2022 manufacture

Q1.

i) Lathe dog: A lathe dog, also known as a lathe carrier, is a device that is attached to the
workpiece in a lathe to rotate it. The lathe dog has two parts, a body that is clamped
onto the lathe's spindle and a dog leg that extends to the workpiece. The workpiece is
held between the lathe dog and the tailstock center to rotate the workpiece while it is
being machined.

ii) Steady rest: A steady rest is a device that is used in a lathe to support a long and
slender workpiece during turning or milling operations. The steady rest is designed to
reduce the flexing or bending of the workpiece due to its own weight or the cutting
forces. The steady rest is positioned near the cutting tool to provide support to the
workpiece and keep it rigid during machining.

iii) Follower rest: A follower rest is a device that is similar to a steady rest and is used in a
lathe to support long and slender workpieces during turning operations. The follower
rest is designed to follow the movement of the cutting tool as it moves along the length
of the workpiece. The follower rest supports the workpiece from behind and is
adjustable to ensure that it maintains constant pressure on the workpiece. The follower
rest is useful when turning long shafts or bars, where the cutting tool needs support
over a long length of the workpiece.

Q2.

a) Three types of milling cutters are:

1. End mill cutter: An end mill cutter is a type of milling cutter that is used to make
slots, pockets, and contour machining. It has teeth on the end as well as the
periphery of the cutter, allowing it to cut in all directions.
2. Face mill cutter: A face mill cutter is a type of milling cutter that is used to
machine large, flat surfaces. It has cutting teeth on the periphery and the face of
the cutter, and it removes material in a horizontal direction.
3. Ball nose cutter: A ball nose cutter is a type of milling cutter that is used to create
curved surfaces. It has a spherical cutting head that allows it to create smooth,
rounded surfaces.
 b) The main differences between up-milling and down-milling are:

Up-milling:

1. In up-milling, the cutting tool rotates in the opposite direction to the feed
direction.
2. The cutting tool engages with the workpiece slowly and then gradually increases
in depth.
3. There is less friction between the cutting tool and the workpiece, resulting in less
heat generated.
4. The surface finish produced by up-milling is generally better than that produced
by down-milling.

Down-milling:

1. In down-milling, the cutting tool rotates in the same direction as the feed
direction.
2. The cutting tool engages with the workpiece immediately at full depth.
3. There is more friction between the cutting tool and the workpiece, resulting in
more heat generated.
4. The surface finish produced by down-milling is generally poorer than that
produced by up-milling.

c) Gear hobbing is a gear cutting process that uses a specialized milling machine called
a hobbing machine to cut gears. The process is used to produce gears of various sizes
and shapes, including spur gears, helical gears, and worm gears. The gear hobbing
process works by using a cutting tool called a hob to cut the teeth into the workpiece.
The hobbing machine has a rotating workpiece and a rotating hob that is fed into the
workpiece. The hob is a cylindrical cutting tool with teeth that are shaped like the gear
teeth to be cut. As the hob rotates and is fed into the workpiece, it gradually cuts the
teeth into the workpiece. The workpiece is then rotated to the next position, and the
process is repeated to produce the required number of gear teeth. The gear hobbing
process is a highly accurate and efficient method of cutting gears, and it is widely used
in the manufacturing industry.

Q3.

a) A chisel that is commonly used to make a keyway is called a 'keyway chisel'. It has a
rectangular or square cross-section with a pointed end and two cutting edges.

b) Diamond point chisels are used for engraving, marking, and etching on hard
materials such as metals, glass, and ceramics. They have a diamond-shaped tip with a
sharp point that is used to create precise and fine lines on the material.
c) A bottoming tap is used to tap holes in materials where the thread needs to be at the
bottom of the hole. It has a very short chamfer or no chamfer at all, allowing the tap to
cut threads as close to the bottom of the hole as possible.

d)

1. Boring: Boring is a process of enlarging a hole in a workpiece using a single-point

cutting tool. The cutting tool is fed into the workpiece and rotated to remove
material and enlarge the hole. The process is usually performed on a lathe or a
boring machine.
2. Reaming: Reaming is a process of enlarging and finishing a previously drilled or
bored hole to a precise size and surface finish. A reamer is a multi-point cutting
tool that removes a small amount of material from the inside of the hole to
achieve the desired size and finish. The process is typically performed after
drilling or boring, and it can improve the accuracy, surface finish, and roundness
of the hole.

e) While linear measuring instruments such as vernier calipers and micrometers can
provide accurate measurements, ring gauges are often used in the shop floor to check
the accuracy of shaft diameters. This is because ring gauges are specifically designed to
provide accurate measurements of specific diameters, and they are also more durable
and resistant to wear and tear than linear measuring instruments.

f) Three types of protective equipment that should be used in the workshop are safety
glasses, earplugs or earmuffs, and safety gloves. Safety glasses protect the eyes from
flying debris and particles, earplugs or earmuffs protect the ears from loud noises, and
safety gloves protect the hands from cuts, burns, and other hazards. The equipment
should be used whenever working with machinery, tools, or materials that pose a risk to
the eyes, ears, or hands.
e) "Even though linear measuring instruments such as vernier calipers and micrometers
can give measurement precisely, it can be seen that special ring gauges are used in shop
floor to check the accuracy of shaft diameters." Explain this statement.

Ring gauges are used to check the accuracy of the diameter of a shaft. Although linear
measuring instruments like vernier calipers and micrometers can give accurate
measurements, it is not always practical to use them in a shop floor environment due to
their sensitivity to temperature and handling. Ring gauges are hardened, wear-resistant
tools that can be used repeatedly to check the dimensions of parts. They are often made
to high precision and can be calibrated to ensure accuracy. Additionally, ring gauges can
be used to check the roundness of a part, which cannot be done with linear measuring
instruments.
 f) State three protective equipment and when it should be used in the workshop.

1. Safety glasses or goggles - should be worn when working with power tools or
when there is a risk of flying debris or chemicals.
2. Ear protection - should be worn when working with loud machinery to prevent
hearing damage.
3. Gloves - should be worn when handling hot or sharp materials, or when working
with chemicals.

It is important to wear protective equipment at all times in the workshop, especially

when performing tasks that pose a risk of injury or harm. It is the responsibility of the
worker to identify the hazards associated with a particular task and to wear the
appropriate protective equipment.
Q4.

To plot the engineering stress-strain curve, we need to calculate engineering stress and
engineering strain.

The engineering stress can be calculated using the formula:

σ = F/A0

Where, F = Load applied, A0 = Original area of the specimen

The engineering strain can be calculated using the formula:

ε = ΔL/L0

Where, ΔL = Change in length, L0 = Original length of the specimen

Using the given data, we can calculate the engineering stress and strain as shown in the
following table:

Table Q4: Calculation of Engineering Stress and Strain

Load (N) Area (mm^2) Engineering Stress (MPa) Change in Length (mm) Engineering
Strain 0 113.1 0 0 0 5000 113.1 44.2 0.00361 0.000032 10000 113.1 88.4 0.00825
0.000073 15000 113.1 132.6 0.01349 0.000119 20000 113.1 176.8 0.01913 0.000169
25000 113.1 221 0.02546 0.000225 26500 113.1 233.5 0.02809 0.000248 27000 113.1
237.9 0.02909 0.000257 26500 113.1 233.5 0.02809 0.000248 25000 113.1 221 0.02546
0.000225

a) The 0.2% offset yield strength can be determined by drawing a line parallel to the
linear portion of the stress-strain curve, offset by 0.2% strain. The point where this line
intersects the curve is the 0.2% offset yield strength. From the plot, the 0.2% offset yield
strength is approximately 100 MPa.

b) The tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum engineering stress observed during the
test. From the plot, the UTS is approximately 237.9 MPa.

c) The modulus of elasticity can be determined from the linear portion of the stress-
strain curve using the formula:

E = σ/ε

Taking the slope of the linear portion of the curve, the modulus of elasticity is
approximately 69 GPa.

d) The percentage elongation can be calculated using the formula:

% elongation = (ΔL/L0) x 100

From the table, the change in length at fracture is 0.02909 mm. The original length is 30
mm. Therefore, the percentage elongation is:

% elongation = (0.02909/30) x 100 = 0.097%

e) The percentage reduction in area can be calculated using the formula:

% reduction in area = ((A0 - Af)/A0) x 100

Where, Af = Final area at fracture

From the table, the final diameter is 11.74 mm. Therefore, the final area is:

Af = (π/4) x (11.74)^2 = 108.1 mm^2

The original area is:

A0 = (π/4) x (12)^2 = 113.1 mm^2

Therefore, the percentage reduction in area is:

% reduction in area = ((113.1 - 108.1)/113.1) x 100 = 4.42%

f) The engineering stress at fracture is approximately 237.9 MPa.

g) The toughness is the area under the stress-strain

Q5.

a) Using the Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn) phase diagram in Figure Q5, we can estimate the
melting points of pure Lead (Pb) and pure Tin (Sn) to be:

• The melting point of pure Lead (Pb) is approximately 327°C.

• The melting point of pure Tin (Sn) is approximately 232°C.

b) The equation Reaction in the Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn) phase diagram refers to the
chemical reaction that occurs during the solidification of the alloy. In this system, the
equation is:

L (liquid) ↔ α (solid solution of Sn in Pb) + β (solid solution of Pb in Sn)

The terms used in this equation are:

• L: Liquid phase
• α: Solid solution of Tin (Sn) in Lead (Pb)
• β: Solid solution of Lead (Pb) in Tin (Sn)

c) To find the eutectic temperature and composition of the Pb-Sn alloy system, we can
locate the eutectic point on the phase diagram. The eutectic point is the lowest
temperature at which the liquid phase can exist, and the composition of the alloy at this
point is the eutectic composition. In Figure Q5, the eutectic point is located at
approximately 183°C and 61.9 wt% of Sn. Therefore, the eutectic temperature is 183°C
and the eutectic composition is 61.9 wt% of Sn.

d) For an alloy consisting of 30% of Pb-70% of Sn at 200°C (point A), we can estimate
the weight fraction (or percentage) of each phase and the composition of each phase
present. To do this, we need to draw a vertical line from point A to the α-β phase
boundary and read off the weight fraction (or percentage) of each phase and the
composition of each phase at this point.

From the phase diagram, we can estimate the weight fraction (or percentage) of each
phase as follows:

• α phase (solid solution of Sn in Pb): approximately 90%

• β phase (solid solution of Pb in Sn): approximately 10%

We can also estimate the composition of each phase at this point as:

• Composition of α phase: approximately 9 wt% of Pb-91 wt% of Sn

• Composition of β phase: approximately 89 wt% of Pb-11 wt% of Sn
 e) The microstructure of the alloy containing 90% of Pb-10% of Sn under equilibrium
cooling at 200°C and 100°C can be sketched by drawing a horizontal line from the 90%
of Pb-10% of Sn composition line to the α-β phase boundary, and then drawing a
vertical line down to the temperature of interest.

At 200°C, the microstructure of the alloy would consist of two phases, α and β, with the
α phase as the major phase and the β phase as the minor phase. The α phase is a solid
solution of Sn in Pb, and the β phase is a solid solution of Pb in Sn.

At 100°C, the microstructure of the alloy would consist of only one phase, β, which is a
solid solution of Pb in Sn. The α phase has fully transformed to the β phase at this
temperature
Q6.

a)

i) Composite materials can be categorized according to the reinforcement geometry as

follows:

• Particulate-reinforced composites: These composites have particles (such as

ceramics) embedded in a metallic, polymer, or ceramic matrix. Example:
Aluminum reinforced with silicon carbide particles.
• Fiber-reinforced composites: These composites have fibers (such as carbon, glass,
or aramid) embedded in a polymer, metal, or ceramic matrix. Example: Carbon
fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP).
• Structural composites: These composites have layers of different materials
arranged in a specific order to provide specific mechanical properties. Example:
Laminated composite used in aircraft wings.

ii) Composite materials have a wide range of applications due to their unique properties.
Some common applications include:

• Aerospace: Composite materials are used in the aerospace industry to reduce

weight and increase fuel efficiency. Examples include aircraft wings and fuselage.
• Automotive: Composite materials are used in the automotive industry to reduce
weight and improve fuel efficiency. Examples include body panels, engine parts,
and suspension components.
• Sports: Composite materials are used in sports equipment to improve
performance. Examples include tennis rackets, golf clubs, and bicycle frames.
• Construction: Composite materials are used in construction to improve durability
and strength. Examples include bridge decks and building cladding.

iii) In composite materials, fibers provide the reinforcement and are responsible for
carrying the load. The matrix is the material that surrounds and supports the fibers. It
provides a medium for transferring load between the fibers and protects them from
damage. The functions of fibers and matrix can be summarized as follows:

• Fibers: Fibers in composite materials provide strength and stiffness. They carry
the load and transfer it to the matrix.
• Matrix: The matrix material protects the fibers from damage and provides a
medium for transferring the load between the fibers. It also holds the fibers in
place and determines the overall properties of the composite.

b)

i) Grey cast iron: Grey cast iron is a type of iron-carbon alloy that contains 2.5-4%
carbon and 1-3% silicon. It is called "grey" because of its characteristic gray color when
fractured. Grey cast iron has good casting properties and is widely used in various
applications, such as engine blocks, pipes, and machine tool structures.

ii) White cast iron: White cast iron is a type of iron-carbon alloy that contains 2.5-4%
carbon and no silicon. It is called "white" because of its white fracture surface. White cast
iron has high hardness and wear resistance, but it is brittle and difficult to machine. It is
used in applications that require wear resistance, such as grinding balls, hammer heads,
and crusher plates.