude oil. Eg petrol, diesel

7) Chromatography
◦Is the process of separating mixtures using a moving solvent
on a material that absorbs the solvent.
◦The mixture is firstly dissolved in a fluid called mobile phase.
This fluid carries the mixture through a stationary phase.
Mobile phase is a moving solvent
Stationary phase is a material that absorbs solvent.
◦The solution is moved through an absorbent material known
as paper chromatography.

• The components move with different speeds and thus get
separated.
• The mixture of different colours is separated by this method.

Uses of chromatography
i) Used to detect causes of pollution in water.
ii) Used to separates mixtures.
iii) Used to analyze blood and urine sample to detect drugs.
iv) Used to test for purity of organic substances
v) Used to test for food contaminations.

8) Solvent extraction
◦Is the process of extracting essential oil from plant materials.
Example: seeds and fruits.
◦It is done using a liquid that dissolves oil eg. ethanol.
◦The mixture of oil and ethanol is the separated by fractional
distillation.

9. Winnowing
◦Is a method used to separate a mixture of two or
more solids with different densities.
◦This is mostly applied in purifying different grains to
remove the unwanted materials.
Examples: Maize and husks

10. Hand picking
◦Is a method used to separate a mixture of components which
are large enough to be picked by hand.
Example: Oranges and mangoes.

11. Magnetization
◦Is the process of separating the mixture that contains
a magnetic material.
Example: Iron fillings and sand

AIR
◦Is colourless, homogenous mixture of gases in the atmosphere.
◦The gases which composes he atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen,
noble gases(helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon) and
carbon dioxide.
◦The components of air in atmosphere have definite proportions
by volume which can be approximate to percentage

Composition of air
Gas Percentage
composition
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Noble gases 0.94%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Water vapour 0 – 4%

Test for gases in air

COMBUSTION
◦Is the chemical reaction involves the burning of a substance in
the presence of oxygen.
◦Combustion produces energy in form of heat and light.
◦The process may take place in closed or open system.
 Example of open system; open fire
 Example of closed system; car engine
◦The materials which catches fire and burn are called
combustible materials.

Application of combustion
Industries
i) Engine or furnace
ii) In large boilers
iii) Incinerators for burning wastes
iv) Welding and smelting (extract metal)
Domestic
i) Cooking
ii) Heating homes
iii) Burning wastes
Laboratory
i) Sterilization
ii) During experiments

Fire Fighting
◦ Is the process extinguishing harmful fires
 Fire is the state/process of combustion result light, heat, smokes
and flame
 Fire is the rapid combustion of which a combustible material
ignited produce heat and light energy.
◦ Fatal fire may start accidentally or intentionally
◦ To extinguish fire one must know the which class of fire is it.
◦ Fires are classified according to the burning materials
◦ Use of wrong extinguisher may result in the spreading of fire.
Fire Triangle
◦These are the three components
needed to start a fire.
◦The components of fire triangle
are;
i) Oxygen
ii) Heat
iii) Fuel

Classes of Fire
◦Is the fire due to burning organic solid materials.

Examples: paper, wood, plastic, wool, clothing
◦Any type of Fire extinguisher can be used except carbon
dioxide. But water is more suitable.
◦This is because when molecules of carbon dioxide reach fire
gain heat and result lowered its density then escape away
from fire and the fire continues.

◦Is the fire due to burning flammable liquids.
Examples: petrol, paraffin, alcohol, kerosene
◦ Use fire blanket or sand extinguisher if fire is a small or use
dry powder, foam or carbon dioxide extinguisher if fire is
large.
◦Water extinguisher is not suitable because water is denser
than flammable liquid so flammable liquid will float over
water hence fire spreads more.

◦Is the fire due to burning flammable gases.
Examples: methane, butane, propane
◦The suitable extinguishers are dry powder and
carbon dioxide extinguisher.

◦ Is the fire due to burning combustible metals.
Examples: magnesium, sodium, lithium
◦The suitable extinguishers are dry powder or foam
extinguisher.

◦Is the fire due to burning electrical equipment.
Example: damaged electrical cables, switchboards
◦The suitable extinguisher is carbon dioxide extinguisher.
◦Firstly put off the power from the main switch.
◦But water extinguisher should not be used to extinguish fire
class E, because water increases electrical conductivity
hence increases the fire.

◦Is the fire due to the burning cooking appliances
with oils and fats at high temperature.
◦The suitable extinguisher is wet chemical
extinguishers.

◦ Fire extinguisher is the device which is used to fight/stop fire to
continue.
Types of Fire Extinguisher
i) Water/APW Extinguisher: It is composed of Air pressurized water.
◦ Suitable for extinguishing fire class A but it should not be used for fire
class B, C, D and E. It may lead to spreading of the flame.
ii) Sand extinguisher: It is composed of sand collected on basket.
◦ It used to extinguish small fire class B and A.

iii) Blanket extinguisher
◦Is the blanket made up of heat resistant fibrous minerals
called asbestos.
◦It is suitable for extinguishing fire used to rescue an
individual by stopping fire on burning clothes.
◦Small fire class A and B can be extinguished by the
blanket.

iv) Wet chemical extinguisher
◦It is composed of potassium acetate.
◦It is suitable for fire class F.
◦But it is unsuitable for fire class E.

v) Dry chemical extinguisher
◦It is composed of sodium bicarbonate powder
pressurized by nitrogen.
◦Suitable for extinguishing fire class A, B, C and E.
◦But it is unsuitable for fire class D, electronics and
Aircraft (airplane or helicopter). Because it is corrosive
to metals such as aluminium.

vi) Carbon dioxide extinguisher
◦It is composed of carbon dioxide gas under extreme
pressure.
◦Suitable for extinguishing fire class B, C and E
◦But it should not be used for fire class A.material can
reignite.

vii) Halons extinguisher
◦It is composed of Bromochloro-Difluoro-Methane
◦It is Suitable for extinguishing fire class A and E
◦But it should not be used for fire class B and C.
because it is least suitable(not efficient)
◦

viii) Foam extinguisher
◦It is composed of protein and fluoro-protein.
◦Suitable for fire class A and B.
◦But unsuitable for fire class E.

ix) ABC extinguisher
◦It is composed of mono-ammonium phosphate with a
nitrogen carrier.
◦It is suitable for fire class A, B and C
◦But unsuitable for electronic equipment

Steps to use portable fire extinguisher
◦There are four procedure in easy to remember just remember
acronym ‘PASS’ which stand for Pull, Aim, Squeeze and Sweep as
follows:-
i) Pull: Pull the pin to make the extinguisher ready for use

ii) Aim: Aim at the base not at the fire, otherwise the fire only
spreads
iii) Squeeze: Squeeze the top lever to release extinguishing agent

iv) Sweep: Sweep from side to side until the fire is out.

Precaution when using fire extinguisher
1) Keep reasonable distance (such as 3 metres) from the fire as
it may suddenly change direction
2) Never use a portable extinguisher on people instead us a fire
blanket
3) Do not test a portable extinguisher to see if works Why: it
may leak and afterwards fail to work during and
emergence/accident
4) Do not retain a used portable extinguisher to the wall
5) When a fire gets out of control, abandon it and notify the
nearest fire fighting squared (fire brigade)
◦Rusting is the process where by iron or steel get coated with the
reddish brown layer in presence of air and water.
◦The reddish brown coat occurs in metals such as iron is called
Rust.
Condition for rusting
◦There are three condition for rusting
i) Air (oxygen)
ii) Water (vapour)
iii) Iron (or steel)
Methods used to prevents rusting
◦To prevent rusting one should observe the following:-
 Prevent iron and steel to come into contact with water and air
 Avoid using material made from iron or steel.
◦The follows are the methods used in preventing rusting
1. Painting-Is the coating of iron items with a special pigment that
prevents it from getting into contact with air and water.
2. Oiling-Is the coating of iron with oil, some machine parts cannot
be protected by painting so they use oil.
3. Galvanization: is the process of coating iron or steel with zinc.

4. Tin plating : Is the process of coating iron/steel with tin.
5. Use of silica gel :Is a substance in the form of grains which
absorbs moisture. Silica gel prevent presents of water from
reaching iron/steel.
6. Electroplating: Is the process of coating a metal with another
metal by electrolysis.
7. Anodizing (sacrificial method): Iron is joined to reactive
metals (e.g. Magnesium) by wire. Eg in bridges and pipe lines.

REVEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the following
(i) Rusting
(ii) Rust
(iii) Air
(iv) Combustion
(v) Fire
(vi) Fire fighting

cont
(b) Mention the components of air and their percentage
2.(a) Mention classes of fire ,their burning materials and
appropriate fire extinguisher.
(b) What are the components needed to start fire .
(c) What are the conditions necessary for iron to rust.
3.(a) Classify the types of extinguisher according to the chemical
they contain.
(b) Explain with equation how rusting occur
(c) Mention the methods of preventing rusting.

Chemistry Apparatus

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 mwakatimba96@gmail.

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2 Medicines Drugs, vaccines, food supplements

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◦Laboratories rules divided into three parts include

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1. It helps to serve (preserve) life

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3. Measuring cylinder: Is a glass or plastic

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5. Thermometer: It is used to measure the temperature of

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7. Electronic beam balance: Is the device that

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◦It is also used for

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5. Watch glass: Is used as a surface to evaporate some

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9. Desiccator : Is the apparatus used in drying chemical substances.

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2. Boiling tube: is a large test tube that is used to heat substances

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6. Evaporating dish: It is the apparatus used

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2. Filter paper: is usually folded into a cone and placed

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1.Test tube rack: Is a structure that is specially designed for placing

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3. Retort stand and clamp: These are used to hold apparatus

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1. Reagent bottles: Is the bottle used to store

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3. Plastic wash bottles: is used for storing distilled water.

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2. Nose mask: Is the apparatus used to prevent inhaling the

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•They are important to ensure safety in the laboratory.

•The following are some of the warning signs used in the

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2. Irritant: This substance can irritate

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4. Corrosive: This substance burning to the

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6. Oxidant: This is a substance which

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8. Explosive: This is a substance which

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10. Caution: This symbol advise you to be

1. _____are the liquids which do not mix. Example _