LESSON 9: EXCRETION
important advantage for terrestrial animals
− The nitrogenous product differs among animals
according to the environment, but most possess an
excretory organ that is tubular.
− Nitrogenous waste products are results of the
breakdown of various molecules, including amino
acids and nucleic acids.
− When amino acids are broken down by the body to
generate energy, or are converted to fats or
carbohydrates, the amino groups (-NH2) must be
removed because they are not needed.
− These amino groups may be excreted from the body
in the form of ammonia, urea, or uric acid,
depending on the species.
INVERTEBRATES EXCRETORY ORGANS
Ammonia
− Amino groups removed from amino acids
immediately form ammonia (NH3) by the addition of
a third hydrogen ion.
− Little or no energy is required in this conversion.
− quite toxic and can be a nitrogenous excretory
product if a good deal of water is available to wash it
from the body
− excreted by most fishes and other aquatic animals
whose gills and skin surfaces are in direct contact
with the water of the environment.
Urea
− Expenditure of energy is required in the production
of urea because it is produced in the liver by a set of
energy-requiring enzymatic reactions, known as the
UREA CYCLE.
o In this cycle, carrier molecules take up
carbon dioxide and two molecules of
ammonia, finally releasing urea.
− much less toxic than ammonia and can be excreted in
a moderately concentrated solution
o This allows body water to be conserved, an
with limited access to water.
o Sharks, adult amphibians, and mammals
usually excrete urea as their main
nitrogenous waste.
Uric Acid
− is synthesized by a long, complex series of enzymatic
reactions that requires expenditure of even more ATP
than does urea synthesis
− not very toxic, and it is poorly soluble in water
o Poor solubility is an advantage if water
conservation is needed because uric acid can
be concentrated even more readily than urea.
− Uric acid is routinely excreted by insects, reptiles,
and birds.
o In reptiles and birds, a dilute solution of
uric acid passes from the kidneys to the
cloaca, a common reservoir for the
products of the digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems.
− Most animals have tubular excretory organs that
regulate the water-salt balance of the body and
excrete metabolic wastes into the environment.
A. PLANARIA
− have two strands of branching
excretory tubules that open to
the outside of the body
through excretory pores
− located along the tubules are
bulblike flame cells, each of
which contains a cluster of
beating cilia that looks like a
flickering flame under the
microscope
o The beating of flame-cell cilia propels fluid
through the excretory tubules and out of the
body.
o The system is believed to function in
ridding the body of excess water and in
excreting waste.
 AQUATIC VERTEBRATES’ OSMOREGULATION

− Osmoregulation is
B. EARTHWORM performed by most
− body is divided into segments, and nearly every vertebrates to
segment has a pair of excretory structures called maintain particular
NEPHRIDIA ion concentrations in
o each is a tubule with a their blood.
ciliated opening and an excretory
pore − It is very essential to
o Nephridia (np): maintain
Excretory organ, paired in most homeostasis, the
segments and comprised of a relative constancy of
ciliated funnel or nephrosome the internal
opening into the preceding environment.
segment and leading into a
system of tubules that are − It is needed because ions such as Na+, Ca2+, K+,
o richly supplied with and PO4– greatly affect the workings of the body
blood vessels, and terminating in systems, such as the skeletal, nervous, and muscular
a vesicle or bladder before systems.
discharging to the exterior
through a nephridiopore in the o It is necessary in few vertebrates which
body wall possess blood that is isotonic to seawater.
− As fluid from the coelom is propelled through the o Not so for the cartilaginous fishes, whose
tubule by beating cilia, its composition is modified. blood is isotonic.
o For example, nutrient substances
are reabsorbed and carried away
by a network of capillaries
surrounding the tubule.
− The urine of an earthworm contains metabolic
wastes, salts, and water.
− Although the earthworm is considered a terrestrial
animal, it excretes a very dilute urine.

C. INSECTS THREE TYPES OF OSMOTIC CONDITION

− have a unique excretory system consisting of long,
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS are two solutions that have the
thin tubules called MALPIGHIAN TUBULES
same concentration as
attached to the gut
a solute.
− Uric acid is actively transported from the
surrounding hemolymph into these tubules, and HYPERTONIC
water follows a salt gradient established by active SOLUTION is the
transport of potassium. solution whose
− Water and other useful substances are reabsorbed at osmotic pressure is
the rectum, but the uric acid leaves the body at the higher than that of the
anus. other.
o Insects that live
in water, or eat HYPOTONIC SOLUTION when its osmotic pressure is
large quantities of lower than that of the solution from which it is separated by a
moist food, semipermeable membrane
reabsorb little
water.
A. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES (E.G., SHARK
o Insects in dry AND STINGRAY)
environments − The total concentration of the various ions in the
reabsorb most of blood of cartilaginous fishes is less than that in
the water and seawater.
excrete a dry, o Their blood plasma is nearly isotonic to
semisolid mass of seawater because they pump it full of urea,
uric acid. and this molecule gives their blood the
same tonicity as seawater.
 − Cartilaginous fishes do regulate the concentration of
other solutes in their blood and have rectal glands
that rid the body of excess salt.
B. MARINE BONY FISHES (E.G., TUNA,
CLOWNFISH, AND SALMON)
− A marine environment, which is high in salts, is
hypertonic to the blood plasma of bony fishes.
− Therefore, they must avoid the tendency to become
dehydrated.
o As the sea washes over their gills, marine
bony fishes lose water by osmosis.
o To counteract this, they drink seawater
almost constantly.
o On the average, marine bony fishes
swallow an amount of water equal to 1% of
their body weight every hour.
o This is equivalent to a human drinking
about 700 ml of water every hour around
the clock.
− However, drinking seawater makes these fishes
acquire salt.
o To rid the body of excess salt, they actively
transport it into the surrounding seawater at
the gills.
o The kidneys conserve water, and marine
bony fishes produce a scant amount of
isotonic urine.
C. FRESHWATER BONY FISHES (E.G., GOBY,
CATFISH, AND PERCH)
− The osmotic problems of freshwater bony fishes and
the response to their environment are exactly
opposite those of marine bony fishes.
− Freshwater fishes tend to gain water by osmosis
across the gills and the body surface.
o Consequently, these fishes never drink
water.
o They actively transport salts into the blood
across the membranes of their gills.
− They eliminate excess water by producing large
quantities of dilute (hypotonic) urine.
o They discharge a quantity of urine equal to
one-third their body weight each day.
TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE OSMOREGULATION
− Vertebrates living in diverse environments, such as
kangaroo rat in the desert and seagulls in coastlines
illustrate different strategies for dealing with
extreme terrestrial environments.
A. VERTEBRATE IN THE DESERT
− Dehydration is one of the factors that threatens
terrestrial life, especially those that live in arid
places.
o Most terrestrial animals need to drink water
occasionally to make up for the water lost
from the skin and respiratory passages and
through urination.
Example: Kangaroo Rat
− the fur prevents loss of water to the air, and during
the day, it remains in a cool burrow
− nasal passage has a highly convoluted mucous
membrane surface that captures condensed water
from exhaled air
o Exhaled air is usually full of moisture,
which is why it can be seen on cold winter
mornings—the moisture in exhaled air is
condensing.
− forms a very concentrated urine—20 times more
concentrated than its blood plasma.
o Its fecal material is almost completely dry,
too.
− What is special about this animal is that it is so
adapted to conserving water that it can survive by
using metabolic water derived from cellular
respiration, and it never drinks water.
o The adaptations of the kangaroo rat allow it
to remain in water-salt balance, even under
desert conditions.
B. SEAGULLS, REPTILES, AND MAMMALS
− Birds, reptiles, and mammals have especially good
kidneys.
o However, some animals have become
secondarily adapted to living near or in the
sea.
− They drink seawater and still manage to survive.
− In birds, SALT-EXCRETING GLANDS are
located near the eyes.
o The glands produce a
salty solution that is
excreted through the
nostrils and moves
down grooves on
their beaks until it
drips off
− In marine turtles, the salt gland is a modified tear
(LACRIMAL) gland, and in sea snakes, a salivary
SUBLINGUAL gland beneath the tongue gets rid of
excess salt. The work of the gland is regulated by the
nervous system.
WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGE OF EXCRETING UREA
INSTEAD OF AMMONIA OR URIC ACID?
Summarized: the advantages of excreting urea instead of
ammonia or uric acid are that it is less toxic, requires less
water for excretion, and is more efficient to produce, making
it a more practical way for many organisms to eliminate waste
products
Detailed: Terrestrial adaptations necessitated the production
of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid for
conservation of water. Mammals, many terrestrial
amphibians, and marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are
called as ureotelic animals.
Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in
the liver of these animals and released into the blood which is
filtered and excreted out by the kidneys. Some amount of urea
may be retained in the kidney matrix of some of these animals
to maintain a desired osmolarity.
Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous
wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste with a
minimum loss of water and are called as uricotelic animals.
These animals can excrete uric acid as solid crystals to
conserve water.
RELATE THE THREE PRIMARY NITROGENOUS
WASTES TO THE HABITAT OF ANIMALS.
their environment and must actively take in salt to
maintain their internal salt balance.
− Marine bony fish have relatively small kidneys and
produce small volumes of urine that are very
concentrated, allowing them to conserve water.
Freshwater bony fish, on the other hand, have larger
kidneys and produce large volumes of dilute urine to
excrete excess water.
− Marine bony fish have specialized cells in their gills
that actively transport salt ions out of their body and
water in, while freshwater bony fish have
specialized cells that actively transport salt ions into
their body and water out.

Ammonia is the most toxic and water-soluble of the three GIVE EXAMPLES OF HOW OTHER TYPES OF
nitrogenous wastes and requires a lot of water for excretion. ANIMALS REGULATE THEIR WATER AND SALT
Therefore, animals that live in aquatic environments, such as BALANCE.
fish and aquatic invertebrates, are able to excrete ammonia
Camels can go without drinking water for several days and
directly into the water without much loss of water. These
can tolerate high temperatures due to their ability to store
organisms have highly efficient excretory systems that
water and electrolytes in their bodies. They also have
constantly eliminate ammonia from their bodies and maintain
specialized kidneys that conserve water and produce small
a low concentration of ammonia in their surroundings.
amounts of highly concentrated urine.
Urea is less toxic and more water-soluble than ammonia,
making it a better waste product for organisms that live in
terrestrial environments. Terrestrial animals, including most
mammals, excrete urea as their primary nitrogenous waste
product. Urea requires less water for excretion than ammonia,
and it can be stored in the body before it is eliminated,
conserving water. Mammals also have efficient renal systems
that filter urea from the blood and excrete it in urine.

Uric acid is the least toxic of the three nitrogenous wastes

and is insoluble in water, making it a good waste product for
animals that live in arid environments. Reptiles, birds, and
insects excrete uric acid as their primary nitrogenous waste
product, which can be excreted in a semi-solid or solid form,
reducing water loss. Uric acid requires the most energy to
produce but has the advantage of being highly concentrated,
reducing the amount of waste that needs to be eliminated and
conserving water.

CONTRAST THE OSMOTIC REGULATION OF A

MARINE BONY FISH WITH THAT OF A
FRESHWATER BONY FISH.

− Marine bony fish live in a hypertonic environment

(water with higher salt concentration) while
freshwater bony fish live in a hypotonic
environment (water with lower salt concentration).
− Marine bony fish constantly lose water through
osmosis to the surrounding seawater, which has a
higher salt concentration, and must actively uptake
water to maintain their internal water balance.
Freshwater bony fish, on the other hand, constantly
gain water through osmosis from the surrounding
water, and must actively excrete excess water to
maintain their internal water balance.
− Marine bony fish are constantly taking in excess salt
from their environment and must actively excrete it
to maintain their internal salt balance. Freshwater
bony fish, on the other hand, constantly lose salt to